diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore
index ad3b4bdc..4bfadf57 100644
--- a/.gitignore
+++ b/.gitignore
@@ -3,3 +3,11 @@ goose.egg-info/
 build/
 dist/
 .DS_Store*
+._.DS_Store*
+env/
+*~
+.idea
+._*
+*.egg
+venv/
+goose_extractor.egg-info/
diff --git a/MANIFEST.in b/MANIFEST.in
index 714f1c43..f42c7fa0 100644
--- a/MANIFEST.in
+++ b/MANIFEST.in
@@ -1,4 +1,2 @@
 recursive-include goose/resources/images *
-recursive-include goose/resources/parser *
-recursive-include goose/resources/text *
-recursive-include goose/resources/statichtml *
+recursive-include goose/resources/text *
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
deleted file mode 100644
index 915493bd..00000000
--- a/README.md
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,143 +0,0 @@
-#Python-Goose - Article Extractor [![Build Status](https://www.travis-ci.org/xgdlm/python-goose.png?branch=master)](https://www.travis-ci.org/xgdlm/python-goose)
-
-##Intro
-
-
-Goose was originally an article extractor written in Java that has most recently (aug2011) converted to a scala project by Gravity.com
-
-This is a complete rewrite in python. The aim of the software is is to take any news article or article type web page and not only extract what is the main body of the article but also all meta data and most probable image candidate.
-
-Goose will try to extract the following information:
-
- - Main text of an article
- - Main image of article
- - Any Youtube/Vimeo movies embedded in article (TODO)
- - Meta Description
- - Meta tags
-
-
-Originally, Goose was open sourced by Gravity.com in 2011
-
- - Lead Programmer: Jim Plush (Gravity.com)
- - Contributers: Robbie Coleman (Gravity.com)
-
-The python version was rewrite by:
-
- - Xavier Grangier (Recrutae.com)
-
-##Licensing
-If you find Goose useful or have issues please drop me a line, I'd love to hear how you're using it or what features should be improved
-
-Goose is licensed by Gravity.com under the Apache 2.0 license, see the LICENSE file for more details
-
-##Setup
-    mkvirtualenv --no-site-packages goose
-    git clone https://github.com/xgdlm/python-goose.git
-    cd python-goose
-    pip install -r requirements.txt
-    python setup.py install
-    
-    
-    
-
-##Take it for a spin
-    >>> from goose import Goose
-    >>> url = 'http://edition.cnn.com/2012/02/22/world/europe/uk-occupy-london/index.html?hpt=ieu_c2'
-    >>> g = Goose()
-    >>> article = g.extract(url=url)
-    >>> article.title
-    u'Occupy London loses eviction fight'
-    >>> article.meta_description
-    "Occupy London protesters who have been camped outside the landmark St. Paul's Cathedral for the past four months lost their court bid to avoid eviction Wednesday in a decision made by London's Court of Appeal."
-    >>> article.cleaned_text[:150]
-    (CNN) -- Occupy London protesters who have been camped outside the landmark St. Paul's Cathedral for the past four months lost their court bid to avoi
-    >>> article.top_image.src
-    http://i2.cdn.turner.com/cnn/dam/assets/111017024308-occupy-london-st-paul-s-cathedral-story-top.jpg
-
-
-##Goose is now language aware
-For exemple scrapping a spanish content page with correct meta language tags
-
-    >>> from goose import Goose
-    >>> url = 'http://sociedad.elpais.com/sociedad/2012/10/27/actualidad/1351332873_157836.html'
-    >>> g = Goose()
-    >>> article = g.extract(url=url)
-    >>> article.title
-    u'Las listas de espera se agravan'
-    >>> article.cleaned_text[:150]
-    u'Los recortes pasan factura a los pacientes. De diciembre de 2010 a junio de 2012 las listas de espera para operarse aumentaron un 125%. Hay m\xe1s ciudad'
-
-Some pages don't have correct meta language tags, you can force it using configuration :
-
-    >>> from goose import Goose
-    >>> url = 'http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2012/10/28/espana/1351388909.html'
-    >>> g = Goose({'use_meta_language': False, 'target_language':'es'})
-    >>> article = g.extract(url=url)
-    >>> article.cleaned_text[:150]
-    u'Importante golpe a la banda terrorista ETA en Francia. La Guardia Civil ha detenido en un hotel de Macon, a 70 kil\xf3metros de Lyon, a Izaskun Lesaka y '
-
-Passing 
-    {'use_meta_language': False, 'target_language':'es'}
-will force as configuration will force the spanish language
-
-
-
-##Goose in Chinese
-Some users want to use Goose for chinese content. Chinese word segementation is way more difficult to deal with that occidental languages. Chinese needs a dedicated StopWord analyser thant need to be passed to the config object
-
-    >>> from goose import Goose
-    >>> from goose.text import StopWordsChinese
-    >>> url  = 'http://www.bbc.co.uk/zhongwen/simp/chinese_news/2012/12/121210_hongkong_politics.shtml'
-    >>> g = Goose({'stopwords_class': StopWordsChinese})
-    >>> article = g.extract(url=url)
-    >>> print article.cleaned_text[:150]
-    香港行政长官梁振英在各方压力下就其大宅的违章建筑（僭建）问题到立法会接受质询，并向香港民众道歉。
-
-    梁振英在星期二（12月10日）的答问大会开始之际在其演说中道歉，但强调他在违章建筑问题上没有隐瞒的意图和动机。
-
-    一些亲北京阵营议员欢迎梁振英道歉，且认为应能获得香港民众接受，但这些议员也质问梁振英有
-
-
-##Configuration
-There is two way to pass configuration to goose. The first one is to pass to goose a Configuration() object. The second one is to pass a configuration dict
-
-For instance, if you want to change the userAgent used by Goose juste pass :
-
-    >>> g = Goose({'browser_user_agent': 'Mozilla'})
-
-
-##TODO
-  - Video extraction
-
-##Known issues
-  - There is some issue with unicode URLs.
-
-##OS X 10.7 Install Instructions
-
-Installation Help:
-
-1. Install python-devel if you don't have it
-2. Install libjpeg
-        brew install libjpeg
-
-3. You need to install the python imaging library.  We wont be using it, but its a dependency deep in the goose egg (fun!).
-
-  a. download
-
-        curl -O -L http://effbot.org/downloads/Imaging-1.1.7.tar.gz
-
-  b. extract
-
-        tar -xzf Imaging-1.1.7.tar.gz
-        cd Imaging-1.1.7
-
-  c. build and install
-
-        python setup.py build
-        sudo python setup.py install
-
-4. Next up clone this repo and install the egg.
-
-5. Once you install the egg you have to then copy the resources directory manually into the egg.  There is something screwy about the way its setup.
-
-6. Create and chown the Goose temp directory "/tmp/goosetmp"
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/README.rst b/README.rst
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..86f3cf7a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,224 @@
+Python-Goose - Article Extractor |Build Status|
+===============================================
+
+Intro
+-----
+
+Goose was originally an article extractor written in Java that has most
+recently (aug2011) been converted to a `scala project <https://github.com/GravityLabs/goose>`_.
+
+This is a complete rewrite in python. The aim of the software is to
+take any news article or article-type web page and not only extract what
+is the main body of the article but also all meta data and most probable
+image candidate.
+
+Goose will try to extract the following information:
+
+-  Main text of an article
+-  Main image of article
+-  Any Youtube/Vimeo movies embedded in article
+-  Meta Description
+-  Meta tags
+
+The python version was rewritten by:
+
+-  Xavier Grangier
+
+Licensing
+---------
+
+If you find Goose useful or have issues please drop me a line. I'd love
+to hear how you're using it or what features should be improved
+
+Goose is licensed by Gravity.com under the Apache 2.0 license, see the
+LICENSE file for more details
+
+Setup
+-----
+
+::
+
+    mkvirtualenv --no-site-packages goose
+    git clone https://github.com/grangier/python-goose.git
+    cd python-goose
+    pip install -r requirements.txt
+    python setup.py install
+
+Take it for a spin
+------------------
+
+::
+
+    >>> from goose import Goose
+    >>> url = 'http://edition.cnn.com/2012/02/22/world/europe/uk-occupy-london/index.html?hpt=ieu_c2'
+    >>> g = Goose()
+    >>> article = g.extract(url=url)
+    >>> article.title
+    u'Occupy London loses eviction fight'
+    >>> article.meta_description
+    "Occupy London protesters who have been camped outside the landmark St. Paul's Cathedral for the past four months lost their court bid to avoid eviction Wednesday in a decision made by London's Court of Appeal."
+    >>> article.cleaned_text[:150]
+    (CNN) -- Occupy London protesters who have been camped outside the landmark St. Paul's Cathedral for the past four months lost their court bid to avoi
+    >>> article.top_image.src
+    http://i2.cdn.turner.com/cnn/dam/assets/111017024308-occupy-london-st-paul-s-cathedral-story-top.jpg
+
+Configuration
+-------------
+
+There are two ways to pass configuration to goose. The first one is to
+pass goose a Configuration() object. The second one is to pass a
+configuration dict.
+
+For instance, if you want to change the userAgent used by Goose just
+pass :
+
+::
+
+    >>> g = Goose({'browser_user_agent': 'Mozilla'})
+
+Switching parsers : Goose can now be use with lxml html parser or lxml
+soup parser. By default the html parser is used. If you want to use the
+soup parser pass it in the configuration dict :
+
+::
+
+    >>> g = Goose({'browser_user_agent': 'Mozilla', 'parser_class':'soup'})
+
+Goose is now language aware
+---------------------------
+
+For example scrapping a Spanish content page with correct meta language
+tags
+
+::
+
+    >>> from goose import Goose
+    >>> url = 'http://sociedad.elpais.com/sociedad/2012/10/27/actualidad/1351332873_157836.html'
+    >>> g = Goose()
+    >>> article = g.extract(url=url)
+    >>> article.title
+    u'Las listas de espera se agravan'
+    >>> article.cleaned_text[:150]
+    u'Los recortes pasan factura a los pacientes. De diciembre de 2010 a junio de 2012 las listas de espera para operarse aumentaron un 125%. Hay m\xe1s ciudad'
+
+Some pages don't have correct meta language tags, you can force it using
+configuration :
+
+::
+
+    >>> from goose import Goose
+    >>> url = 'http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2012/10/28/espana/1351388909.html'
+    >>> g = Goose({'use_meta_language': False, 'target_language':'es'})
+    >>> article = g.extract(url=url)
+    >>> article.cleaned_text[:150]
+    u'Importante golpe a la banda terrorista ETA en Francia. La Guardia Civil ha detenido en un hotel de Macon, a 70 kil\xf3metros de Lyon, a Izaskun Lesaka y '
+
+Passing {'use\_meta\_language': False, 'target\_language':'es'} will
+force as configuration will force the spanish language
+
+
+Video extraction
+----------------
+
+::
+
+    >>> import goose
+    >>> url = 'http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2013/08/12/journee-de-jeux-pour-ayrault-dans-les-jardins-de-matignon_924350'
+    >>> g = goose.Goose({'target_language':'fr'})
+    >>> article = g.extract(url=url)
+    >>> article.movies
+    [<goose.videos.videos.Video object at 0x25f60d0>]
+    >>> article.movies[0].src
+    'http://sa.kewego.com/embed/vp/?language_code=fr&playerKey=1764a824c13c&configKey=dcc707ec373f&suffix=&sig=9bc77afb496s&autostart=false'
+    >>> article.movies[0].embed_code
+    '<iframe src="http://sa.kewego.com/embed/vp/?language_code=fr&amp;playerKey=1764a824c13c&amp;configKey=dcc707ec373f&amp;suffix=&amp;sig=9bc77afb496s&amp;autostart=false" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" width="476" height="357"/>'
+    >>> article.movies[0].embed_type
+    'iframe'
+    >>> article.movies[0].width
+    '476'
+    >>> article.movies[0].height
+    '357'
+
+
+Goose in Chinese
+----------------
+
+Some users want to use Goose for Chinese content. Chinese word
+segmentation is way more difficult to deal with than occidental
+languages. Chinese needs a dedicated StopWord analyser that need to be
+passed to the config object
+
+::
+
+    >>> from goose import Goose
+    >>> from goose.text import StopWordsChinese
+    >>> url  = 'http://www.bbc.co.uk/zhongwen/simp/chinese_news/2012/12/121210_hongkong_politics.shtml'
+    >>> g = Goose({'stopwords_class': StopWordsChinese})
+    >>> article = g.extract(url=url)
+    >>> print article.cleaned_text[:150]
+    香港行政长官梁振英在各方压力下就其大宅的违章建筑（僭建）问题到立法会接受质询，并向香港民众道歉。
+
+    梁振英在星期二（12月10日）的答问大会开始之际在其演说中道歉，但强调他在违章建筑问题上没有隐瞒的意图和动机。
+
+    一些亲北京阵营议员欢迎梁振英道歉，且认为应能获得香港民众接受，但这些议员也质问梁振英有
+
+Goose in Arabic
+---------------
+
+In order to use Goose in Arabic you have to use the StopWordsArabic
+class.
+
+::
+
+    >>> from goose import Goose
+    >>> from goose.text import StopWordsArabic
+    >>> url = 'http://arabic.cnn.com/2013/middle_east/8/3/syria.clashes/index.html'
+    >>> g = Goose({'stopwords_class': StopWordsArabic})
+    >>> article = g.extract(url=url)
+    >>> print article.cleaned_text[:150]
+    دمشق، سوريا (CNN) -- أكدت جهات سورية معارضة أن فصائل مسلحة معارضة لنظام الرئيس بشار الأسد وعلى صلة بـ"الجيش الحر" تمكنت من السيطرة على مستودعات للأسل
+
+
+Goose in Korean
+----------------
+
+In order to use Goose in Korean you have to use the StopWordsKorean
+class.
+
+::
+
+    >>> from goose import Goose
+    >>> from goose.text import StopWordsKorean
+    >>> url='http://news.donga.com/3/all/20131023/58406128/1'
+    >>> g = Goose({'stopwords_class':StopWordsKorean})
+    >>> article = g.extract(url=url)
+    >>> print article.cleaned_text[:150]
+    경기도 용인에 자리 잡은 민간 시험인증 전문기업 ㈜디지털이엠씨(www.digitalemc.com). 
+    14년째 세계 각국의 통신·안전·전파 규격 시험과 인증 한 우물만 파고 있는 이 회사 박채규 대표가 만나기로 한 주인공이다. 
+    그는 전기전자·무선통신·자동차 전장품 분야에
+
+
+Known issues
+------------
+
+- There are some issues with unicode URLs.
+- Cookie handling : Some websites need cookie handling. At the moment the only work around is to use the raw_html extraction. For instance ;
+
+    >>> import urllib2
+    >>> import goose
+    >>> url = "http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/18/world/middleeast/pressure-by-us-failed-to-sway-egypts-leaders.html?hp"
+    >>> opener = urllib2.build_opener(urllib2.HTTPCookieProcessor())
+    >>> response = opener.open(url)
+    >>> raw_html = response.read()
+    >>> g = goose.Goose()
+    >>> a = g.extract(raw_html=raw_html)
+    >>> a.cleaned_text
+    u'CAIRO \u2014 For a moment, at least, American and European diplomats trying to defuse the volatile standoff in Egypt thought they had a breakthrough.\n\nAs t'
+
+TODO
+----
+
+-  Video html5 tag extraction
+
+
+.. |Build Status| image:: https://travis-ci.org/grangier/python-goose.png?branch=develop   :target: https://travis-ci.org/grangier/python-goose
diff --git a/THANKS b/THANKS
index df982773..da3bfcd1 100644
--- a/THANKS
+++ b/THANKS
@@ -1,7 +1,3 @@
-aidenbell
-litso
-Parsely
-v0idnull
-muggot
-dzen
-timjurka
\ No newline at end of file
+Thanks to all who has contribute to python-goose. 
+You can find the contributors list here :
+https://github.com/grangier/python-goose/graphs/contributors
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/goose/__init__.py b/goose/__init__.py
index 156623e8..409b5732 100644
--- a/goose/__init__.py
+++ b/goose/__init__.py
@@ -21,6 +21,9 @@
 limitations under the License.
 """
 import os
+import platform
+from tempfile import mkstemp
+
 from goose.version import version_info, __version__
 from goose.configuration import Configuration
 from goose.crawler import CrawlCandidate
@@ -56,11 +59,22 @@ def shutdown_network(self):
         pass
 
     def crawl(self, crawl_candiate):
-        crawler = Crawler(self.config)
-        article = crawler.crawl(crawl_candiate)
+        parsers = list(self.config.available_parsers)
+        parsers.remove(self.config.parser_class)
+        try:
+            crawler = Crawler(self.config)
+            article = crawler.crawl(crawl_candiate)
+        except (UnicodeDecodeError, ValueError):
+            self.config.parser_class = parsers[0]
+            return self.crawl(crawl_candiate)
         return article
 
     def initialize(self):
+        # we don't need to go further if image extractor or
+        # local_storage is not set
+        if not self.config.local_storage_path or \
+           not self.config.enable_image_fetching:
+            return
         # test if config.local_storage_path
         # is a directory
         if not os.path.isdir(self.config.local_storage_path):
@@ -74,9 +88,9 @@ def initialize(self):
 
         # test to write a dummy file to the directory
         # to check is directory is writtable
-        path = os.path.join(self.config.local_storage_path, 'test.txt')
+        level, path = mkstemp(dir=self.config.local_storage_path)
         try:
-            f = open(path, 'w')
+            f = os.fdopen(level, "w")
             f.close()
             os.remove(path)
         except IOError:
diff --git a/goose/article.py b/goose/article.py
index d195f166..e3f522f5 100644
--- a/goose/article.py
+++ b/goose/article.py
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ class Article(object):
 
     def __init__(self):
         # title of the article
-        self.title = None
+        self.title = u""
 
         # stores the lovely, pure text from the article,
         # stripped of html, formatting, etc...
@@ -62,12 +62,24 @@ def __init__(self):
 
         # holds a set of tags that may have
         # been in the artcle, these are not meta keywords
-        self.tags = set()
+        self.tags = []
+
+        # holds a dict of all opengrah data found
+        self.opengraph = {}
+
+        # holds twitter embeds
+        self.tweets = []
 
         # holds a list of any movies
         # we found on the page like youtube, vimeo
         self.movies = []
 
+        # holds links found in the main article
+        self.links = []
+
+        # hold author names
+        self.authors = []
+
         # stores the final URL that we're going to try
         # and fetch content against, this would be expanded if any
         self.final_url = u""
@@ -94,3 +106,48 @@ def __init__(self):
 
         # A property bucket for consumers of goose to store custom data extractions.
         self.additional_data = {}
+
+    @property
+    def infos(self):
+        data = {
+            "meta": {
+                "description": self.meta_description,
+                "lang": self.meta_lang,
+                "keywords": self.meta_keywords,
+                "favicon": self.meta_favicon,
+                "canonical": self.canonical_link,
+            },
+            "image": None,
+            "domain": self.domain,
+            "title": self.title,
+            "cleaned_text": self.cleaned_text,
+            "opengraph": self.opengraph,
+            "tags": self.tags,
+            "tweets": self.tweets,
+            "movies": [],
+            "links": self.links,
+            "authors": self.authors,
+            "publish_date": self.publish_date
+        }
+
+        # image
+        if self.top_image is not None:
+            data['image'] = {
+                'url': self.top_image.src,
+                'width': self.top_image.width,
+                'height': self.top_image.height,
+                'type': 'image'
+            }
+
+        # movies
+        for movie in self.movies:
+            data['movies'].append({
+                'embed_type': movie.embed_type,
+                'provider': movie.provider,
+                'width': movie.width,
+                'height': movie.height,
+                'embed_code': movie.embed_code,
+                'src': movie.src,
+            })
+
+        return data
diff --git a/goose/cleaners.py b/goose/cleaners.py
index 3a8ed419..c1384ee0 100644
--- a/goose/cleaners.py
+++ b/goose/cleaners.py
@@ -20,25 +20,35 @@
 See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 limitations under the License.
 """
-from goose.parsers import Parser
 from goose.utils import ReplaceSequence
 
 
 class DocumentCleaner(object):
 
-    def __init__(self):
+    def __init__(self, config, article):
+        # config
+        self.config = config
 
+        # parser
+        self.parser = self.config.get_parser()
+
+        # article
+        self.article = article
+
+        # nodes to remove regexp
         self.remove_nodes_re = (
-        "^side$|combx|retweet|mediaarticlerelated|menucontainer|navbar"
+        "^side$|combx|retweet|mediaarticlerelated|menucontainer|"
+        "navbar|storytopbar-bucket|utility-bar|inline-share-tools"
         "|comment|PopularQuestions|contact|foot|footer|Footer|footnote"
-        "|cnn_strycaptiontxt|links|meta$|scroll|shoutbox|sponsor"
+        "|cnn_strycaptiontxt|cnn_html_slideshow|cnn_strylftcntnt"
+        "|^links$|meta$|shoutbox|sponsor"
         "|tags|socialnetworking|socialNetworking|cnnStryHghLght"
         "|cnn_stryspcvbx|^inset$|pagetools|post-attributes"
         "|welcome_form|contentTools2|the_answers"
         "|communitypromo|runaroundLeft|subscribe|vcard|articleheadings"
         "|date|^print$|popup|author-dropdown|tools|socialtools|byline"
         "|konafilter|KonaFilter|breadcrumbs|^fn$|wp-caption-text"
-        "|source|legende|ajoutVideo|timestamp"
+        "|legende|ajoutVideo|timestamp|js_replies"
         )
         self.regexp_namespace = "http://exslt.org/regular-expressions"
         self.nauthy_ids_re = "//*[re:test(@id, '%s', 'i')]" % self.remove_nodes_re
@@ -56,9 +66,10 @@ def __init__(self):
                                             .append("\t")\
                                             .append("^\\s+$")
 
-    def clean(self, article):
-
-        doc_to_clean = article.doc
+    def clean(self):
+        doc_to_clean = self.article.doc
+        doc_to_clean = self.clean_body_classes(doc_to_clean)
+        doc_to_clean = self.clean_article_tags(doc_to_clean)
         doc_to_clean = self.clean_em_tags(doc_to_clean)
         doc_to_clean = self.remove_drop_caps(doc_to_clean)
         doc_to_clean = self.remove_scripts_styles(doc_to_clean)
@@ -74,122 +85,134 @@ def clean(self, article):
         doc_to_clean = self.div_to_para(doc_to_clean, 'span')
         return doc_to_clean
 
+    def clean_body_classes(self, doc):
+        # we don't need body classes
+        # in case it matches an unwanted class all the document
+        # will be empty
+        elements = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag="body")
+        if elements:
+            self.parser.delAttribute(elements[0], attr="class")
+        return doc
+
+    def clean_article_tags(self, doc):
+        articles = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='article')
+        for article in articles:
+            for attr in ['id', 'name', 'class']:
+                self.parser.delAttribute(article, attr=attr)
+        return doc
+
     def clean_em_tags(self, doc):
-        ems = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='em')
+        ems = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='em')
         for node in ems:
-            images = Parser.getElementsByTag(node, tag='img')
+            images = self.parser.getElementsByTag(node, tag='img')
             if len(images) == 0:
-                node.drop_tag()
+                self.parser.drop_tag(node)
         return doc
 
     def remove_drop_caps(self, doc):
-        items = Parser.css_select(doc, "span[class~=dropcap], span[class~=drop_cap]")
+        items = self.parser.css_select(doc, "span[class~=dropcap], span[class~=drop_cap]")
         for item in items:
-            item.drop_tag()
+            self.parser.drop_tag(item)
 
         return doc
 
     def remove_scripts_styles(self, doc):
         # remove scripts
-        scripts = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='script')
+        scripts = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='script')
         for item in scripts:
-            Parser.remove(item)
+            self.parser.remove(item)
 
         # remove styles
-        styles = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='style')
+        styles = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='style')
         for item in styles:
-            Parser.remove(item)
+            self.parser.remove(item)
 
         # remove comments
-        comments = Parser.getComments(doc)
+        comments = self.parser.getComments(doc)
         for item in comments:
-            Parser.remove(item)
+            self.parser.remove(item)
 
         return doc
 
     def clean_bad_tags(self, doc):
-
         # ids
-        naughty_list = doc.xpath(self.nauthy_ids_re,
-                                        namespaces={'re': self.regexp_namespace})
+        naughty_list = self.parser.xpath_re(doc, self.nauthy_ids_re)
         for node in naughty_list:
-            Parser.remove(node)
+            self.parser.remove(node)
 
         # class
-        naughty_classes = doc.xpath(self.nauthy_classes_re,
-                                        namespaces={'re': self.regexp_namespace})
+        naughty_classes = self.parser.xpath_re(doc, self.nauthy_classes_re)
         for node in naughty_classes:
-            Parser.remove(node)
+            self.parser.remove(node)
 
         # name
-        naughty_names = doc.xpath(self.nauthy_names_re,
-                                        namespaces={'re': self.regexp_namespace})
+        naughty_names = self.parser.xpath_re(doc, self.nauthy_names_re)
         for node in naughty_names:
-            Parser.remove(node)
+            self.parser.remove(node)
 
         return doc
 
     def remove_nodes_regex(self, doc, pattern):
         for selector in ['id', 'class']:
             reg = "//*[re:test(@%s, '%s', 'i')]" % (selector, pattern)
-            naughty_list = doc.xpath(reg, namespaces={'re': self.regexp_namespace})
+            naughty_list = self.parser.xpath_re(doc, reg)
             for node in naughty_list:
-                Parser.remove(node)
+                self.parser.remove(node)
         return doc
 
     def clean_para_spans(self, doc):
-        spans = Parser.css_select(doc, 'p > span')
+        spans = self.parser.css_select(doc, 'p span')
         for item in spans:
-            item.drop_tag()
+            self.parser.drop_tag(item)
         return doc
 
     def get_flushed_buffer(self, replacement_text, doc):
-        return Parser.textToPara(replacement_text)
+        return self.parser.textToPara(replacement_text)
 
     def get_replacement_nodes(self, doc, div):
         replacement_text = []
         nodes_to_return = []
         nodes_to_remove = []
-        childs = Parser.childNodesWithText(div)
+        childs = self.parser.childNodesWithText(div)
 
         for kid in childs:
             # node is a p
             # and already have some replacement text
-            if Parser.getTag(kid) == 'p' and len(replacement_text) > 0:
+            if self.parser.getTag(kid) == 'p' and len(replacement_text) > 0:
                 newNode = self.get_flushed_buffer(''.join(replacement_text), doc)
                 nodes_to_return.append(newNode)
                 replacement_text = []
                 nodes_to_return.append(kid)
             # node is a text node
-            elif Parser.isTextNode(kid):
+            elif self.parser.isTextNode(kid):
                 kid_text_node = kid
-                kid_text = Parser.getText(kid)
+                kid_text = self.parser.getText(kid)
                 replace_text = self.tablines_replacements.replaceAll(kid_text)
                 if(len(replace_text)) > 1:
-                    previous_sibling_node = Parser.previousSibling(kid_text_node)
+                    previous_sibling_node = self.parser.previousSibling(kid_text_node)
                     while previous_sibling_node is not None \
-                        and Parser.getTag(previous_sibling_node) == "a" \
-                        and Parser.getAttribute(previous_sibling_node, 'grv-usedalready') != 'yes':
-                        outer = " " + Parser.outerHtml(previous_sibling_node) + " "
+                        and self.parser.getTag(previous_sibling_node) == "a" \
+                        and self.parser.getAttribute(previous_sibling_node, 'grv-usedalready') != 'yes':
+                        outer = " " + self.parser.outerHtml(previous_sibling_node) + " "
                         replacement_text.append(outer)
                         nodes_to_remove.append(previous_sibling_node)
-                        Parser.setAttribute(previous_sibling_node,
+                        self.parser.setAttribute(previous_sibling_node,
                                     attr='grv-usedalready', value='yes')
-                        prev = Parser.previousSibling(previous_sibling_node)
+                        prev = self.parser.previousSibling(previous_sibling_node)
                         previous_sibling_node = prev if prev is not None else None
                     # append replace_text
                     replacement_text.append(replace_text)
                     #
-                    next_sibling_node = Parser.nextSibling(kid_text_node)
+                    next_sibling_node = self.parser.nextSibling(kid_text_node)
                     while next_sibling_node is not None \
-                        and Parser.getTag(next_sibling_node) == "a" \
-                        and Parser.getAttribute(next_sibling_node, 'grv-usedalready') != 'yes':
-                        outer = " " + Parser.outerHtml(next_sibling_node) + " "
+                        and self.parser.getTag(next_sibling_node) == "a" \
+                        and self.parser.getAttribute(next_sibling_node, 'grv-usedalready') != 'yes':
+                        outer = " " + self.parser.outerHtml(next_sibling_node) + " "
                         replacement_text.append(outer)
                         nodes_to_remove.append(next_sibling_node)
-                        Parser.setAttribute(next_sibling_node,
+                        self.parser.setAttribute(next_sibling_node,
                                     attr='grv-usedalready', value='yes')
-                        next = Parser.nextSibling(next_sibling_node)
+                        next = self.parser.nextSibling(next_sibling_node)
                         previous_sibling_node = next if next is not None else None
 
             # otherwise
@@ -203,27 +226,28 @@ def get_replacement_nodes(self, doc, div):
             replacement_text = []
 
         for n in nodes_to_remove:
-            Parser.remove(n)
+            self.parser.remove(n)
 
         return nodes_to_return
 
     def replace_with_para(self, doc, div):
-        Parser.replaceTag(div, 'p')
+        self.parser.replaceTag(div, 'p')
 
     def div_to_para(self, doc, dom_type):
         bad_divs = 0
         else_divs = 0
-        divs = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag=dom_type)
+        divs = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag=dom_type)
         tags = ['a', 'blockquote', 'dl', 'div', 'img', 'ol', 'p', 'pre', 'table', 'ul']
 
         for div in divs:
-            items = Parser.getElementsByTags(div, tags)
+            items = self.parser.getElementsByTags(div, tags)
             if div is not None and len(items) == 0:
                 self.replace_with_para(doc, div)
                 bad_divs += 1
             elif div is not None:
                 replaceNodes = self.get_replacement_nodes(doc, div)
-                div.clear()
+                for child in self.parser.childNodes(div):
+                    div.remove(child)
 
                 for c, n in enumerate(replaceNodes):
                     div.insert(c, n)
diff --git a/goose/configuration.py b/goose/configuration.py
index 3a2cfb9f..fcfa5b9a 100644
--- a/goose/configuration.py
+++ b/goose/configuration.py
@@ -20,15 +20,24 @@
 See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 limitations under the License.
 """
+import os
+import tempfile
 from goose.text import StopWords
+from goose.parsers import Parser
+from goose.parsers import ParserSoup
+from goose.version import __version__
+
+HTTP_DEFAULT_TIMEOUT = 30
+
+AVAILABLE_PARSERS = {
+    'lxml': Parser,
+    'soup': ParserSoup,
+}
+
 
 class Configuration(object):
 
     def __init__(self):
-        # this is the local storage path used to place
-        # images to inspect them, should be writable
-        self.local_storage_path = "/tmp/goosetmp"
-
         # What's the minimum bytes for an image we'd accept is,
         # alot of times we want to filter out the author's little images
         # in the beginning of the article
@@ -41,7 +50,7 @@ def __init__(self):
         self.enable_image_fetching = True
 
         # set this valriable to False if you want to force
-        # the article language. OtherWise it will attempt to 
+        # the article language. OtherWise it will attempt to
         # find meta language and use the correct stopwords dictionary
         self.use_meta_language = True
 
@@ -66,7 +75,7 @@ def __init__(self):
         # self.browser_user_agent = "Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10_7_2)"\
         #                         " AppleWebKit/534.52.7 (KHTML, like Gecko) "\
         #                         "Version/5.1.2 Safari/534.52.7"
-        self.browser_user_agent = 'Goose/1.0'
+        self.browser_user_agent = 'Goose/%s' % __version__
 
         # debug mode
         # enable this to have additional debugging information
@@ -79,17 +88,19 @@ def __init__(self):
         # TODO
         self.additional_data_extractor = None
 
-    def get_publishdate_extractor(self):
-        return self.extract_publishdate
+        # Parser type
+        self.available_parsers = AVAILABLE_PARSERS.keys()
+        self.parser_class = 'lxml'
 
-    def set_publishdate_extractor(self, extractor):
-        """\
-        Pass in to extract article publish dates.
-        @param extractor a concrete instance of PublishDateExtractor
-        """
-        if not extractor:
-            raise ValueError("extractor must not be null!")
-        self.extract_publishdate = extractor
+        # set the local storage path
+        # make this configurable
+        self.local_storage_path = os.path.join(tempfile.gettempdir(), 'goose')
+
+        # http timeout
+        self.http_timeout = HTTP_DEFAULT_TIMEOUT
+
+    def get_parser(self):
+        return AVAILABLE_PARSERS[self.parser_class]
 
     def get_additionaldata_extractor(self):
         return self.additional_data_extractor
diff --git a/goose/crawler.py b/goose/crawler.py
index eeb9c50a..34daf048 100644
--- a/goose/crawler.py
+++ b/goose/crawler.py
@@ -25,11 +25,20 @@
 from copy import deepcopy
 from goose.article import Article
 from goose.utils import URLHelper, RawHelper
-from goose.extractors import StandardContentExtractor
+from goose.extractors.content import StandardContentExtractor
+from goose.extractors.videos import VideoExtractor
+from goose.extractors.title import TitleExtractor
+from goose.extractors.images import ImageExtractor
+from goose.extractors.links import LinksExtractor
+from goose.extractors.tweets import TweetsExtractor
+from goose.extractors.authors import AuthorsExtractor
+from goose.extractors.tags import TagsExtractor
+from goose.extractors.opengraph import OpenGraphExtractor
+from goose.extractors.publishdate import PublishDateExtractor
+from goose.extractors.metas import MetasExtractor
 from goose.cleaners import StandardDocumentCleaner
 from goose.outputformatters import StandardOutputFormatter
-from goose.parsers import Parser
-from goose.images.extractors import UpgradedImageIExtractor
+
 from goose.network import HtmlFetcher
 
 
@@ -37,6 +46,8 @@ class CrawlCandidate(object):
 
     def __init__(self, config, url, raw_html):
         self.config = config
+        # parser
+        self.parser = self.config.get_parser()
         self.url = url
         self.raw_html = raw_html
 
@@ -44,93 +55,215 @@ def __init__(self, config, url, raw_html):
 class Crawler(object):
 
     def __init__(self, config):
+        # config
         self.config = config
+        # parser
+        self.parser = self.config.get_parser()
+
+        # article
+        self.article = Article()
+
+        # init the extractor
+        self.extractor = self.get_extractor()
+
+        # init the document cleaner
+        self.cleaner = self.get_cleaner()
+
+        # init the output formatter
+        self.formatter = self.get_formatter()
+
+        # metas extractor
+        self.metas_extractor = self.get_metas_extractor()
+
+        # publishdate extractor
+        self.publishdate_extractor = self.get_publishdate_extractor()
+
+        # opengraph extractor
+        self.opengraph_extractor = self.get_opengraph_extractor()
+
+        # tags extractor
+        self.tags_extractor = self.get_tags_extractor()
+
+        # authors extractor
+        self.authors_extractor = self.get_authors_extractor()
+
+        # tweets extractor
+        self.tweets_extractor = self.get_tweets_extractor()
+
+        # links extractor
+        self.links_extractor = self.get_links_extractor()
+
+        # video extractor
+        self.video_extractor = self.get_video_extractor()
+
+        # title extractor
+        self.title_extractor = self.get_title_extractor()
+
+        # image extrator
+        self.image_extractor = self.get_image_extractor()
+
+        # html fetcher
+        self.htmlfetcher = HtmlFetcher(self.config)
+
+        # TODO : log prefix
         self.logPrefix = "crawler:"
 
     def crawl(self, crawl_candidate):
-        article = Article()
 
+        # parser candidate
         parse_candidate = self.get_parse_candidate(crawl_candidate)
+
+        # raw html
         raw_html = self.get_html(crawl_candidate, parse_candidate)
 
         if raw_html is None:
-            return article
+            return self.article
 
+        # create document
         doc = self.get_document(raw_html)
 
-        extractor = self.get_extractor()
-        document_cleaner = self.get_document_cleaner()
-        output_formatter = self.get_output_formatter()
-
         # article
-        article.final_url = parse_candidate.url
-        article.link_hash = parse_candidate.link_hash
-        article.raw_html = raw_html
-        article.doc = doc
-        article.raw_doc = deepcopy(doc)
-        article.title = extractor.get_title(article)
-        # TODO
-        # article.publish_date = config.publishDateExtractor.extract(doc)
-        # article.additional_data = config.get_additionaldata_extractor.extract(doc)
-        article.meta_lang = extractor.get_meta_lang(article)
-        article.meta_favicon = extractor.get_favicon(article)
-        article.meta_description = extractor.get_meta_description(article)
-        article.meta_keywords = extractor.get_meta_keywords(article)
-        article.canonical_link = extractor.get_canonical_link(article)
-        article.domain = extractor.get_domain(article.final_url)
-        article.tags = extractor.extract_tags(article)
-        # # before we do any calcs on the body itself let's clean up the document
-        article.doc = document_cleaner.clean(article)
+        self.article.final_url = parse_candidate.url
+        self.article.link_hash = parse_candidate.link_hash
+        self.article.raw_html = raw_html
+        self.article.doc = doc
+        self.article.raw_doc = deepcopy(doc)
+
+        # open graph
+        self.article.opengraph = self.opengraph_extractor.extract()
+
+        # publishdate
+        self.article.publish_date = self.publishdate_extractor.extract()
+
+        # meta
+        metas = self.metas_extractor.extract()
+        self.article.meta_lang = metas['lang']
+        self.article.meta_favicon = metas['favicon']
+        self.article.meta_description = metas['description']
+        self.article.meta_keywords = metas['keywords']
+        self.article.canonical_link = metas['canonical']
+        self.article.domain = metas['domain']
+
+        # tags
+        self.article.tags = self.tags_extractor.extract()
+
+        # authors
+        self.article.authors = self.authors_extractor.extract()
+
+        # title
+        self.article.title = self.title_extractor.extract()
+
+        # check for known node as content body
+        # if we find one force the article.doc to be the found node
+        # this will prevent the cleaner to remove unwanted text content
+        article_body = self.extractor.get_known_article_tags()
+        if article_body is not None:
+            self.article.doc = article_body
+
+        # before we do any calcs on the body itself let's clean up the document
+        self.article.doc = self.cleaner.clean()
 
         # big stuff
-        article.top_node = extractor.calculate_best_node(article)
-        if article.top_node is not None:
-            # TODO
-            # movies and images
-            # article.movies = extractor.extractVideos(article.top_node)
+        self.article.top_node = self.extractor.calculate_best_node()
+
+        # if we have a top node
+        # let's process it
+        if self.article.top_node is not None:
+
+            # article links
+            self.article.links = self.links_extractor.extract()
+
+            # tweets
+            self.article.tweets = self.tweets_extractor.extract()
+
+            # video handling
+            self.video_extractor.get_videos()
+
+            # image handling
             if self.config.enable_image_fetching:
-                image_extractor = self.get_image_extractor(article)
-                article.top_image = image_extractor.get_best_image(article.raw_doc, article.top_node)
+                self.get_image()
+
+            # post cleanup
+            self.article.top_node = self.extractor.post_cleanup()
 
-            article.top_node = extractor.post_cleanup(article.top_node)
-            article.cleaned_text = output_formatter.get_formatted_text(article)
+            # clean_text
+            self.article.cleaned_text = self.formatter.get_formatted_text()
 
         # cleanup tmp file
-        self.relase_resources(article)
+        self.relase_resources()
 
-        return article
+        # return the article
+        return self.article
 
     def get_parse_candidate(self, crawl_candidate):
         if crawl_candidate.raw_html:
-            return RawHelper.get_parsing_candidate(crawl_candidate.raw_html)
+            return RawHelper.get_parsing_candidate(crawl_candidate.url, crawl_candidate.raw_html)
         return URLHelper.get_parsing_candidate(crawl_candidate.url)
 
+    def get_image(self):
+        doc = self.article.raw_doc
+        top_node = self.article.top_node
+        self.article.top_image = self.image_extractor.get_best_image(doc, top_node)
+
     def get_html(self, crawl_candidate, parsing_candidate):
+        # we got a raw_tml
+        # no need to fetch remote content
         if crawl_candidate.raw_html:
             return crawl_candidate.raw_html
+
         # fetch HTML
-        html = HtmlFetcher().get_html(self.config, parsing_candidate.url)
+        html = self.htmlfetcher.get_html(parsing_candidate.url)
+        self.article.additional_data.update({
+            'request': self.htmlfetcher.request,
+            'result': self.htmlfetcher.result,
+            })
         return html
 
-    def get_image_extractor(self, article):
-        http_client = None
-        return UpgradedImageIExtractor(http_client, article, self.config)
+    def get_metas_extractor(self):
+        return MetasExtractor(self.config, self.article)
+
+    def get_publishdate_extractor(self):
+        return PublishDateExtractor(self.config, self.article)
+
+    def get_opengraph_extractor(self):
+        return OpenGraphExtractor(self.config, self.article)
+
+    def get_tags_extractor(self):
+        return TagsExtractor(self.config, self.article)
+
+    def get_authors_extractor(self):
+        return AuthorsExtractor(self.config, self.article)
+
+    def get_tweets_extractor(self):
+        return TweetsExtractor(self.config, self.article)
+
+    def get_links_extractor(self):
+        return LinksExtractor(self.config, self.article)
+
+    def get_title_extractor(self):
+        return TitleExtractor(self.config, self.article)
+
+    def get_image_extractor(self):
+        return ImageExtractor(self.config, self.article)
+
+    def get_video_extractor(self):
+        return VideoExtractor(self.config, self.article)
 
-    def get_output_formatter(self):
-        return StandardOutputFormatter(self.config)
+    def get_formatter(self):
+        return StandardOutputFormatter(self.config, self.article)
 
-    def get_document_cleaner(self):
-        return StandardDocumentCleaner()
+    def get_cleaner(self):
+        return StandardDocumentCleaner(self.config, self.article)
 
     def get_document(self, raw_html):
-        doc = Parser.fromstring(raw_html)
+        doc = self.parser.fromstring(raw_html)
         return doc
 
     def get_extractor(self):
-        return StandardContentExtractor(self.config)
+        return StandardContentExtractor(self.config, self.article)
 
-    def relase_resources(self, article):
-        path = os.path.join(self.config.local_storage_path, '%s_*' % article.link_hash)
+    def relase_resources(self):
+        path = os.path.join(self.config.local_storage_path, '%s_*' % self.article.link_hash)
         for fname in glob.glob(path):
             try:
                 os.remove(fname)
diff --git a/goose/extractors/__init__.py b/goose/extractors/__init__.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..5554efbc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/extractors/__init__.py
@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+
+
+class BaseExtractor(object):
+
+    def __init__(self, config, article):
+        # config
+        self.config = config
+
+        # parser
+        self.parser = self.config.get_parser()
+
+        # article
+        self.article = article
+
+        # stopwords class
+        self.stopwords_class = config.stopwords_class
diff --git a/goose/extractors/authors.py b/goose/extractors/authors.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..414f4eea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/extractors/authors.py
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+
+from goose.extractors import BaseExtractor
+
+
+class AuthorsExtractor(BaseExtractor):
+
+    def extract(self):
+        authors = []
+        author_nodes = self.parser.getElementsByTag(
+                            self.article.doc,
+                            attr='itemprop',
+                            value='author')
+
+        for author in author_nodes:
+            name_nodes = self.parser.getElementsByTag(
+                            author,
+                            attr='itemprop',
+                            value='name')
+
+            if len(name_nodes) > 0:
+                name = self.parser.getText(name_nodes[0])
+                authors.append(name)
+
+        return list(set(authors))
diff --git a/goose/extractors.py b/goose/extractors/content.py
similarity index 51%
rename from goose/extractors.py
rename to goose/extractors/content.py
index fcbb0b09..e0703d55 100644
--- a/goose/extractors.py
+++ b/goose/extractors/content.py
@@ -20,219 +20,57 @@
 See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
 limitations under the License.
 """
-import re
 from copy import deepcopy
-from urlparse import urlparse, urljoin
-from goose.utils import StringSplitter
-from goose.utils import StringReplacement
-from goose.utils import ReplaceSequence
-from goose.parsers import Parser
-
-MOTLEY_REPLACEMENT = StringReplacement("&#65533;", "")
-ESCAPED_FRAGMENT_REPLACEMENT = StringReplacement(u"#!", u"?_escaped_fragment_=")
-TITLE_REPLACEMENTS = ReplaceSequence().create(u"&raquo;").append(u"»")
-PIPE_SPLITTER = StringSplitter("\\|")
-DASH_SPLITTER = StringSplitter(" - ")
-ARROWS_SPLITTER = StringSplitter("»")
-COLON_SPLITTER = StringSplitter(":")
-SPACE_SPLITTER = StringSplitter(' ')
-NO_STRINGS = set()
-# TODO
-# A_REL_TAG_SELECTOR = "a[rel=tag], a[href*=/tag/]"
-A_REL_TAG_SELECTOR = "a[rel=tag]"
-RE_LANG = r'^[A-Za-z]{2}$'
-
-
-class ContentExtractor(object):
-
-    def __init__(self, config):
-        self.config = config
-        self.language = config.target_language
-        self.stopwords_class = config.stopwords_class
-
-    def get_language(self, article):
-        """\
-        Returns the language is by the article or
-        the configuration language
-        """
-        # we don't want to force the target laguage
-        # so we use the article.meta_lang
-        if self.config.use_meta_language == True:
-            if article.meta_lang:
-                self.language = article.meta_lang[:2]
-        self.language = self.config.target_language
-
-    def get_title(self, article):
-        """\
-        Fetch the article title and analyze it
-        """
-
-        title = ''
-        doc = article.doc
-
-        title_element = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='title')
-        # no title found
-        if title_element is None or len(title_element) == 0:
-            return title
-
-        # title elem found
-        title_text = Parser.getText(title_element[0])
-        used_delimeter = False
 
-        # split title with |
-        if '|' in title_text:
-            title_text = self.split_title(title_text, PIPE_SPLITTER)
-            used_delimeter = True
+from goose.extractors import BaseExtractor
 
-        # split title with -
-        if not used_delimeter and '-' in title_text:
-            title_text = self.split_title(title_text, DASH_SPLITTER)
-            used_delimeter = True
 
-        # split title with »
-        if not used_delimeter and u'»' in title_text:
-            title_text = self.split_title(title_text, ARROWS_SPLITTER)
-            used_delimeter = True
+KNOWN_ARTICLE_CONTENT_TAGS = [
+    {'attr': 'itemprop', 'value': 'articleBody'},
+    {'attr': 'class', 'value': 'post-content'},
+    {'tag': 'article'},
+]
 
-        # split title with :
-        if not used_delimeter and ':' in title_text:
-            title_text = self.split_title(title_text, COLON_SPLITTER)
-            used_delimeter = True
 
-        title = MOTLEY_REPLACEMENT.replaceAll(title_text)
-        return title
+class ContentExtractor(BaseExtractor):
 
-    def split_title(self, title, splitter):
+    def get_language(self):
         """\
-        Split the title to best part possible
-        """
-        large_text_length = 0
-        large_text_index = 0
-        title_pieces = splitter.split(title)
-
-        # find the largest title piece
-        for i in range(len(title_pieces)):
-            current = title_pieces[i]
-            if len(current) > large_text_length:
-                large_text_length = len(current)
-                large_text_index = i
-
-        # replace content
-        title = title_pieces[large_text_index]
-        return TITLE_REPLACEMENTS.replaceAll(title).strip()
-
-    def get_favicon(self, article):
-        """\
-        Extract the favicon from a website
-        http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Favicon
-        <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="favicon.png" />
-        <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="favicon.png" />
-        """
-        kwargs = {'tag': 'link', 'attr': 'rel', 'value': 'icon'}
-        meta = Parser.getElementsByTag(article.doc, **kwargs)
-        if meta:
-            favicon = meta[0].attrib.get('href')
-            return favicon
-        return ''
-
-    def get_meta_lang(self, article):
-        """\
-        Extract content language from meta
-        """
-        # we have a lang attribute in html
-        attr = Parser.getAttribute(article.doc, attr='lang')
-        if attr is None:
-            # look up for a Content-Language in meta
-            items = [
-                {'tag': 'meta', 'attr': 'http-equiv', 'value': 'content-language'},
-                {'tag': 'meta', 'attr': 'name', 'value': 'lang'}
-            ]
-            for item in items:
-                meta = Parser.getElementsByTag(article.doc, **item)
-                if meta:
-                    attr = Parser.getAttribute(meta[0], attr='content')
-                    break
-
-        if attr:
-            value = attr[:2]
-            if re.search(RE_LANG, value):
-                self.language = value.lower()
-                return value.lower()
-
-        return None
-
-    def get_meta_content(self, doc, metaName):
-        """\
-        Extract a given meta content form document
-        """
-        meta = Parser.css_select(doc, metaName)
-        content = None
-
-        if meta is not None and len(meta) > 0:
-            content = meta[0].attrib.get('content')
-
-        if content:
-            return content.strip()
-
-        return ''
-
-    def get_meta_description(self, article):
-        """\
-        if the article has meta description set in the source, use that
-        """
-        return self.get_meta_content(article.doc, "meta[name=description]")
-
-    def get_meta_keywords(self, article):
-        """\
-        if the article has meta keywords set in the source, use that
-        """
-        return self.get_meta_content(article.doc, "meta[name=keywords]")
-
-    def get_canonical_link(self, article):
-        """\
-        if the article has meta canonical link set in the url
+        Returns the language is by the article or
+        the configuration language
         """
-        kwargs = {'tag': 'link', 'attr': 'rel', 'value': 'canonical'}
-        meta = Parser.getElementsByTag(article.doc, **kwargs)
-        if meta is not None and len(meta) > 0:
-            href = meta[0].attrib.get('href')
-            if href:
-                href = href.strip()
-                o = urlparse(href)
-                if not o.hostname:
-                    z = urlparse(article.final_url)
-                    domain = '%s://%s' % (z.scheme, z.hostname)
-                    href = urljoin(domain, href)
-                return href
-        return article.final_url
-
-    def get_domain(self, url):
-        if url:
-            o = urlparse(url)
-            return o.hostname
+        # we don't want to force the target language
+        # so we use the article.meta_lang
+        if self.config.use_meta_language:
+            if self.article.meta_lang:
+                return self.article.meta_lang[:2]
+        return self.config.target_language
+
+    def get_known_article_tags(self):
+        for item in KNOWN_ARTICLE_CONTENT_TAGS:
+            nodes = self.parser.getElementsByTag(
+                            self.article.doc,
+                            **item)
+            if len(nodes):
+                return nodes[0]
         return None
 
-    def extract_tags(self, article):
-        node = article.doc
-
-        # node doesn't have chidren
-        if len(list(node)) == 0:
-            return NO_STRINGS
-
-        elements = Parser.css_select(node, A_REL_TAG_SELECTOR)
-        if elements is None:
-            return NO_STRINGS
+    def is_articlebody(self, node):
+        for item in KNOWN_ARTICLE_CONTENT_TAGS:
+            # attribute
+            if "attr" in item and "value" in item:
+                if self.parser.getAttribute(node, item['attr']) == item['value']:
+                    return True
+            # tag
+            if "tag" in item:
+                if node.tag == item['tag']:
+                    return True
 
-        tags = []
-        for el in elements:
-            tag = Parser.getText(el)
-            if tag:
-                tags.append(tag)
+        return False
 
-        return set(tags)
+    def calculate_best_node(self):
 
-    def calculate_best_node(self, article):
-        doc = article.doc
+        doc = self.article.doc
         top_node = None
         nodes_to_check = self.nodes_to_check(doc)
 
@@ -243,8 +81,8 @@ def calculate_best_node(self, article):
         nodes_with_text = []
 
         for node in nodes_to_check:
-            text_node = Parser.getText(node)
-            word_stats = self.stopwords_class(language=self.language).get_stopword_count(text_node)
+            text_node = self.parser.getText(node)
+            word_stats = self.stopwords_class(language=self.get_language()).get_stopword_count(text_node)
             high_link_density = self.is_highlink_density(node)
             if word_stats.get_stopword_count() > 2 and not high_link_density:
                 nodes_with_text.append(node)
@@ -265,24 +103,24 @@ def calculate_best_node(self, article):
                 if (nodes_number - i) <= bottom_negativescore_nodes:
                     booster = float(bottom_negativescore_nodes - (nodes_number - i))
                     boost_score = float(-pow(booster, float(2)))
-                    negscore = -abs(boost_score) + negative_scoring
+                    negscore = abs(boost_score) + negative_scoring
                     if negscore > 40:
                         boost_score = float(5)
 
-            text_node = Parser.getText(node)
-            word_stats = self.stopwords_class(language=self.language).get_stopword_count(text_node)
+            text_node = self.parser.getText(node)
+            word_stats = self.stopwords_class(language=self.get_language()).get_stopword_count(text_node)
             upscore = int(word_stats.get_stopword_count() + boost_score)
 
             # parent node
-            parent_node = Parser.getParent(node)
+            parent_node = self.parser.getParent(node)
             self.update_score(parent_node, upscore)
-            self.update_node_count(node.getparent(), 1)
+            self.update_node_count(parent_node, 1)
 
-            if node.getparent() not in parent_nodes:
-                parent_nodes.append(node.getparent())
+            if parent_node not in parent_nodes:
+                parent_nodes.append(parent_node)
 
             # parentparent node
-            parent_parent_node = Parser.getParent(parent_node)
+            parent_parent_node = self.parser.getParent(parent_node)
             if parent_parent_node is not None:
                 self.update_node_count(parent_parent_node, 1)
                 self.update_score(parent_parent_node, upscore / 2)
@@ -321,26 +159,31 @@ def is_boostable(self, node):
         nodes = self.walk_siblings(node)
         for current_node in nodes:
             # p
-            if current_node.tag == para:
+            current_node_tag = self.parser.getTag(current_node)
+            if current_node_tag == para:
                 if steps_away >= max_stepsaway_from_node:
                     return False
-                paraText = Parser.getText(current_node)
-                word_stats = self.stopwords_class(language=self.language).get_stopword_count(paraText)
+                paraText = self.parser.getText(current_node)
+                word_stats = self.stopwords_class(language=self.get_language()).get_stopword_count(paraText)
                 if word_stats.get_stopword_count() > minimum_stopword_count:
                     return True
                 steps_away += 1
         return False
 
     def walk_siblings(self, node):
-        current_sibling = Parser.previousSibling(node)
+        current_sibling = self.parser.previousSibling(node)
         b = []
         while current_sibling is not None:
             b.append(current_sibling)
-            previousSibling = Parser.previousSibling(current_sibling)
+            previousSibling = self.parser.previousSibling(current_sibling)
             current_sibling = None if previousSibling is None else previousSibling
         return b
 
     def add_siblings(self, top_node):
+        # in case the extraction used known attributes
+        # we don't want to add sibilings
+        if self.is_articlebody(top_node):
+            return top_node
         baselinescore_siblings_para = self.get_siblings_score(top_node)
         results = self.walk_siblings(top_node)
         for current_node in results:
@@ -353,28 +196,28 @@ def get_siblings_content(self, current_sibling, baselinescore_siblings_para):
         """\
         adds any siblings that may have a decent score to this node
         """
-        if current_sibling.tag == 'p' and len(Parser.getText(current_sibling)) > 0:
+        if current_sibling.tag == 'p' and len(self.parser.getText(current_sibling)) > 0:
             e0 = current_sibling
             if e0.tail:
                 e0 = deepcopy(e0)
                 e0.tail = ''
             return [e0]
         else:
-            potential_paragraphs = Parser.getElementsByTag(current_sibling, tag='p')
+            potential_paragraphs = self.parser.getElementsByTag(current_sibling, tag='p')
             if potential_paragraphs is None:
                 return None
             else:
                 ps = []
                 for first_paragraph in potential_paragraphs:
-                    text = Parser.getText(first_paragraph)
+                    text = self.parser.getText(first_paragraph)
                     if len(text) > 0:
-                        word_stats = self.stopwords_class(language=self.language).get_stopword_count(text)
+                        word_stats = self.stopwords_class(language=self.get_language()).get_stopword_count(text)
                         paragraph_score = word_stats.get_stopword_count()
                         sibling_baseline_score = float(.30)
                         high_link_density = self.is_highlink_density(first_paragraph)
                         score = float(baselinescore_siblings_para * sibling_baseline_score)
                         if score < paragraph_score and not high_link_density:
-                            p = Parser.createElement(tag='p', text=text, tail=None)
+                            p = self.parser.createElement(tag='p', text=text, tail=None)
                             ps.append(p)
                 return ps
 
@@ -391,11 +234,11 @@ def get_siblings_score(self, top_node):
         base = 100000
         paragraphs_number = 0
         paragraphs_score = 0
-        nodes_to_check = Parser.getElementsByTag(top_node, tag='p')
+        nodes_to_check = self.parser.getElementsByTag(top_node, tag='p')
 
         for node in nodes_to_check:
-            text_node = Parser.getText(node)
-            word_stats = self.stopwords_class(language=self.language).get_stopword_count(text_node)
+            text_node = self.parser.getText(node)
+            word_stats = self.stopwords_class(language=self.get_language()).get_stopword_count(text_node)
             high_link_density = self.is_highlink_density(node)
             if word_stats.get_stopword_count() > 2 and not high_link_density:
                 paragraphs_number += 1
@@ -413,24 +256,24 @@ def update_score(self, node, addToScore):
         we're passing in to the current
         """
         current_score = 0
-        score_string = node.attrib.get('gravityScore')
+        score_string = self.parser.getAttribute(node, 'gravityScore')
         if score_string:
             current_score = int(score_string)
 
         new_score = current_score + addToScore
-        node.set("gravityScore", str(new_score))
+        self.parser.setAttribute(node, "gravityScore", str(new_score))
 
     def update_node_count(self, node, add_to_count):
         """\
         stores how many decent nodes are under a parent node
         """
         current_score = 0
-        count_string = node.attrib.get('gravityNodes')
+        count_string = self.parser.getAttribute(node, 'gravityNodes')
         if count_string:
             current_score = int(count_string)
 
         new_score = current_score + add_to_count
-        node.set("gravityNodes", str(new_score))
+        self.parser.setAttribute(node, "gravityNodes", str(new_score))
 
     def is_highlink_density(self, e):
         """\
@@ -438,16 +281,16 @@ def is_highlink_density(self, e):
         is there not much text and most of it contains linky shit?
         if so it's no good
         """
-        links = Parser.getElementsByTag(e, tag='a')
+        links = self.parser.getElementsByTag(e, tag='a')
         if links is None or len(links) == 0:
             return False
 
-        text = Parser.getText(e)
+        text = self.parser.getText(e)
         words = text.split(' ')
         words_number = float(len(words))
         sb = []
         for link in links:
-            sb.append(Parser.getText(link))
+            sb.append(self.parser.getText(link))
 
         linkText = ''.join(sb)
         linkWords = linkText.split(' ')
@@ -467,7 +310,7 @@ def get_score(self, node):
         return self.get_node_gravity_score(node) or 0
 
     def get_node_gravity_score(self, node):
-        grvScoreString = node.attrib.get('gravityScore')
+        grvScoreString = self.parser.getAttribute(node, 'gravityScore')
         if not grvScoreString:
             return None
         return int(grvScoreString)
@@ -478,20 +321,21 @@ def nodes_to_check(self, doc):
         on like paragraphs and tables
         """
         nodes_to_check = []
+
         for tag in ['p', 'pre', 'td']:
-            items = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag=tag)
+            items = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag=tag)
             nodes_to_check += items
         return nodes_to_check
 
     def is_table_and_no_para_exist(self, e):
-        subParagraphs = Parser.getElementsByTag(e, tag='p')
+        subParagraphs = self.parser.getElementsByTag(e, tag='p')
         for p in subParagraphs:
-            txt = Parser.getText(p)
+            txt = self.parser.getText(p)
             if len(txt) < 25:
-                Parser.remove(p)
+                self.parser.remove(p)
 
-        subParagraphs2 = Parser.getElementsByTag(e, tag='p')
-        if len(subParagraphs2) == 0 and e.tag is not "td":
+        subParagraphs2 = self.parser.getElementsByTag(e, tag='p')
+        if len(subParagraphs2) == 0 and e.tag != "td":
             return True
         return False
 
@@ -504,18 +348,20 @@ def is_nodescore_threshold_met(self, node, e):
             return False
         return True
 
-    def post_cleanup(self, targetNode):
+    def post_cleanup(self):
         """\
         remove any divs that looks like non-content,
         clusters of links, or paras with no gusto
         """
+        targetNode = self.article.top_node
         node = self.add_siblings(targetNode)
-        for e in node.getchildren():
-            if e.tag != 'p':
+        for e in self.parser.getChildren(node):
+            e_tag = self.parser.getTag(e)
+            if e_tag != 'p':
                 if self.is_highlink_density(e) \
                     or self.is_table_and_no_para_exist(e) \
                     or not self.is_nodescore_threshold_met(node, e):
-                    Parser.remove(e)
+                    self.parser.remove(e)
         return node
 
 
diff --git a/goose/images/extractors.py b/goose/extractors/images.py
similarity index 78%
rename from goose/images/extractors.py
rename to goose/extractors/images.py
index df4de3b5..3af44f5f 100644
--- a/goose/images/extractors.py
+++ b/goose/extractors/images.py
@@ -22,11 +22,13 @@
 """
 import re
 import os
+
 from urlparse import urlparse, urljoin
+
+from goose.extractors import BaseExtractor
+from goose.image import Image
 from goose.utils import FileHelper
-from goose.parsers import Parser
-from goose.images.image import Image
-from goose.images.utils import ImageUtils
+from goose.utils.images import ImageUtils
 
 KNOWN_IMG_DOM_NAMES = [
     "yn-story-related-media",
@@ -44,21 +46,14 @@ def __init__(self, node, parent_depth, sibling_depth):
         self.sibling_depth = sibling_depth
 
 
-class ImageExtractor(object):
-    pass
-
+class ImageExtractor(BaseExtractor):
 
-class UpgradedImageIExtractor(ImageExtractor):
+    def __init__(self, config, article):
+        super(ImageExtractor, self).__init__(config, article)
 
-    def __init__(self, http_client, article, config):
         self.custom_site_mapping = {}
-        self.load_customesite_mapping()
-
-        # article
-        self.article = article
 
-        # config
-        self.config = config
+        self.load_customesite_mapping()
 
         # What's the minimum bytes for an image we'd accept is
         self.images_min_bytes = 4000
@@ -93,14 +88,16 @@ def get_best_image(self, doc, topNode):
         return Image()
 
     def check_meta_tag(self):
+        # check link tag
         image = self.check_link_tag()
         if image:
             return image
+
+        # check opengraph tag
         image = self.check_opengraph_tag()
         if image:
             return image
 
-
     def check_large_images(self, node, parent_depth_level, sibling_depth_level):
         """\
         although slow the best way to determine the best image is to download
@@ -124,6 +121,8 @@ def check_large_images(self, node, parent_depth_level, sibling_depth_level):
                                         key=lambda x: x[1], reverse=True)[0][0]
                 main_image = Image()
                 main_image.src = highscore_image.src
+                main_image.width = highscore_image.width
+                main_image.height = highscore_image.height
                 main_image.extraction_type = "bigimage"
                 main_image.confidence_score = 100 / len(scored_images) \
                                     if len(scored_images) > 0 else 0
@@ -141,11 +140,11 @@ def get_depth_level(self, node, parent_depth, sibling_depth):
         if parent_depth > MAX_PARENT_DEPTH:
             return None
         else:
-            sibling_node = Parser.previousSibling(node)
+            sibling_node = self.parser.previousSibling(node)
             if sibling_node is not None:
                 return DepthTraversal(sibling_node, parent_depth, sibling_depth + 1)
             elif node is not None:
-                parent = Parser.getParent(node)
+                parent = self.parser.getParent(node)
                 if parent is not None:
                     return DepthTraversal(parent, parent_depth + 1, 0)
         return None
@@ -169,7 +168,7 @@ def fetch_images(self, images, depth_level):
         cnt = float(1.0)
         MIN_WIDTH = 50
         for image in images[:30]:
-            src = Parser.getAttribute(image, attr='src')
+            src = self.parser.getAttribute(image, attr='src')
             src = self.build_image_path(src)
             local_image = self.get_local_image(src)
             width = local_image.width
@@ -194,11 +193,26 @@ def fetch_images(self, images, depth_level):
 
                             image_results.update({local_image: total_score})
                             cnt += 1
-                            cnt += 1
         return image_results
 
-    def get_images(self):
-        return None
+    def get_image(self, element, src, score=100, extraction_type="N/A"):
+        # build the Image object
+        image = Image()
+        image.src = self.build_image_path(src)
+        image.extraction_type = extraction_type
+        image.confidence_score = score
+
+        # check if we have a local image
+        # in order to add more information
+        # on the Image object
+        local_image = self.get_local_image(image.src)
+        if local_image:
+            image.bytes = local_image.bytes
+            image.height = local_image.height
+            image.width = local_image.width
+
+        # return the image
+        return image
 
     def is_banner_dimensions(self, width, height):
         """\
@@ -221,7 +235,7 @@ def is_banner_dimensions(self, width, height):
         return False
 
     def get_node_images(self, node):
-        images = Parser.getElementsByTag(node, tag='img')
+        images = self.parser.getElementsByTag(node, tag='img')
         if images is not None and len(images) < 1:
             return None
         return images
@@ -242,7 +256,7 @@ def is_valid_filename(self, imageNode):
         will check the image src against a list
         of bad image files we know of like buttons, etc...
         """
-        src = Parser.getAttribute(imageNode, attr='src')
+        src = self.parser.getAttribute(imageNode, attr='src')
 
         if not src:
             return False
@@ -273,7 +287,7 @@ def get_images_bytesize_match(self, images):
         for image in images:
             if cnt > 30:
                 return good_images
-            src = Parser.getAttribute(image, attr='src')
+            src = self.parser.getAttribute(image, attr='src')
             src = self.build_image_path(src)
             local_image = self.get_local_image(src)
             if local_image:
@@ -295,20 +309,11 @@ def check_link_tag(self):
         find open link_src on this page
         """
         node = self.article.raw_doc
-        meta = Parser.getElementsByTag(node, tag='link', attr='rel', value='image_src')
+        meta = self.parser.getElementsByTag(node, tag='link', attr='rel', value='image_src')
         for item in meta:
-            href = Parser.getAttribute(item, attr='href')
-            if href:
-                main_image = Image()
-                main_image.src = href
-                main_image.extraction_type = "linktag"
-                main_image.confidence_score = 100
-                local_image = self.get_local_image(main_image.src)
-                if local_image:
-                    main_image.bytes = local_image.bytes
-                    main_image.height = local_image.height
-                    main_image.width = local_image.width
-                    return main_image
+            src = self.parser.getAttribute(item, attr='href')
+            if src:
+                return self.get_image(item, src, extraction_type='linktag')
         return None
 
     def check_opengraph_tag(self):
@@ -317,20 +322,11 @@ def check_opengraph_tag(self):
         find open graph tags on this page
         """
         node = self.article.raw_doc
-        meta = Parser.getElementsByTag(node, tag='meta', attr='property', value='og:image')
+        meta = self.parser.getElementsByTag(node, tag='meta', attr='property', value='og:image')
         for item in meta:
-            href = Parser.getAttribute(item, attr='content')
-            if href:
-                main_image = Image()
-                main_image.src = href
-                main_image.extraction_type = "opengraph"
-                main_image.confidence_score = 100
-                local_image = self.get_local_image(main_image.src)
-                if local_image:
-                    main_image.bytes = local_image.bytes
-                    main_image.height = local_image.height
-                    main_image.width = local_image.width
-                    return main_image
+            src = self.parser.getAttribute(item, attr='content')
+            if src:
+                return self.get_image(item, src, extraction_type='opengraph')
         return None
 
     def get_local_image(self, src):
@@ -361,33 +357,42 @@ def check_known_elements(self):
             for classname in classes:
                 KNOWN_IMG_DOM_NAMES.append(classname)
 
-        known_image = None
-
-        for known_name in KNOWN_IMG_DOM_NAMES:
-            known = Parser.getElementById(self.article.raw_doc, known_name)
-            if not known:
-                known = Parser.getElementsByTag(self.article.raw_doc,
-                                                attr='class', value=known_name)
-                if known:
-                    known = known[0]
-            if known:
-                main_image = Parser.getElementsByTag(known, tag='img')
-                if main_image:
-                    known_image = main_image[0]
-
-        if known_image is not None:
-            known_image_source = Parser.getAttribute(known_image, attr='src')
-            main_image = Image()
-            main_image.src = self.build_image_path(known_image_source)
-            main_image.extraction_type = "known"
-            main_image.confidence_score = 90
-            local_image = self.get_local_image(main_image.src)
-            if local_image:
-                main_image.bytes = local_image.bytes
-                main_image.height = local_image.height
-                main_image.width = local_image.width
+        image = None
+        doc = self.article.raw_doc
 
-            return main_image
+        def _check_elements(elements):
+            image = None
+            for element in elements:
+                tag = self.parser.getTag(element)
+                if tag == 'img':
+                    image = element
+                    return image
+                else:
+                    images = self.parser.getElementsByTag(element, tag='img')
+                    if images:
+                        image = images[0]
+                        return image
+            return image
+
+        # check for elements with known id
+        for css in KNOWN_IMG_DOM_NAMES:
+            elements = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, attr="id", value=css)
+            image = _check_elements(elements)
+            if image is not None:
+                src = self.parser.getAttribute(image, attr='src')
+                if src:
+                    return self.get_image(image, src, score=90, extraction_type='known')
+
+        # check for elements with known classes
+        for css in KNOWN_IMG_DOM_NAMES:
+            elements = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, attr='class', value=css)
+            image = _check_elements(elements)
+            if image is not None:
+                src = self.parser.getAttribute(image, attr='src')
+                if src:
+                    return self.get_image(image, src, score=90, extraction_type='known')
+
+        return None
 
     def build_image_path(self, src):
         """\
diff --git a/goose/extractors/links.py b/goose/extractors/links.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..6ba668fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/extractors/links.py
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+
+from goose.extractors import BaseExtractor
+
+
+class LinksExtractor(BaseExtractor):
+
+    def extract(self):
+        links = []
+        items = self.parser.getElementsByTag(self.article.top_node, 'a')
+        for i in items:
+            attr = self.parser.getAttribute(i, 'href')
+            if attr:
+                links.append(attr)
+        return links
diff --git a/goose/extractors/metas.py b/goose/extractors/metas.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..95acadd5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/extractors/metas.py
@@ -0,0 +1,135 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+
+import re
+from urlparse import urljoin
+from urlparse import urlparse
+
+from goose.extractors import BaseExtractor
+
+
+RE_LANG = r'^[A-Za-z]{2}$'
+
+
+class MetasExtractor(BaseExtractor):
+
+    def get_domain(self):
+        if self.article.final_url:
+            o = urlparse(self.article.final_url)
+            return o.hostname
+        return None
+
+    def get_favicon(self):
+        """\
+        Extract the favicon from a website
+        http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Favicon
+        <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/png" href="favicon.png" />
+        <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="favicon.png" />
+        """
+        kwargs = {'tag': 'link', 'attr': 'rel', 'value': 'icon'}
+        meta = self.parser.getElementsByTag(self.article.doc, **kwargs)
+        if meta:
+            favicon = self.parser.getAttribute(meta[0], 'href')
+            return favicon
+        return ''
+
+    def get_canonical_link(self):
+        """\
+        if the article has meta canonical link set in the url
+        """
+        if self.article.final_url:
+            kwargs = {'tag': 'link', 'attr': 'rel', 'value': 'canonical'}
+            meta = self.parser.getElementsByTag(self.article.doc, **kwargs)
+            if meta is not None and len(meta) > 0:
+                href = self.parser.getAttribute(meta[0], 'href')
+                if href:
+                    href = href.strip()
+                    o = urlparse(href)
+                    if not o.hostname:
+                        z = urlparse(self.article.final_url)
+                        domain = '%s://%s' % (z.scheme, z.hostname)
+                        href = urljoin(domain, href)
+                    return href
+        return self.article.final_url
+
+    def get_meta_lang(self):
+        """\
+        Extract content language from meta
+        """
+        # we have a lang attribute in html
+        attr = self.parser.getAttribute(self.article.doc, attr='lang')
+        if attr is None:
+            # look up for a Content-Language in meta
+            items = [
+                {'tag': 'meta', 'attr': 'http-equiv', 'value': 'content-language'},
+                {'tag': 'meta', 'attr': 'name', 'value': 'lang'}
+            ]
+            for item in items:
+                meta = self.parser.getElementsByTag(self.article.doc, **item)
+                if meta:
+                    attr = self.parser.getAttribute(meta[0], attr='content')
+                    break
+
+        if attr:
+            value = attr[:2]
+            if re.search(RE_LANG, value):
+                return value.lower()
+
+        return None
+
+    def get_meta_content(self, metaName):
+        """\
+        Extract a given meta content form document
+        """
+        meta = self.parser.css_select(self.article.doc, metaName)
+        content = None
+
+        if meta is not None and len(meta) > 0:
+            content = self.parser.getAttribute(meta[0], 'content')
+
+        if content:
+            return content.strip()
+
+        return ''
+
+    def get_meta_description(self):
+        """\
+        if the article has meta description set in the source, use that
+        """
+        return self.get_meta_content("meta[name=description]")
+
+    def get_meta_keywords(self):
+        """\
+        if the article has meta keywords set in the source, use that
+        """
+        return self.get_meta_content("meta[name=keywords]")
+
+    def extract(self):
+        return {
+            "description": self.get_meta_description(),
+            "keywords": self.get_meta_keywords(),
+            "lang": self.get_meta_lang(),
+            "favicon": self.get_favicon(),
+            "canonical": self.get_canonical_link(),
+            "domain": self.get_domain()
+        }
diff --git a/goose/extractors/opengraph.py b/goose/extractors/opengraph.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..a52ac349
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/extractors/opengraph.py
@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+
+from goose.extractors import BaseExtractor
+
+
+class OpenGraphExtractor(BaseExtractor):
+
+    def extract(self):
+        opengraph_dict = {}
+        node = self.article.doc
+        metas = self.parser.getElementsByTag(node, 'meta')
+        for meta in metas:
+            attr = self.parser.getAttribute(meta, 'property')
+            if attr is not None and attr.startswith("og:"):
+                value = self.parser.getAttribute(meta, 'content')
+                opengraph_dict.update({attr.split(":")[1]: value})
+        return opengraph_dict
diff --git a/goose/extractors/publishdate.py b/goose/extractors/publishdate.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..1768b1a0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/extractors/publishdate.py
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+
+from goose.extractors import BaseExtractor
+
+KNOWN_PUBLISH_DATE_TAGS = [
+    {'attribute': 'property', 'value': 'rnews:datePublished', 'content': 'content'},
+    {'attribute': 'property', 'value': 'article:published_time', 'content': 'content'},
+    {'attribute': 'name', 'value': 'OriginalPublicationDate', 'content': 'content'},
+    {'attribute': 'itemprop', 'value': 'datePublished', 'content': 'datetime'},
+]
+
+
+class PublishDateExtractor(BaseExtractor):
+    def extract(self):
+        for known_meta_tag in KNOWN_PUBLISH_DATE_TAGS:
+            meta_tags = self.parser.getElementsByTag(
+                            self.article.doc,
+                            attr=known_meta_tag['attribute'],
+                            value=known_meta_tag['value'])
+            if meta_tags:
+                return self.parser.getAttribute(
+                    meta_tags[0],
+                    known_meta_tag['content']
+                )
+        return None
diff --git a/goose/extractors/tags.py b/goose/extractors/tags.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..466e7f81
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/extractors/tags.py
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+
+from goose.extractors import BaseExtractor
+
+A_REL_TAG_SELECTOR = "a[rel=tag]"
+A_HREF_TAG_SELECTOR = "a[href*='/tag/'], a[href*='/tags/'], a[href*='/topic/'], a[href*='?keyword=']"
+
+
+class TagsExtractor(BaseExtractor):
+
+    def extract(self):
+        node = self.article.doc
+        tags = []
+
+        # node doesn't have chidren
+        if len(list(node)) == 0:
+            return tags
+
+        elements = self.parser.css_select(node, A_REL_TAG_SELECTOR)
+        if not elements:
+            elements = self.parser.css_select(node, A_HREF_TAG_SELECTOR)
+            if not elements:
+                return tags
+
+        for el in elements:
+            tag = self.parser.getText(el)
+            if tag:
+                tags.append(tag)
+
+        return list(set(tags))
diff --git a/goose/extractors/title.py b/goose/extractors/title.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..8104c52b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/extractors/title.py
@@ -0,0 +1,99 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+import re
+
+from goose.extractors import BaseExtractor
+
+
+TITLE_SPLITTERS = [u"|", u"-", u"»", u":"]
+
+
+class TitleExtractor(BaseExtractor):
+
+    def clean_title(self, title):
+        """Clean title with the use of og:site_name
+        in this case try to get ride of site name
+        and use TITLE_SPLITTERS to reformat title
+        """
+        # check if we have the site name in opengraph data
+        if "site_name" in self.article.opengraph.keys():
+            site_name = self.article.opengraph['site_name']
+            # remove the site name from title
+            title = title.replace(site_name, '').strip()
+
+        # try to remove the domain from url
+        if self.article.domain:
+            pattern = re.compile(self.article.domain, re.IGNORECASE)
+            title = pattern.sub("", title).strip()
+
+        # split the title in words
+        # TechCrunch | my wonderfull article
+        # my wonderfull article | TechCrunch
+        title_words = title.split()
+
+        # check if first letter is in TITLE_SPLITTERS
+        # if so remove it
+        if title_words[0] in TITLE_SPLITTERS:
+            title_words.pop(0)
+
+        # check if last letter is in TITLE_SPLITTERS
+        # if so remove it
+        if title_words[-1] in TITLE_SPLITTERS:
+            title_words.pop(-1)
+
+        # rebuild the title
+        title = u" ".join(title_words).strip()
+
+        return title
+
+    def get_title(self):
+        """\
+        Fetch the article title and analyze it
+        """
+        title = ''
+
+        # rely on opengraph in case we have the data
+        if "title" in self.article.opengraph.keys():
+            title = self.article.opengraph['title']
+            return self.clean_title(title)
+
+        # try to fetch the meta headline
+        meta_headline = self.parser.getElementsByTag(
+                            self.article.doc,
+                            tag="meta",
+                            attr="name",
+                            value="headline")
+        if meta_headline is not None and len(meta_headline) > 0:
+            title = self.parser.getAttribute(meta_headline[0], 'content')
+            return self.clean_title(title)
+
+        # otherwise use the title meta
+        title_element = self.parser.getElementsByTag(self.article.doc, tag='title')
+        if title_element is not None and len(title_element) > 0:
+            title = self.parser.getText(title_element[0])
+            return self.clean_title(title)
+
+        return title
+
+    def extract(self):
+        return self.get_title()
diff --git a/goose/extractors/tweets.py b/goose/extractors/tweets.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..3c17ad8d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/extractors/tweets.py
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+
+from goose.extractors import BaseExtractor
+
+
+class TweetsExtractor(BaseExtractor):
+
+    def extract(self):
+        tweets = []
+        items = self.parser.getElementsByTag(
+                        self.article.top_node,
+                        tag='blockquote',
+                        attr="class",
+                        value="twitter-tweet")
+
+        for i in items:
+            for attr in ['gravityScore', 'gravityNodes']:
+                self.parser.delAttribute(i, attr)
+            tweets.append(self.parser.nodeToString(i))
+
+        return tweets
diff --git a/goose/extractors/videos.py b/goose/extractors/videos.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..88fdf20d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/extractors/videos.py
@@ -0,0 +1,138 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+
+from goose.extractors import BaseExtractor
+from goose.video import Video
+
+VIDEOS_TAGS = ['iframe', 'embed', 'object', 'video']
+VIDEO_PROVIDERS = ['youtube', 'vimeo', 'dailymotion', 'kewego']
+
+
+class VideoExtractor(BaseExtractor):
+    """\
+    Extracts a list of video from Article top node
+    """
+    def __init__(self, config, article):
+        super(VideoExtractor, self).__init__(config, article)
+
+        # candidates
+        self.candidates = []
+
+        # movies
+        self.movies = []
+
+    def get_embed_code(self, node):
+        return "".join([line.strip() for line in self.parser.nodeToString(node).splitlines()])
+
+    def get_embed_type(self, node):
+        return self.parser.getTag(node)
+
+    def get_width(self, node):
+        return self.parser.getAttribute(node, 'width')
+
+    def get_height(self, node):
+        return self.parser.getAttribute(node, 'height')
+
+    def get_src(self, node):
+        return self.parser.getAttribute(node, 'src')
+
+    def get_provider(self, src):
+        if src:
+            for provider in VIDEO_PROVIDERS:
+                if provider in src:
+                    return provider
+        return None
+
+    def get_video(self, node):
+        """
+        Create a video object from a video embed
+        """
+        video = Video()
+        video.embed_code = self.get_embed_code(node)
+        video.embed_type = self.get_embed_type(node)
+        video.width = self.get_width(node)
+        video.height = self.get_height(node)
+        video.src = self.get_src(node)
+        video.provider = self.get_provider(video.src)
+        return video
+
+    def get_iframe_tag(self, node):
+        return self.get_video(node)
+
+    def get_video_tag(self, node):
+        """extract html video tags"""
+        return Video()
+
+    def get_embed_tag(self, node):
+        # embed node may have an object node as parent
+        # in this case we want to retrieve the object node
+        # instead of the embed
+        parent = self.parser.getParent(node)
+        if parent is not None:
+            parent_tag = self.parser.getTag(parent)
+            if parent_tag == 'object':
+                return self.get_object_tag(node)
+        return self.get_video(node)
+
+    def get_object_tag(self, node):
+        # test if object tag has en embed child
+        # in this case we want to remove the embed from
+        # the candidate list to avoid parsing it twice
+        child_embed_tag = self.parser.getElementsByTag(node, 'embed')
+        if child_embed_tag and child_embed_tag[0] in self.candidates:
+            self.candidates.remove(child_embed_tag[0])
+
+        # get the object source
+        # if wa don't have a src node don't coninue
+        src_node = self.parser.getElementsByTag(node, tag="param", attr="name", value="movie")
+        if not src_node:
+            return None
+
+        src = self.parser.getAttribute(src_node[0], "value")
+
+        # check provider
+        provider = self.get_provider(src)
+        if not provider:
+            return None
+
+        video = self.get_video(node)
+        video.provider = provider
+        video.src = src
+        return video
+
+    def get_videos(self):
+        # candidates node
+        self.candidates = self.parser.getElementsByTags(self.article.top_node, VIDEOS_TAGS)
+
+        # loop all candidates
+        # and check if src attribute belongs to a video provider
+        for candidate in self.candidates:
+            tag = self.parser.getTag(candidate)
+            attr = "get_%s_tag" % tag
+            if hasattr(self, attr):
+                movie = getattr(self, attr)(candidate)
+                if movie is not None and movie.provider is not None:
+                    self.movies.append(movie)
+
+        # append movies list to article
+        self.article.movies = list(self.movies)
diff --git a/goose/images/image.py b/goose/image.py
similarity index 100%
rename from goose/images/image.py
rename to goose/image.py
diff --git a/goose/network.py b/goose/network.py
index 6a5ecc80..666a7d61 100644
--- a/goose/network.py
+++ b/goose/network.py
@@ -25,26 +25,36 @@
 
 class HtmlFetcher(object):
 
-    def __init__(self):
-        pass
-
-    def get_http_client(self):
-        pass
-
-    def get_html(self, config, url):
-        """\
-
-        """
+    def __init__(self, config):
+        self.config = config
+        # set header
+        self.headers = {'User-agent': self.config.browser_user_agent}
+
+    def get_url(self):
+        # if we have a result
+        # get the final_url
+        if self.result is not None:
+            return self.result.geturl()
+        return None
+
+    def get_html(self, url):
+        # utf-8 encode unicode url
         if isinstance(url, unicode):
             url = url.encode('utf-8')
-        headers = {}  # 'User-Agent' : config.browser_user_agent }
-        request = urllib2.Request(url, None, headers)
-        opener = urllib2.build_opener(urllib2.HTTPHandler(config.debug))
-        opener.addheaders = [('User-agent', config.browser_user_agent)]
+
+        # set request
+        self.request = urllib2.Request(
+                        url,
+                        headers=self.headers)
+        # do request
         try:
-            result = opener.open(request).read()
-        except:
-            return None
-        # urllib2.HTTPError
-        # ValueError
-        return result
+            self.result = urllib2.urlopen(
+                            self.request,
+                            timeout=self.config.http_timeout)
+        except Exception:
+            self.result = None
+
+        # read the result content
+        if self.result is not None:
+            return self.result.read()
+        return None
diff --git a/goose/outputformatters.py b/goose/outputformatters.py
index c4556cc1..1f8ba4bd 100644
--- a/goose/outputformatters.py
+++ b/goose/outputformatters.py
@@ -22,54 +22,70 @@
 """
 from HTMLParser import HTMLParser
 from goose.text import innerTrim
-from goose.parsers import Parser
 
 
 class OutputFormatter(object):
 
-    def __init__(self, config):
-        self.top_node = None
+    def __init__(self, config, article):
+        # config
         self.config = config
+
+        # article
+        self.article = article
+
+        # parser
+        self.parser = self.config.get_parser()
+
+        # stopwords class
         self.stopwords_class = config.stopwords_class
 
-    def get_language(self, article):
+        # top node
+        self.top_node = None
+
+    def get_language(self):
         """\
         Returns the language is by the article or
         the configuration language
         """
-        # we don't want to force the target laguage
+        # we don't want to force the target language
         # so we use the article.meta_lang
-        if self.config.use_meta_language == True:
-            if article.meta_lang:
-                return article.meta_lang[:2]
+        if self.config.use_meta_language:
+            if self.article.meta_lang:
+                return self.article.meta_lang[:2]
         return self.config.target_language
 
     def get_top_node(self):
         return self.top_node
 
-    def get_formatted_text(self, article):
-        self.top_node = article.top_node
+    def get_formatted_text(self):
+        self.top_node = self.article.top_node
         self.remove_negativescores_nodes()
         self.links_to_text()
+        self.add_newline_to_br()
         self.replace_with_text()
-        self.remove_fewwords_paragraphs(article)
+        self.remove_fewwords_paragraphs()
         return self.convert_to_text()
 
     def convert_to_text(self):
         txts = []
         for node in list(self.get_top_node()):
-            txt = Parser.getText(node)
+            txt = self.parser.getText(node)
             if txt:
                 txt = HTMLParser().unescape(txt)
-                txts.append(innerTrim(txt))
+                txt_lis = innerTrim(txt).split(r'\n')
+                txts.extend(txt_lis)
         return '\n\n'.join(txts)
 
+    def add_newline_to_br(self):
+        for e in self.parser.getElementsByTag(self.top_node, tag='br'):
+            e.text = r'\n'
+
     def links_to_text(self):
         """\
         cleans up and converts any nodes that
         should be considered text into text
         """
-        Parser.stripTags(self.get_top_node(), 'a')
+        self.parser.stripTags(self.get_top_node(), 'a')
 
     def remove_negativescores_nodes(self):
         """\
@@ -77,9 +93,10 @@ def remove_negativescores_nodes(self):
         that have a negative gravity score,
         let's give em the boot
         """
-        gravity_items = Parser.css_select(self.top_node, "*[gravityScore]")
+        gravity_items = self.parser.css_select(self.top_node, "*[gravityScore]")
         for item in gravity_items:
-            score = int(item.attrib.get('gravityScore'), 0)
+            score = self.parser.getAttribute(item, 'gravityScore')
+            score = int(score, 0)
             if score < 1:
                 item.getparent().remove(item)
 
@@ -91,28 +108,29 @@ def replace_with_text(self):
         with whatever text is inside them
         code : http://lxml.de/api/lxml.etree-module.html#strip_tags
         """
-        Parser.stripTags(self.get_top_node(), 'b', 'strong', 'i', 'br', 'sup')
+        self.parser.stripTags(self.get_top_node(), 'b', 'strong', 'i', 'br', 'sup')
 
-    def remove_fewwords_paragraphs(self, article):
+    def remove_fewwords_paragraphs(self):
         """\
         remove paragraphs that have less than x number of words,
         would indicate that it's some sort of link
         """
-        all_nodes = Parser.getElementsByTags(self.get_top_node(), ['*'])
+        all_nodes = self.parser.getElementsByTags(self.get_top_node(), ['*'])
         all_nodes.reverse()
         for el in all_nodes:
-            text = Parser.getText(el)
-            stop_words = self.stopwords_class(language=self.get_language(article)).get_stopword_count(text)
-            if stop_words.get_stopword_count() < 3 \
-                and len(Parser.getElementsByTag(el, tag='object')) == 0 \
-                and len(Parser.getElementsByTag(el, tag='embed')) == 0:
-                Parser.remove(el)
+            tag = self.parser.getTag(el)
+            text = self.parser.getText(el)
+            stop_words = self.stopwords_class(language=self.get_language()).get_stopword_count(text)
+            if (tag != 'br' or text != '\\r') and stop_words.get_stopword_count() < 3 \
+                and len(self.parser.getElementsByTag(el, tag='object')) == 0 \
+                and len(self.parser.getElementsByTag(el, tag='embed')) == 0:
+                self.parser.remove(el)
             # TODO
             # check if it is in the right place
             else:
-                trimmed = Parser.getText(el)
+                trimmed = self.parser.getText(el)
                 if trimmed.startswith("(") and trimmed.endswith(")"):
-                    Parser.remove(el)
+                    self.parser.remove(el)
 
 
 class StandardOutputFormatter(OutputFormatter):
diff --git a/goose/parsers.py b/goose/parsers.py
index 170da09d..a43e9b47 100644
--- a/goose/parsers.py
+++ b/goose/parsers.py
@@ -21,6 +21,7 @@
 limitations under the License.
 """
 import lxml.html
+from lxml.html import soupparser
 from lxml import etree
 from copy import deepcopy
 from goose.text import innerTrim
@@ -29,6 +30,20 @@
 
 class Parser(object):
 
+    @classmethod
+    def xpath_re(self, node, expression):
+        regexp_namespace = "http://exslt.org/regular-expressions"
+        items = node.xpath(expression, namespaces={'re': regexp_namespace})
+        return items
+
+    @classmethod
+    def drop_tag(self, nodes):
+        if isinstance(nodes, list):
+            for node in nodes:
+                node.drop_tag()
+        else:
+            nodes.drop_tag()
+
     @classmethod
     def css_select(self, node, selector):
         return node.cssselect(selector)
@@ -108,6 +123,10 @@ def childNodesWithText(self, node):
     def textToPara(self, text):
         return self.fromstring(text)
 
+    @classmethod
+    def getChildren(self, node):
+        return node.getchildren()
+
     @classmethod
     def getElementsByTags(self, node, tags):
         selector = ','.join(tags)
@@ -195,6 +214,13 @@ def getAttribute(self, node, attr=None):
             return node.attrib.get(attr, None)
         return attr
 
+    @classmethod
+    def delAttribute(self, node, attr=None):
+        if attr:
+            _attr = node.attrib.get(attr, None)
+            if _attr:
+                del node.attrib[attr]
+
     @classmethod
     def setAttribute(self, node, attr=None, value=None):
         if attr and value:
@@ -207,3 +233,12 @@ def outerHtml(self, node):
             e0 = deepcopy(e0)
             e0.tail = None
         return self.nodeToString(e0)
+
+
+class ParserSoup(Parser):
+
+    @classmethod
+    def fromstring(self, html):
+        html = encodeValue(html)
+        self.doc = soupparser.fromstring(html)
+        return self.doc
diff --git a/goose/resources/text/stopwords-ar.txt b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-ar.txt
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..64e0e716
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-ar.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,162 @@
+فى
+في
+كل
+لم
+لن
+له
+من
+هو
+هي
+قوة
+كما
+لها
+منذ
+وقد
+ولا
+نفسه
+لقاء
+مقابل
+هناك
+وقال
+وكان
+نهاية
+وقالت
+وكانت
+للامم
+فيه
+كلم
+لكن
+وفي
+وقف
+ولم
+ومن
+وهو
+وهي
+يوم
+فيها
+منها
+مليار
+لوكالة
+يكون
+يمكن
+مليون
+حيث
+اكد
+الا
+اما
+امس
+السابق
+التى
+التي
+اكثر
+ايار
+ايضا
+ثلاثة
+الذاتي
+الاخيرة
+الثاني
+الثانية
+الذى
+الذي
+الان
+امام
+ايام
+خلال
+حوالى
+الذين
+الاول
+الاولى
+بين
+ذلك
+دون
+حول
+حين
+الف
+الى
+انه
+اول
+ضمن
+انها
+جميع
+الماضي
+الوقت
+المقبل
+اليوم
+ـ
+ف
+و
+و6
+قد
+لا
+ما
+مع
+مساء
+هذا
+واحد
+واضاف
+واضافت
+فان
+قبل
+قال
+كان
+لدى
+نحو
+هذه
+وان
+واكد
+كانت
+واوضح
+مايو
+ب
+ا
+أ
+،
+عشر
+عدد
+عدة
+عشرة
+عدم
+عام
+عاما
+عن
+عند
+عندما
+على
+عليه
+عليها
+زيارة
+سنة
+سنوات
+تم
+ضد
+بعد
+بعض
+اعادة
+اعلنت
+بسبب
+حتى
+اذا
+احد
+اثر
+برس
+باسم
+غدا
+شخصا
+صباح
+اطار
+اربعة
+اخرى
+بان
+اجل
+غير
+بشكل
+حاليا
+بن
+به
+ثم
+اف
+ان
+او
+اي
+بها
+صفر
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/goose/resources/text/stopwords-da.txt b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-da.txt
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..e8522ef0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-da.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,101 @@
+af
+alle
+andet
+andre
+at
+begge
+da
+de
+den
+denne
+der
+deres
+det
+dette
+dig
+din
+dog
+du
+ej
+eller
+en
+end
+ene
+eneste
+enhver
+et
+fem
+fire
+flere
+fleste
+for
+fordi
+forrige
+fra
+få
+før
+god
+han
+hans
+har
+hendes
+her
+hun
+hvad
+hvem
+hver
+hvilken
+hvis
+hvor
+hvordan
+hvorfor
+hvornår
+i
+ikke
+ind
+ingen
+intet
+jeg
+jeres
+kan
+kom
+kommer
+lav
+lidt
+lille
+man
+mand
+mange
+med
+meget
+men
+mens
+mere
+mig
+ned
+ni
+nogen
+noget
+ny
+nyt
+nær
+næste
+næsten
+og
+op
+otte
+over
+på
+se
+seks
+ses
+som
+stor
+store
+syv
+ti
+til
+to
+tre
+ud
+var
diff --git a/goose/resources/text/stopwords-de.txt b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-de.txt
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..37e6714d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-de.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,894 @@
+der
+die
+und
+in
+den
+von
+zu
+mit
+ist
+das
+des
+im
+für
+auf
+sich
+dem
+Die
+nicht
+ein
+eine
+als
+auch
+an
+es
+er
+aus
+bei
+werden
+sie
+nach
+Der
+sind
+war
+wurde
+wird
+einer
+Das
+hat
+am
+wie
+um
+Sie
+zum
+oder
+einen
+über
+dass
+einem
+noch
+bis
+nur
+vor
+zur
+durch
+so
+haben
+aber
+ich
+In
+man
+mehr
+wir
+daß
+kann
+sein
+vom
+Es
+unter
+Ich
+hatte
+gegen
+Im
+Er
+wenn
+dieser
+seine
+eines
+können
+diese
+wieder
+wurden
+dann
+was
+schon
+Jahr
+zwei
+seiner
+Jahre
+Jahren
+ihre
+gibt
+zwischen
+Ein
+immer
+waren
+Zeit
+Uhr
+keine
+Wir
+sei
+habe
+sehr
+hier
+alle
+Nach
+ab
+sowie
+da
+beim
+heute
+seit
+diesem
+uns
+soll
+Und
+Deutschland
+Mit
+anderen
+jedoch
+ihr
+damit
+ersten
+drei
+Auch
+doch
+ihm
+seinen
+Stadt
+etwa
+sagte
+ihn
+Eine
+sondern
+bereits
+müssen
+ohne
+Menschen
+will
+Prozent
+ihrer
+worden
+Bei
+selbst
+jetzt
+of
+Als
+seinem
+neue
+muss
+allem
+neuen
+Ende
+nun
+Von
+geht
+ihren
+SPD
+So
+Für
+weil
+wo
+mich
+mir
+Aber
+Am
+Diese
+ganz
+dieses
+etwas
+andere
+Geschichte
+Frau
+liegt
+Wenn
+ins
+gut
+einmal
+konnte
+Euro
+du
+denn
+viele
+Auf
+machen
+Herr
+Leben
+the
+diesen
+erst
+lassen
+Wie
+dort
+beiden
+erste
+The
+Teil
+deutschen
+weiter
+also
+viel
+sollte
+dabei
+Millionen
+Was
+später
+hatten
+während
+Welt
+ISBN
+sagt
+denen
+wollen
+steht
+Da
+kommt
+kein
+vier
+nichts
+de
+allerdings
+Seite
+ob
+dazu
+gab
+s
+letzten
+kam
+USA
+wegen
+dies
+zurück
+großen
+kommen
+alles
+rund
+ja
+sollen
+deren
+dafür
+Doch
+Kinder
+wäre
+Frage
+weitere
+würde
+dessen
+große
+Januar
+zwar
+darauf
+Arbeit
+
+Beispiel
+September
+zusammen
+einige
+Land
+allen
+fast
+Frauen
+März
+Namen
+Unternehmen
+ihrem
+davon
+Mann
+Mai
+Platz
+deutsche
+werde
+Oktober
+muß
+Literatur
+Art
+ihnen
+Deutschen
+fünf
+gilt
+sehen
+könnte
+Dezember
+stehen
+sogar
+seien
+Wer
+Seit
+August
+bin
+Beifall
+Fall
+Juni
+eigenen
+November
+mal
+Film
+finden
+sagen
+Regierung
+April
+München
+oft
+Dies
+lange
+ebenfalls
+bekannt
+Präsident
+wohl
+CDU/CSU
+Zu
+gehört
+Man
+weniger
+gerade
+statt
+aller
+Juli
+möchte
+Weg
+Entwicklung
+zunächst
+ging
+Mark
+Bild
+möglich
+gar
+besonders
+hätte
+macht
+Politik
+geben
+Tag
+Ihnen
+Februar
+Hier
+Gemeinde
+wenig
+gewesen
+Europa
+gehen
+gemacht
+welche
+New
+gegenüber
+heißt
+Familie
+Union
+tun
+Jahrhundert
+einfach
+Frankfurt
+deutlich
+Dabei
+neben
+sollten
+Kirche
+keinen
+Artikel
+Ihre
+Peter
+Thema
+besteht
+vielen
+nie
+bzw.
+Aus
+Zeitung
+wollte
+Kommission
+seines
+Hamburg
+hätten
+Geld
+meine
+Dr
+kaum
+zweiten
+Während
+lässt
+Anfang
+Um
+Ort
+weiß
+findet
+Bereich
+Haus
+anderem
+Mal
+
+deshalb
+alten
+erhalten
+zehn
+Zum
+bisher
+meisten
+darüber
+würden
+hin
+Form
+An
+bleibt
+sieht
+Gesellschaft
+Berliner
+Den
+vergangenen
+bezeichnet
+Nr.
+Ziel
+je
+weit
+Grund
+sechs
+darf
+Rolle
+Deutsche
+wissen
+jeder
+zeigt
+Damit
+Denn
+mehrere
+nächsten
+Vor
+Dann
+schließlich
+kleinen
+Durch
+Michael
+km
+Lage
+Gruppe
+Band
+damals
+Spiel
+Sohn
+Dr.
+stark
+Universität
+Hilfe
+besser
+hinter
+meist
+Seine
+St.
+stellt
+Tage
+unsere
+daher
+Nur
+wirklich
+führt
+Dieser
+beispielsweise
+kurz
+Bericht
+gleich
+weiteren
+Straße
+bleiben
+Wirtschaft
+Siehe
+Zukunft
+eher
+Bedeutung
+Recht
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/goose/resources/text/stopwords-fi.txt b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-fi.txt
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..3b468b32
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-fi.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
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new file mode 100644
index 00000000..694feb10
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diff --git a/goose/resources/text/stopwords-id.txt b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-id.txt
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..418f43f9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-id.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1309 @@
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+tegasnya
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+telah
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+terus
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+testimony
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+the
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+toh
+tokoh
+try
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+tunai
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+tutur
+tuturnya
+tv
+uang
+ucap
+ucapnya
+udara
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+ujarnya
+umum
+umumnya
+unescape
+ungkap
+ungkapnya
+unit
+universitas
+untuk
+untung
+upaya
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+usah
+usaha
+usai
+user
+utama
+utara
+var
+versi
+waduh
+wah
+wahai
+wakil
+waktu
+waktunya
+walau
+walaupun
+wang
+wanita
+warga
+warta
+wib
+wilayah
+wong
+word
+ya
+yaitu
+yakin
+yakni
+yang
+zaman
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/goose/resources/text/stopwords-it.txt b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-it.txt
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..98ffee1d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-it.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,287 @@
+ad            
+al            
+allo          
+ai            
+agli          
+all           
+agl           
+alla          
+alle          
+con           
+col           
+coi           
+da            
+dal           
+dallo         
+dai           
+dagli         
+dall          
+dagl          
+dalla         
+dalle         
+di            
+del           
+dello         
+dei           
+degli         
+dell          
+degl          
+della         
+delle         
+in            
+nel           
+nello         
+nei           
+negli         
+nell          
+negl          
+nella         
+nelle         
+su            
+sul           
+sullo         
+sui           
+sugli         
+sull          
+sugl          
+sulla         
+sulle         
+per           
+tra           
+contro        
+io            
+tu            
+lui           
+lei           
+noi           
+voi           
+loro          
+mio           
+mia           
+miei          
+mie           
+tuo           
+tua           
+tuoi          
+tue           
+suo           
+sua           
+suoi          
+sue           
+nostro        
+nostra        
+nostri        
+nostre        
+vostro        
+vostra        
+vostri        
+vostre        
+mi            
+ti            
+ci            
+vi            
+lo            
+la            
+li            
+le            
+gli           
+ne            
+il            
+un            
+uno           
+una           
+ma            
+ed            
+se            
+perchè        
+perché
+perche
+anche         
+come          
+dov           
+dove          
+che           
+chi           
+cui           
+non           
+più           
+piu
+quale         
+quanto        
+quanti        
+quanta        
+quante        
+quello        
+quelli        
+quella        
+quelle        
+questo        
+questi        
+questa        
+queste        
+si            
+tutto         
+tutti         
+a             
+c             
+e             
+i             
+l             
+o             
+ho
+hai
+ha
+abbiamo
+avete
+hanno
+abbia
+abbiate
+abbiano
+avrò
+avro
+avrai
+avrà
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+avremo
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+aveva
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+avevano
+ebbi
+avesti
+ebbe
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+sono
+sei
+è
+é
+e
+siamo
+siete
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+siate
+siano
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+sarai
+sarò
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+saremo
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+saranno
+sarei
+saresti
+sarebbe
+saremmo
+sareste
+sarebbero
+ero
+eri
+era
+eravamo
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+erano
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+fosti
+fu
+fummo
+foste
+furono
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+fosse
+fossimo
+fossero
+essendo
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+fai
+facciamo
+fanno
+faccia
+facciate
+facciano
+farà
+farai
+farò
+faremo
+farete
+faranno
+farei
+faresti
+farebbe
+faremmo
+fareste
+farebbero
+facevo
+facevi
+faceva
+facevamo
+facevate
+facevano
+feci
+facesti
+fece
+facemmo
+faceste
+fecero
+facessi
+facesse
+facessimo
+facessero
+facendo
+sto
+stai
+sta
+stiamo
+stanno
+stia
+stiate
+stiano
+starà
+starai
+starò
+staremo
+starete
+staranno
+starei
+staresti
+starebbe
+staremmo
+stareste
+starebbero
+stavo
+stavi
+stava
+stavamo
+stavate
+stavano
+stetti
+stesti
+stette
+stemmo
+steste
+stettero
+stessi
+stesse
+stessimo
+stessero
+stando
diff --git a/goose/resources/text/stopwords-ko.txt b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-ko.txt
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..a6746f77
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-ko.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,70 @@
+을
+의
+에
+이
+를
+으로
+은
+는
+가
+로
+하고
+과
+에서
+도
+와
+이다
+고
+부터
+까지
+께
+에는
+이라고
+만
+라고
+보다
+에도
+다
+토록
+에게
+나
+대로
+에서는
+이나
+이며
+요
+든
+으로써
+같이
+로는
+밖에
+과의
+며
+로부터
+처럼
+아
+라
+여
+으로는
+이고
+에서의
+이라는
+만에
+으로부터
+에서도
+와의
+엔
+만을
+부터는
+만의
+야
+까지의
+과는
+치고
+과를
+으로의
+까지는
+보다는
+만이
+에만
+로의
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/goose/resources/text/stopwords-nb.txt b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-nb.txt
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..bb9edb15
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-nb.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,117 @@
+alle
+andre
+arbeid
+av
+begge
+bort
+bra
+bruke
+da
+denne
+der
+deres
+det
+din
+disse
+du
+eller
+en
+ene
+eneste
+enhver
+enn
+er
+et
+folk
+for
+fordi
+forsÛke
+fra
+fÅ
+fÛr
+fÛrst
+gjorde
+gjÛre
+god
+gÅ
+ha
+hadde
+han
+hans
+hennes
+her
+hva
+hvem
+hver
+hvilken
+hvis
+hvor
+hvordan
+hvorfor
+ikke
+inn
+innen
+kan
+kunne
+lage
+lang
+lik
+like
+makt
+mange
+med
+meg
+meget
+men
+mens
+mer
+mest
+min
+mye
+mÅ
+mÅte
+navn
+nei
+ny
+nÅ
+nÅr
+og
+ogsÅ
+om
+opp
+oss
+over
+part
+punkt
+pÅ
+rett
+riktig
+samme
+sant
+si
+siden
+sist
+skulle
+slik
+slutt
+som
+start
+stille
+tid
+til
+tilbake
+tilstand
+under
+ut
+uten
+var
+ved
+verdi
+vi
+vil
+ville
+vite
+vÅr
+vÖre
+vÖrt
+Å
diff --git a/goose/resources/text/stopwords-nl.txt b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-nl.txt
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..300c3683
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-nl.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+aan
+af
+al
+als
+bij
+dan
+dat
+die
+dit
+een
+en
+er
+had
+heb
+hem
+het
+hij
+hoe
+hun
+ik
+in
+is
+je
+kan
+me
+men
+met
+mij
+nog
+nu
+of
+ons
+ook
+te
+tot
+uit
+van
+was
+wat
+we
+wel
+wij
+zal
+ze
+zei
+zij
+zo
+zou
diff --git a/goose/resources/text/stopwords-no.txt b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-no.txt
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..4b14918b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-no.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,120 @@
+at
+av
+de
+den
+der
+det
+du
+en
+er
+et
+for
+fra
+før
+med
+og
+om
+over
+på
+som
+til
+ved
+år
+alle
+bare
+ble
+bort
+bra
+da
+deg
+dem
+denne
+dere
+deres
+det
+dette
+din
+disse
+dit
+ditt
+eller
+ene
+enn
+er
+et
+ett
+etter
+for
+fram
+først
+få
+god
+gå
+ha
+han
+hans
+har
+her
+hit
+hun
+hva
+hvem
+hver
+ikke
+inn
+ja
+jeg
+kan
+kom
+kun
+kunne
+lage
+lang
+lik
+like
+man
+mer
+min
+mot
+mye
+må
+måte
+ned
+nei
+noe
+noen
+ny
+nå
+når
+også
+opp
+oss
+seg
+selv
+si
+siden
+sin
+sine
+sist
+skal
+skulle
+slik
+som
+så
+sånn
+tid
+til
+under
+ut
+uten
+var
+ved
+vi
+vil
+vite
+vår
+å
+dei
+di
+då
+eg
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/goose/resources/text/stopwords-pl.txt b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-pl.txt
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..93dac829
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-pl.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,277 @@
+a
+aby
+ach
+acz
+aczkolwiek
+aj
+albo
+ale
+ależ
+ani
+aż
+bardziej
+bardzo
+bo
+bowiem
+by
+byli
+bynajmniej
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+był
+była
+było
+były
+będzie
+będą
+cali
+cała
+cały
+ci
+cię
+ciebie
+co
+cokolwiek
+coś
+czasami
+czasem
+czemu
+czy
+czyli
+daleko
+dla
+dlaczego
+dlatego
+do
+dobrze
+dokąd
+dość
+dużo
+dwa
+dwaj
+dwie
+dwoje
+dziś
+dzisiaj
+gdy
+gdyby
+gdyż
+gdzie
+gdziekolwiek
+gdzieś
+i
+ich
+ile
+im
+inna
+inne
+inny
+innych
+iż
+ja
+ją
+jak
+jakaś
+jakby
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+jakie
+jakiś
+jakiż
+jakkolwiek
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+jakoś
+je
+jeden
+jedna
+jedno
+jednak
+jednakże
+jego
+jej
+jemu
+jest
+jestem
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+jeśli
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+już
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+każdy
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+kimś
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+którego
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+którym
+którzy
+ku
+lat
+lecz
+lub
+ma
+mają
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+mam
+mi
+mimo
+między
+mną
+mnie
+mogą
+moi
+moim
+moja
+moje
+może
+możliwe
+można
+mój
+mu
+musi
+my
+na
+nad
+nam
+nami
+nas
+nasi
+nasz
+nasza
+nasze
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+natychmiast
+nawet
+nią
+nic
+nich
+nie
+niech
+niego
+niej
+niemu
+nigdy
+nim
+nimi
+niż
+no
+o
+obok
+od
+około
+on
+ona
+one
+oni
+ono
+oraz
+oto
+owszem
+pan
+pana
+pani
+po
+pod
+podczas
+pomimo
+ponad
+ponieważ
+powinien
+powinna
+powinni
+powinno
+poza
+prawie
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+przede
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+roku
+również
+sam
+sama
+są
+się
+skąd
+sobie
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+sposób
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+tam
+te
+tego
+tej
+temu
+ten
+teraz
+też
+to
+tobą
+tobie
+toteż
+trzeba
+tu
+tutaj
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+twoim
+twoja
+twoje
+twym
+twój
+ty
+tych
+tylko
+tym
+u
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+wam
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+wasza
+wasze
+we
+według
+wiele
+wielu
+więc
+więcej
+wszyscy
+wszystkich
+wszystkie
+wszystkim
+wszystko
+wtedy
+wy
+właśnie
+z
+za
+zapewne
+zawsze
+ze
+zł
+znowu
+znów
+został
+żaden
+żadna
+żadne
+żadnych
+że
+żeby
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/goose/resources/text/stopwords-pt.txt b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-pt.txt
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..66d557f9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-pt.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,147 @@
+último
+é
+acerca
+agora
+algmas
+alguns
+ali
+ambos
+antes
+apontar
+aquela
+aquelas
+aquele
+aqueles
+aqui
+atrás
+bem
+bom
+cada
+caminho
+cima
+com
+como
+comprido
+conhecido
+corrente
+das
+debaixo
+dentro
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+devem
+deverá
+direita
+diz
+dizer
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+dos
+e
+ela
+ele
+eles
+em
+enquanto
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+estão
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+estar
+estará
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+estes
+esteve
+estive
+estivemos
+estiveram
+eu
+fará
+faz
+fazer
+fazia
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+fim
+foi
+fora
+horas
+iniciar
+inicio
+ir
+irá
+ista
+iste
+isto
+ligado
+maioria
+maiorias
+mais
+mas
+mesmo
+meu
+muito
+muitos
+nós
+não
+nome
+nosso
+novo
+o
+onde
+os
+ou
+outro
+para
+parte
+pegar
+pelo
+pessoas
+pode
+poderá
+podia
+por
+porque
+povo
+promeiro
+quê
+qual
+qualquer
+quando
+quem
+quieto
+são
+saber
+sem
+ser
+seu
+somente
+têm
+tal
+também
+tem
+tempo
+tenho
+tentar
+tentaram
+tente
+tentei
+teu
+teve
+tipo
+tive
+todos
+trabalhar
+trabalho
+tu
+um
+uma
+umas
+uns
+usa
+usar
+valor
+veja
+ver
+verdade
+verdadeiro
+você
diff --git a/goose/resources/text/stopwords-ru.txt b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-ru.txt
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..94984803
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-ru.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,421 @@
+а
+е
+и
+ж
+м
+о
+на
+не
+ни
+об
+но
+он
+мне
+мои
+мож
+она
+они
+оно
+мной
+много
+многочисленное
+многочисленная
+многочисленные
+многочисленный
+мною
+мой
+мог
+могут
+можно
+может
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+мор
+моя
+моё
+мочь
+над
+нее
+оба
+нам
+нем
+нами
+ними
+мимо
+немного
+одной
+одного
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+однажды
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+нему
+меньше
+ней
+наверху
+него
+ниже
+мало
+надо
+один
+одиннадцать
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+назад
+наиболее
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+меля
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+нибудь
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+наконец
+никогда
+никуда
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+наш
+нет
+нею
+неё
+них
+мира
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+наше
+наши
+ничего
+начала
+нередко
+несколько
+обычно
+опять
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+отсюда
+в
+во
+вон
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+внизу
+вокруг
+вот
+восемнадцать
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+восемь
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+вам
+вами
+важное
+важная
+важные
+важный
+вдали
+везде
+ведь
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+ваш
+ваша
+ваше
+ваши
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+вы
+все
+второй
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+время
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+вся
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+ли
+же
+им
+до
+по
+ими
+под
+иногда
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+занята
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+заняты
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+девять
+девятый
+даже
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+кем
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+каждые
+каждый
+кажется
+как
+какой
+какая
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+т
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+я
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+совсем
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+хотеть
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+хоть
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+свое
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+твой
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+своих
+свою
+твоя
+твоё
+раз
+уже
+сам
+там
+тем
+чем
+сама
+сами
+теми
+само
+рано
+самом
+самому
+самой
+самого
+семнадцать
+семнадцатый
+самим
+самими
+самих
+саму
+семь
+чему
+раньше
+сейчас
+чего
+сегодня
+себе
+тебе
+сеаой
+человек
+разве
+теперь
+себя
+тебя
+седьмой
+спасибо
+слишком
+так
+такое
+такой
+такие
+также
+такая
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+тех
+чаще
+четвертый
+через
+часто
+шестой
+шестнадцать
+шестнадцатый
+шесть
+четыре
+четырнадцать
+четырнадцатый
+сколько
+сказал
+сказала
+сказать
+ту
+ты
+три
+эта
+эти
+что
+это
+чтоб
+этом
+этому
+этой
+этого
+чтобы
+этот
+стал
+туда
+этим
+этими
+рядом
+тринадцать
+тринадцатый
+этих
+третий
+тут
+эту
+суть
+чуть
+тысяч
diff --git a/goose/resources/text/stopwords-sv.txt b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-sv.txt
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..74c0a895
--- /dev/null
+++ b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-sv.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,547 @@
+#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+# translated
+#-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+kunna
+om
+ovan
+enligt
+i enlighet med detta
+över
+faktiskt
+efter
+efteråt
+igen
+mot
+är inte
+alla
+tillåta
+tillåter
+nästan
+ensam
+längs
+redan
+också
+även om
+alltid
+am
+bland
+bland
+en
+och
+en annan
+någon
+någon
+hur som helst
+någon
+något
+ändå
+ändå
+var som helst
+isär
+visas
+uppskatta
+lämpligt
+är
+inte
+runt
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+frågar
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+vid
+tillgängliga
+bort
+väldigt
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+eftersom
+bli
+blir
+blir
+varit
+innan
+förhand
+bakom
+vara
+tro
+nedan
+bredvid
+förutom
+bäst
+bättre
+mellan
+bortom
+både
+kort
+men
+genom
+c
+c'mon
+c: s
+kom
+kampanj
+kan
+kan inte
+kan inte
+cant
+orsaka
+orsaker
+viss
+säkerligen
+förändringar
+klart
+co
+com
+komma
+kommer
+om
+följaktligen
+överväga
+överväger
+innehålla
+innehållande
+innehåller
+motsvarande
+kunde
+kunde inte
+kurs
+närvarande
+definitivt
+beskrivits
+trots
+gjorde
+inte
+olika
+göra
+gör
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+gör
+inte
+gjort
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+nedåt
+under
+varje
+edu
+åtta
+antingen
+annars
+någon annanstans
+tillräckligt
+godkändes
+helt
+speciellt
+et
+etc
+även
+någonsin
+varje
+alla
+alla
+allt
+överallt
+ex
+exakt
+exempel
+utom
+långt
+få
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+först
+finansiella
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+följt
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+följer
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+fd
+tidigare
+framåt
+fyra
+från
+ytterligare
+dessutom
+få
+blir
+få
+given
+ger
+gå
+går
+gå
+borta
+fick
+fått
+hälsningar
+hade
+hade inte
+händer
+knappast
+har
+har inte
+ha
+har inte
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+han
+han är
+hallå
+hjälpa
+hence
+henne
+här
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+härpå
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+själv
+hej
+honom
+själv
+hans
+hit
+förhoppningsvis
+hur
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+dock
+jag skulle
+jag ska
+jag är
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+om
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+i
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+inc
+indeed
+indikera
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+mån
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+in
+inåt
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+det skulle
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+själv
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+kanske
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+okay
+gammal
+på
+en gång
+ett
+ettor
+endast
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+annars
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+ut
+utanför
+över
+övergripande
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+särskilt
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+kanske
+placeras
+vänligen
+plus
+möjligt
+förmodligen
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+ger
+ganska
+citera
+kvartalsvis
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+såg
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+verkar
+verkade
+informationsproblem
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+själv
+själva
+förnuftig
+skickas
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+allvarligt
+sju
+flera
+skall
+hon
+bör
+bör inte
+eftersom
+sex
+så
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+någon
+på något sätt
+någon
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+något
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+sub
+sådan
+sup
+säker
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+tack
+thanx
+att
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+medan
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+vari
+varpå
+varhelst
+huruvida
+som
+medan
+dit
+som
+vem är
+vem
+hela
+vem
+vars
+varför
+kommer
+villig
+önskar
+med
+inom
+utan
+kommer inte
+undrar
+skulle
+skulle inte
+ja
+ännu
+ni
+du skulle
+kommer du
+du är
+du har
+din
+själv
+er
+noll
+tjänsteman
+skarpt
+kritiserade
diff --git a/goose/resources/text/stopwords-zh.txt b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-zh.txt
index 955ff2b0..bc643d8c 100644
--- a/goose/resources/text/stopwords-zh.txt
+++ b/goose/resources/text/stopwords-zh.txt
@@ -122,4 +122,30 @@
 致
 着
 诸
-自
\ No newline at end of file
+自
+為
+於
+後
+這
+與
+並
+個
+無
+們
+當
+從
+兒
+爾
+該
+給
+還
+幾
+麼
+憑
+卻
+讓
+誰
+雖
+喲
+則
+諸
diff --git a/goose/text.py b/goose/text.py
index 9bb1666b..3ef63d6b 100644
--- a/goose/text.py
+++ b/goose/text.py
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ def encodeValue(value):
         value = smart_unicode(value)
     except (UnicodeEncodeError, DjangoUnicodeDecodeError):
         value = smart_str(value)
-    except:
+    except Exception:
         value = string_org
     return value
 
@@ -95,7 +95,12 @@ def __init__(self, language='en'):
         # to generate dynamic path for file to load
         if not language in self._cached_stop_words:
             path = os.path.join('text', 'stopwords-%s.txt' % language)
-            self._cached_stop_words[language] = set(FileHelper.loadResourceFile(path).splitlines())
+            try:
+                content = FileHelper.loadResourceFile(path)
+                word_list = content.splitlines()
+            except IOError:
+                word_list = []
+            self._cached_stop_words[language] = set(word_list)
         self.STOP_WORDS = self._cached_stop_words[language]
 
     def remove_punctuation(self, content):
@@ -105,18 +110,23 @@ def remove_punctuation(self, content):
             content = content.encode('utf-8')
         return content.translate(self.TRANS_TABLE, string.punctuation)
 
+    def candiate_words(self, stripped_input):
+        return stripped_input.split(' ')
+
     def get_stopword_count(self, content):
         if not content:
             return WordStats()
         ws = WordStats()
         stripped_input = self.remove_punctuation(content)
-        candiate_words = stripped_input.split(' ')
+        candiate_words = self.candiate_words(stripped_input)
         overlapping_stopwords = []
+        c = 0
         for w in candiate_words:
+            c += 1
             if w.lower() in self.STOP_WORDS:
                 overlapping_stopwords.append(w.lower())
 
-        ws.set_word_count(len(candiate_words))
+        ws.set_word_count(c)
         ws.set_stopword_count(len(overlapping_stopwords))
         ws.set_stop_words(overlapping_stopwords)
         return ws
@@ -124,33 +134,59 @@ def get_stopword_count(self, content):
 
 class StopWordsChinese(StopWords):
     """
-
+    Chinese segmentation
     """
     def __init__(self, language='zh'):
         # force zh languahe code
-        language = 'zh'
-        if not language in self._cached_stop_words:
-            path = os.path.join('text', 'stopwords-%s.txt' % language)
-            self._cached_stop_words[language] = set(FileHelper.loadResourceFile(path).splitlines())
-        self.STOP_WORDS = self._cached_stop_words[language]
+        super(StopWordsChinese, self).__init__(language='zh')
 
-    def get_stopword_count(self, content):
+    def candiate_words(self, stripped_input):
         # jieba build a tree that takes sometime
         # avoid building the tree if we don't use
         # chinese language
         import jieba
+        return jieba.cut(stripped_input, cut_all=True)
 
+
+class StopWordsArabic(StopWords):
+    """
+    Arabic segmentation
+    """
+    def __init__(self, language='ar'):
+        # force ar languahe code
+        super(StopWordsArabic, self).__init__(language='ar')
+
+    def remove_punctuation(self, content):
+        return content
+
+    def candiate_words(self, stripped_input):
+        import nltk
+        s = nltk.stem.isri.ISRIStemmer()
+        words = []
+        for word in nltk.tokenize.wordpunct_tokenize(stripped_input):
+            words.append(s.stem(word))
+        return words
+
+
+class StopWordsKorean(StopWords):
+    """
+    Korean segmentation
+    """
+    def __init__(self, language='ko'):
+        super(StopWordsKorean, self).__init__(language='ko')
+
+    def get_stopword_count(self, content):
         if not content:
             return WordStats()
         ws = WordStats()
         stripped_input = self.remove_punctuation(content)
-        candiate_words = jieba.cut(stripped_input, cut_all=True)
+        candiate_words = self.candiate_words(stripped_input)
         overlapping_stopwords = []
         c = 0
         for w in candiate_words:
             c += 1
-            if w.lower() in self.STOP_WORDS:
-                overlapping_stopwords.append(w.lower())
+            for stop_word in self.STOP_WORDS:
+                overlapping_stopwords.append(stop_word)
 
         ws.set_word_count(c)
         ws.set_stopword_count(len(overlapping_stopwords))
diff --git a/goose/utils/__init__.py b/goose/utils/__init__.py
index b9688693..5a1de7d4 100644
--- a/goose/utils/__init__.py
+++ b/goose/utils/__init__.py
@@ -65,8 +65,11 @@ class FileHelper(object):
 
     @classmethod
     def loadResourceFile(self, filename):
-        dirpath = os.path.dirname(goose.__file__)
-        path = os.path.join(dirpath, 'resources', filename)
+        if not os.path.isabs('filename'):
+            dirpath = os.path.dirname(goose.__file__)
+            path = os.path.join(dirpath, 'resources', filename)
+        else:
+            path = filename
         try:
             f = codecs.open(path, 'r', 'utf-8')
             content = f.read()
@@ -85,11 +88,11 @@ def __init__(self, urlString, link_hash):
 
 class RawHelper(object):
     @classmethod
-    def get_parsing_candidate(self, raw_html):
+    def get_parsing_candidate(self, url, raw_html):
         if isinstance(raw_html, unicode):
             raw_html = raw_html.encode('utf-8')
         link_hash = '%s.%s' % (hashlib.md5(raw_html).hexdigest(), time.time())
-        return ParsingCandidate(None, link_hash)
+        return ParsingCandidate(url, link_hash)
 
 
 class URLHelper(object):
@@ -102,19 +105,6 @@ def get_parsing_candidate(self, url_to_crawl):
         return ParsingCandidate(final_url, link_hash)
 
 
-class StringSplitter(object):
-    """\
-
-    """
-    def __init__(self, pattern):
-        self.pattern = re.compile(pattern)
-
-    def split(self, string):
-        if not string:
-            return []
-        return self.pattern.split(string)
-
-
 class StringReplacement(object):
 
     def __init__(self, pattern, replaceWith):
diff --git a/goose/utils/encoding.py b/goose/utils/encoding.py
index f21c0a99..4dc23ca7 100644
--- a/goose/utils/encoding.py
+++ b/goose/utils/encoding.py
@@ -1,9 +1,6 @@
 # -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
 import types
-import urllib
-import locale
 import datetime
-import codecs
 from decimal import Decimal
 
 
@@ -133,61 +130,3 @@ def smart_str(s, encoding='utf-8', strings_only=False, errors='strict'):
         return s.decode('utf-8', errors).encode(encoding, errors)
     else:
         return s
-
-
-def iri_to_uri(iri):
-    """
-    Convert an Internationalized Resource Identifier (IRI) portion to a URI
-    portion that is suitable for inclusion in a URL.
-
-    This is the algorithm from section 3.1 of RFC 3987.  However, since we are
-    assuming input is either UTF-8 or unicode already, we can simplify things a
-    little from the full method.
-
-    Returns an ASCII string containing the encoded result.
-    """
-    # The list of safe characters here is constructed from the "reserved" and
-    # "unreserved" characters specified in sections 2.2 and 2.3 of RFC 3986:
-    #     reserved    = gen-delims / sub-delims
-    #     gen-delims  = ":" / "/" / "?" / "#" / "[" / "]" / "@"
-    #     sub-delims  = "!" / "$" / "&" / "'" / "(" / ")"
-    #                   / "*" / "+" / "," / ";" / "="
-    #     unreserved  = ALPHA / DIGIT / "-" / "." / "_" / "~"
-    # Of the unreserved characters, urllib.quote already considers all but
-    # the ~ safe.
-    # The % character is also added to the list of safe characters here, as the
-    # end of section 3.1 of RFC 3987 specifically mentions that % must not be
-    # converted.
-    if iri is None:
-        return iri
-    return urllib.quote(smart_str(iri), safe="/#%[]=:;$&()+,!?*@'~")
-
-
-def filepath_to_uri(path):
-    """Convert an file system path to a URI portion that is suitable for
-    inclusion in a URL.
-
-    We are assuming input is either UTF-8 or unicode already.
-
-    This method will encode certain chars that would normally be recognized as
-    special chars for URIs.  Note that this method does not encode the '
-    character, as it is a valid character within URIs.  See
-    encodeURIComponent() JavaScript function for more details.
-
-    Returns an ASCII string containing the encoded result.
-    """
-    if path is None:
-        return path
-    # I know about `os.sep` and `os.altsep` but I want to leave
-    # some flexibility for hardcoding separators.
-    return urllib.quote(smart_str(path).replace("\\", "/"), safe="/~!*()'")
-
-
-# The encoding of the default system locale but falls back to the
-# given fallback encoding if the encoding is unsupported by python or could
-# not be determined.  See tickets #10335 and #5846
-try:
-    DEFAULT_LOCALE_ENCODING = locale.getdefaultlocale()[1] or 'ascii'
-    codecs.lookup(DEFAULT_LOCALE_ENCODING)
-except:
-    DEFAULT_LOCALE_ENCODING = 'ascii'
diff --git a/goose/images/utils.py b/goose/utils/images.py
similarity index 89%
rename from goose/images/utils.py
rename to goose/utils/images.py
index 644298c3..388d5c85 100644
--- a/goose/images/utils.py
+++ b/goose/utils/images.py
@@ -25,20 +25,23 @@
 import urllib2
 from PIL import Image
 from goose.utils.encoding import smart_str
-from goose.images.image import ImageDetails
-from goose.images.image import LocallyStoredImage
+from goose.image import ImageDetails
+from goose.image import LocallyStoredImage
 
 
 class ImageUtils(object):
 
     @classmethod
     def get_image_dimensions(self, identify_program, path):
-        image = Image.open(path)
         image_details = ImageDetails()
-        image_details.set_mime_type(image.format)
-        width, height = image.size
-        image_details.set_width(width)
-        image_details.set_height(height)
+        try:
+            image = Image.open(path)
+            image_details.set_mime_type(image.format)
+            width, height = image.size
+            image_details.set_width(width)
+            image_details.set_height(height)
+        except IOError:
+            image_details.set_mime_type('NA')
         return image_details
 
     @classmethod
@@ -95,7 +98,7 @@ def read_localfile(self, link_hash, src, config):
     @classmethod
     def write_localfile(self, entity, link_hash, src, config):
         local_path = self.get_localfile_name(link_hash, src, config)
-        f = open(local_path, 'w')
+        f = open(local_path, 'wb')
         f.write(entity)
         f.close()
         return self.read_localfile(link_hash, src, config)
@@ -116,5 +119,5 @@ def fetch(self, http_client, src):
             f = urllib2.urlopen(req)
             data = f.read()
             return data
-        except:
+        except Exception:
             return None
diff --git a/goose/version.py b/goose/version.py
index 3d364241..fedcbb6d 100644
--- a/goose/version.py
+++ b/goose/version.py
@@ -21,5 +21,5 @@
 limitations under the License.
 """
 
-version_info = (1, 0, 0)
-__version__ =  ".".join(map(str, version_info))
\ No newline at end of file
+version_info = (1, 0, 25)
+__version__ = ".".join(map(str, version_info))
diff --git a/goose/video.py b/goose/video.py
index ccbf82e2..8509bba0 100644
--- a/goose/video.py
+++ b/goose/video.py
@@ -21,8 +21,28 @@
 limitations under the License.
 """
 
-
 class Video(object):
+    """\
+    Video object
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self):
+
+        # type of embed
+        # embed, object, iframe
+        self.embed_type = None
+
+        # video provider name
+        self.provider = None
+
+        # width
+        self.width = None
+
+        # height
+        self.height = None
+
+        # embed code
+        self.embed_code = None
 
-    def __init_(self):
-        pass
+        # src
+        self.src = None
diff --git a/requirements.txt b/requirements.txt
index 89804838..7e6a6c09 100644
--- a/requirements.txt
+++ b/requirements.txt
@@ -1,4 +1,6 @@
-PIL
+Pillow
 lxml
 cssselect
 jieba
+beautifulsoup
+nltk
diff --git a/setup.py b/setup.py
index 8ca24fe6..ebad2547 100644
--- a/setup.py
+++ b/setup.py
@@ -1,21 +1,71 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+
 import os
 from setuptools import setup, find_packages
 from imp import load_source
 
 version = load_source("version", os.path.join("goose", "version.py"))
 
-setup(name='goose',
+CLASSIFIERS = [
+    'Development Status :: 4 - Beta',
+    'Environment :: Other Environment',
+    'Intended Audience :: Developers',
+    'License :: OSI Approved :: Apache Software License',
+    'Operating System :: MacOS :: MacOS X',
+    'Operating System :: POSIX',
+    'Operating System :: Microsoft :: Windows',
+    'Programming Language :: Python',
+    'Programming Language :: Python',
+    'Programming Language :: Python :: 2',
+    'Programming Language :: Python :: 2.6',
+    'Programming Language :: Python :: 2.7',
+    'Topic :: Internet',
+    'Topic :: Utilities',
+    'Topic :: Software Development :: Libraries :: Python Modules']
+
+description = "Html Content / Article Extractor, web scrapping"
+
+# read long description
+try:
+    with open(os.path.join(os.path.dirname(__file__), 'README.rst')) as f:
+        long_description = f.read()
+except Exception:
+    long_description = description
+
+setup(name='goose-extractor',
     version=version.__version__,
-    description="Html Content / Article Extractor",
-    long_description="",
-    keywords='',
+    description=description,
+    long_description=long_description,
+    keywords='scrapping, extractor, web scrapping',
+    classifiers=CLASSIFIERS,
     author='Xavier Grangier',
     author_email='grangier@gmail.com',
-    url='https://github.com/xgdlm/python-goose',
+    url='https://github.com/grangier/python-goose',
     license='Apache',
     packages=find_packages(),
     include_package_data=True,
     zip_safe=False,
-    install_requires=['PIL', 'lxml', 'cssselect', 'jieba'],
+    install_requires=['Pillow', 'lxml', 'cssselect', 'jieba', 'beautifulsoup', 'nltk'],
     test_suite="tests"
 )
diff --git a/tests/__init__.py b/tests/__init__.py
index e69de29b..72d6e51b 100644
--- a/tests/__init__.py
+++ b/tests/__init__.py
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+import unittest
+
+if __name__ == '__main__':
+    unittest.main()
diff --git a/tests/article.py b/tests/article.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..db85d4ee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/article.py
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+
+import unittest
+from goose.article import Article
+
+
+class TestArticle(unittest.TestCase):
+
+    def test_instance(self):
+        a = Article()
+        self.assertEqual(isinstance(a, Article), True)
diff --git a/tests/configuration.py b/tests/configuration.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..b88f1342
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/configuration.py
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+import os
+import tempfile
+import unittest
+
+from goose import Goose
+
+
+class TestTempDir(unittest.TestCase):
+
+    def test_tmp_defaut(self):
+        g = Goose()
+        default_local_storage_path = os.path.join(tempfile.gettempdir(), 'goose')
+        self.assertEquals(g.config.local_storage_path, default_local_storage_path)
+
+    def test_tmp_overwritten(self):
+        path = '/tmp/bla'
+        g = Goose({'local_storage_path': path})
+        self.assertEquals(g.config.local_storage_path, path)
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/authors/test_author_schema.html b/tests/data/extractors/authors/test_author_schema.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..da7cfab4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/authors/test_author_schema.html
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+<html>
+    <body>
+        <p class="byline-dateline">
+            <span class="byline" itemprop="author creator" itemscope="" itemtype="http://schema.org/Person" itemid="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/s/kevin_sack/index.html">By <a href="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/s/kevin_sack/index.html" rel="author" title="More Articles by KEVIN SACK"><span class="byline-author" data-byline-name="KEVIN SACK" itemprop="name" data-twitter-handle="ksacknyt">KEVIN SACK</span></a>, </span><span class="byline" itemprop="author creator" itemscope="" itemtype="http://schema.org/Person" itemid="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/f/sheri_fink/index.html"><a href="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/f/sheri_fink/index.html" rel="author" title="More Articles by SHERI FINK"><span class="byline-author" data-byline-name="SHERI FINK" itemprop="name">SHERI FINK</span></a>, </span><span class="byline" itemprop="author creator" itemscope="" itemtype="http://schema.org/Person" itemid="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/b/pam_belluck/index.html"><a href="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/b/pam_belluck/index.html" rel="author" title="More Articles by PAM BELLUCK"><span class="byline-author" data-byline-name="PAM BELLUCK" itemprop="name">PAM BELLUCK</span></a> and </span><span class="byline" itemprop="author creator" itemscope="" itemtype="http://schema.org/Person" itemid="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/n/adam_nossiter/index.html"><a href="http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/n/adam_nossiter/index.html" rel="author" title="More Articles by ADAM NOSSITER"><span class="byline-author" data-byline-name="ADAM NOSSITER" itemprop="name">ADAM NOSSITER</span></a></span>
+        </p>
+        <div itemprop="articleBody">
+            <p>
+              TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+            </p>
+        </div>
+    </body>
+</html>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/authors/test_author_schema.json b/tests/data/extractors/authors/test_author_schema.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..32185d65
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/authors/test_author_schema.json
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://exemple.com/tweet/", 
+    "expected": {
+        "authors": [
+            "KEVIN SACK", 
+            "ADAM NOSSITER", 
+            "PAM BELLUCK", 
+            "SHERI FINK"
+        ]
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_allnewlyrics1.html b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_allnewlyrics1.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..6e6f61c3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_allnewlyrics1.html
@@ -0,0 +1,288 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en-US">
+
+<head profile="http://gmpg.org/xfn/11">
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" />
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+			<h1>&#8220;Only One&#8221; Lyrics : PJ Morton (Ft. Stevie Wonder)</h1>
+
+
+			<div class="date">January 29th, 2013 in <a href="http://allnewlyrics.com/category/pop" title="View all posts in Pop" rel="category tag">Pop</a> <!-- Place this tag where you want the +1 button to render. -->
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+				<p><strong>PJ Morton – Only One Lyrics (Ft. Stevie Wonder)</strong></p>
+<p>I’m pretty sure I don’t need anything else<br />
+This is the best feeling I’ve ever felt<br />
+I know it took a long time, but now I’m here<br />
+And I ain’t going nowhere, no more fear<br />
+Room full of people but I only see you<br />
+Yeah, I’m so focused, everything else is in my rear view<br />
+Tell me what it’s going to take for you to see<br />
+I only wanna be with you,<br />
+Chorus:<br />
+Say girl, you know that you’re the only one that I want<br />
+The one that I want, one that I want<br />
+You know that you’re the only one that I need<br />
+The one that I need, one that I need<br />
+You know that you’re the only one that I want<br />
+The one that I want, one that I want<br />
+You know that you’re the only one that I need<br />
+The one that I need, one that I need<br />
+You know that you’re the only one that I want<br />
+Ooh<br />
+I know you’ve heard me say the same things before<br />
+But this time’s different, I’m sure that I want more<br />
+So give me just one more chance, I won’t let you down<br />
+Just watch what i show you, watch what I show you now<br />
+I know that forever is a long time<br />
+But there is no other choice in my mind<br />
+Tell me what it’s going to take to make you see<br />
+That I only wanna be with you<br />
+Chorus:<br />
+Say girl, you know that you’re the only one that I want<br />
+The one that I want, one that I want<br />
+You know that you’re the only one that I need<br />
+The one that I need, one that I need<br />
+You know that you’re the only one that I want<br />
+The one that I want, one that I want<br />
+You know that you’re the only one that I need<br />
+The one that I need, one that I need<br />
+You know that you’re the only one that I want<br />
+Ooh<br />
+Oh I, I’ve made uṗ my mind<br />
+I know just what I want<br />
+I’m just waiting for you to see<br />
+What I see so clearly<br />
+I’ve never been more sure<br />
+Oh never in my life<br />
+But the time is right for you to be my one and only<br />
+Chorus:<br />
+You know that you’re the only one that I want<br />
+The one that I want, one that I want<br />
+You know that you’re the only one that I need<br />
+The one that I need, one that I need<br />
+You know that you’re the only one that I want<br />
+The one that I want, one that I want<br />
+You know that you’re the only one that I need<br />
+The one that I need, one that I need</p>
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+<div class="left">114 views</div>
+					<div class="right"><span class="tag"><a href="http://allnewlyrics.com/tag/pj-morton" rel="tag">PJ Morton</a>, <a href="http://allnewlyrics.com/tag/stevie-wonder" rel="tag">Stevie Wonder</a></span> </div>
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diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_allnewlyrics1.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_allnewlyrics1.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..53cd1cf8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_allnewlyrics1.json
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://allnewlyrics.com/only-one-lyrics-pj-morton-ft-stevie-wonder.html", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "All about hot new song with lyrics at AllNewLyrics.Com", 
+        "domain": "allnewlyrics.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://allnewlyrics.com/only-one-lyrics-pj-morton-ft-stevie-wonder.html", 
+        "meta_keywords": "Music, Songs, Lyrics, Letras, Lirik, Tekst, Text, Testo, Paroles, Popular, New", 
+        "cleaned_text": "PJ Morton \u2013 Only One Lyrics (Ft. Stevie Wonder)\n\nI\u2019m pretty sure I don\u2019t need anything else\n\n This is the best feeling I\u2019ve ever felt", 
+        "tags": [
+            "PJ Morton", 
+            "Stevie Wonder"
+        ], 
+        "title": "\u201cOnly One\u201d Lyrics : PJ Morton (Ft. Stevie Wonder)", 
+        "meta_favicon": "", 
+        "meta_lang": "en"
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/aol1.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_aolNews.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/aol1.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_aolNews.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_aolNews.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_aolNews.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..d65a01cc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_aolNews.json
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.aolnews.com/nation/article/the-few-the-proud-the-marines-getting-a-makeover/19592478", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "(Aug. 13) -- Declaring", 
+        "domain": "www.aolnews.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.aolnews.com/nation/article/the-few-the-proud-the-marines-getting-a-makeover/19592478", 
+        "meta_keywords": "news, update, breaking, nation, U.S., elections, world, entertainment, sports, business, weird news, health, science, latest news articles, breaking news, current news, top news", 
+        "cleaned_text": "WASHINGTON (Aug. 13) -- Declaring \"the maritime soul of the Marine Corps\" is", 
+        "tags": [
+            "Defense Secretary Robert Gates", 
+            "military", 
+            "Marines", 
+            "armed forces"
+        ], 
+        "meta_favicon": "http://o.aolcdn.com/art/ch_news/aol_favicon.ico", 
+        "meta_lang": "en"
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_articlebody_attribute.html b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_articlebody_attribute.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..bbf00f65
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_articlebody_attribute.html
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+<html>
+  <body>
+    <div>
+      <p>
+          Not an Actual Content
+          TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div class='post-content'>
+      <p>
+        Search-and-rescue teams were mobilized from across Southeast Asia on Sunday after a commercial airliner with 162 people on board lost contact with ground controllers off the coast of Borneo, a search effort that evoked a distressingly familiar mix of grief and mystery nine months after a Malaysia Airlines jetliner disappeared over the Indian Ocean.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+  </body>
+</html>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_articlebody_attribute.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_articlebody_attribute.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..7fbebcaf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_articlebody_attribute.json
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://exemple.com/test_opengraphcontent",
+    "expected": {
+        "cleaned_text": "Search-and-rescue teams were mobilized "
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_articlebody_itemprop.html b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_articlebody_itemprop.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..46e5c9de
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_articlebody_itemprop.html
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+<html>
+  <body>
+    <div>
+      <p>
+          Not an Actual Content
+          TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <div itemprop='articleBody'>
+      <p>
+        Search-and-rescue teams were mobilized from across Southeast Asia on Sunday after a commercial airliner with 162 people on board lost contact with ground controllers off the coast of Borneo, a search effort that evoked a distressingly familiar mix of grief and mystery nine months after a Malaysia Airlines jetliner disappeared over the Indian Ocean.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+  </body>
+</html>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_articlebody_itemprop.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_articlebody_itemprop.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..7fbebcaf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_articlebody_itemprop.json
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://exemple.com/test_opengraphcontent",
+    "expected": {
+        "cleaned_text": "Search-and-rescue teams were mobilized "
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_articlebody_tag.html b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_articlebody_tag.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..6e7ca4be
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_articlebody_tag.html
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+<html>
+  <body>
+    <div>
+      <p>
+          Not an Actual Content
+          TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+      </p>
+    </div>
+    <article>
+      <p>
+        Search-and-rescue teams were mobilized from across Southeast Asia on Sunday after a commercial airliner with 162 people on board lost contact with ground controllers off the coast of Borneo, a search effort that evoked a distressingly familiar mix of grief and mystery nine months after a Malaysia Airlines jetliner disappeared over the Indian Ocean.
+      </p>
+    </article>
+  </body>
+</html>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_articlebody_tag.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_articlebody_tag.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..7fbebcaf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_articlebody_tag.json
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://exemple.com/test_opengraphcontent",
+    "expected": {
+        "cleaned_text": "Search-and-rescue teams were mobilized "
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/bbc_hongkong_politics.html b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_bbc_chinese.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/bbc_hongkong_politics.html
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_bbc_chinese.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_bbc_chinese.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_bbc_chinese.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..0f0ec2fd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_bbc_chinese.json
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.bbc.co.uk/zhongwen/simp/chinese_news/2012/12/121210_hongkong_politics.shtml", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "\u9999\u6e2f\u884c\u653f\u957f\u5b98\u6881\u632f\u82f1\u5728\u5404\u65b9\u538b\u529b\u4e0b\u5230\u7acb\u6cd5\u4f1a\u63a5\u53d7\u8d28\u8be2\uff0c\u5c31\u5176\u5927\u5b85\u7684\u8fdd\u7ae0\u5efa\u7b51\u95ee\u9898\u9053\u6b49\u3002", 
+        "domain": "www.bbc.co.uk", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.bbc.co.uk/zhongwen/simp/chinese_news/2012/12/121210_hongkong_politics.shtml", 
+        "meta_keywords": "\u9999\u6e2f, \u6881\u632f\u82f1, \u884c\u653f\u957f\u5b98, \u7279\u9996, \u5c71\u9876, \u8fdd\u7ae0, \u8fdd\u4f8b, \u8fdd\u6cd5, \u975e\u6cd5, \u5efa\u7b51, \u50ed\u5efa, \u7acb\u6cd5\u4f1a", 
+        "cleaned_text": "\u9999\u6e2f\u884c\u653f\u957f\u5b98\u6881\u632f\u82f1\u5728\u5404\u65b9\u538b\u529b\u4e0b\u5c31\u5176\u5927\u5b85\u7684\u8fdd\u7ae0\u5efa\u7b51\uff08\u50ed\u5efa\uff09\u95ee\u9898\u5230\u7acb\u6cd5\u4f1a\u63a5\u53d7\u8d28\u8be2\uff0c\u5e76\u5411\u9999\u6e2f\u6c11\u4f17\u9053\u6b49\u3002\n\n\u6881\u632f\u82f1\u5728\u661f\u671f\u4e8c\uff0812\u670810\u65e5\uff09\u7684\u7b54\u95ee\u5927\u4f1a\u5f00\u59cb\u4e4b\u9645\u5728\u5176\u6f14\u8bf4\u4e2d\u9053\u6b49\uff0c\u4f46\u5f3a\u8c03\u4ed6\u5728\u8fdd\u7ae0\u5efa\u7b51\u95ee\u9898\u4e0a\u6ca1\u6709\u9690\u7792\u7684\u610f\u56fe\u548c\u52a8\u673a\u3002\n\n\u4e00\u4e9b\u4eb2\u5317\u4eac\u9635\u8425\u8bae\u5458\u6b22\u8fce\u6881\u632f\u82f1\u9053\u6b49\uff0c\u4e14\u8ba4\u4e3a\u5e94\u80fd\u83b7\u5f97\u9999\u6e2f\u6c11\u4f17\u63a5\u53d7\uff0c\u4f46\u8fd9\u4e9b\u8bae\u5458\u4e5f\u8d28\u95ee\u6881\u632f\u82f1\u6709", 
+        "meta_favicon": "http://www.bbc.co.uk/favicon.ico", 
+        "meta_lang": "zh"
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/businessweek1.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_businessWeek1.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/businessweek1.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_businessWeek1.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_businessWeek1.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_businessWeek1.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..f6918584
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_businessWeek1.json
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/10_34/b4192066630779.htm", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "The Web and cable star has achieved fame by targeting nerdy guys, who she says \"control popularity\".", 
+        "domain": "www.businessweek.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/10_34/b4192066630779.htm", 
+        "meta_keywords": "Olivia Munn, Attack of the Show, Jon Stewart, Daily Show, G4", 
+        "cleaned_text": "Six years ago, Olivia Munn arrived in Hollywood with fading ambitions of making it as a sports reporter and set about deploying", 
+        "title": "Olivia Munn: Queen of the Uncool", 
+        "meta_favicon": "", 
+        "meta_lang": "en"
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/businessweek2.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_businessWeek2.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/businessweek2.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_businessWeek2.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_businessWeek2.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_businessWeek2.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..b60debb3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_businessWeek2.json
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.businessweek.com/management/five-social-media-lessons-for-business-09202011.html", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "A Home Depot executive discusses the retailer's strategy for engaging consumers via Facebook, Twitter, and blogs, relying on store associates for much of the social interaction", 
+        "domain": "www.businessweek.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.businessweek.com/management/five-social-media-lessons-for-business-09202011.html", 
+        "meta_keywords": "Facebook, Twitter, social media, Home Depot, retailers, social media lessons", 
+        "cleaned_text": "At Home Depot, we first realized we needed to have a real conversation with", 
+        "title": "Five Social Media Lessons for Business", 
+        "meta_favicon": "", 
+        "meta_lang": null
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/businessweek3.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_businessWeek3.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/businessweek3.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_businessWeek3.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_businessWeek3.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_businessWeek3.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..73062ec7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_businessWeek3.json
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.businessweek.com/technology/here-comes-apples-real-tv-09132011.html", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "A bold, new Apple TV set would replace today\u2019s cable systems, game consoles, and 3D goggles\u2014and launch a war with cable providers", 
+        "domain": "www.businessweek.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.businessweek.com/technology/here-comes-apples-real-tv-09132011.html", 
+        "meta_keywords": "Apple, Apple CEO, Google, Television, Cable & Wireless, Netflix, Steve Jobs, Comcast, cable, cable TV, hulu, Roku", 
+        "cleaned_text": "Get ready, America, because by Christmas 2012 you will have an Apple TV in your living room", 
+        "meta_favicon": "", 
+        "meta_lang": null
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_businessinsider3.html b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_businessinsider3.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..16fc278b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_businessinsider3.html
@@ -0,0 +1,2189 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+<html lang="en" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en" xmlns:fb="http://www.facebook.com/2008/fbml" >
+<head>
+    <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge" />
+    <meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" />
+    <script type="text/javascript">var NREUMQ=NREUMQ||[];NREUMQ.push(["mark","firstbyte",new Date().getTime()]);</script><title>Larry Page: The Untold Story - Business Insider</title>
+    <meta name="date" content="2014-04-24" />
+<meta name="keywords" content="Google, Larry Page, Longform, Nicholas Carlson, " />
+<meta name="description" content="One day in July 2001, Larry Page decided to..." />
+<meta name="title" content="The Untold Story Of Larry Page's Incredible Comeback" />
+<meta name="sailthru.title" content="The Untold Story Of Larry Page's Incredible Comeback" />
+<meta name="tbi-image" content="http://static5.businessinsider.com/image/5355bcd169bedd0334bfeb94/the-untold-story-of-larry-pages-incredible-comeback.jpg" />
+<meta name="sailthru.thumb" content="http://static2.businessinsider.com/image/5355bcd169bedd0334bfeb94-50-50/the-untold-story-of-larry-pages-incredible-comeback.jpg" />
+<meta name="sailthru.author" content="Nicholas Carlson" />
+<meta property="og:title" content="The Untold Story Of Larry Page's Incredible Comeback" />
+<meta property="og:description" content="One day in July 2001, Larry Page decided to..." />
+<meta property="og:type" content="article" />
+<meta property="og:url" content="http://www.businessinsider.com/larry-page-the-untold-story-2014-4" />
+<meta property="og:site_name" content="Business Insider" />
+<meta property="fb:app_id" content="155043519637" />
+<meta property="article:publisher" content="businessinsider" />
+<meta property="author" content="Nicholas Carlson" />
+<meta property="twitter:card" content="summary" />
+<meta property="twitter:url" content="http://www.businessinsider.com/larry-page-the-untold-story-2014-4" />
+<meta property="twitter:title" content="The Untold Story Of Larry Page's Incredible Comeback" />
+<meta property="twitter:description" content="One day in July 2001, Larry Page decided to..." />
+<meta property="twitter:image" content="http://static5.businessinsider.com/image/5355bcd169bedd0334bfeb94/the-untold-story-of-larry-pages-incredible-comeback.jpg" />
+<meta property="twitter:creator" content="nichcarlson" />
+<meta property="twitter:site" content="sai" />
+<meta property="article:author" content="http://www.businessinsider.com/author/nicholas-carlson" />
+<meta property="og:image" content="http://static6.businessinsider.com/image/5355bd2f6da8112a0b6301dd/the-untold-story-of-larry-pages-incredible-comeback.jpg" />    <link href="http://static6.businessinsider.com/assets/css/min-1.css?1398801929" media="screen" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
+<link href="http://static6.businessinsider.com/assets/css/min-2.css?1398801929" media="screen" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
+<link href="http://static5.businessinsider.com/assets/css/min-3.css?1398801929" media="screen" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
+<link href="http://www.businessinsider.com/larry-page-the-untold-story-2014-4" rel="canonical" />    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://static1.businessinsider.com/assets/js/min2.js?1398801929"></script>
+<script type="text/javascript">
+    //<![CDATA[
+    BI.post.isSlideshow=false;    //]]>
+</script>
+<script type="text/javascript">
+    //<![CDATA[
+    post = {"id":"5355ca996da81167516301db","uri":"http:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/larry-page-the-untold-story-2014-4","thumb":"http:\/\/static1.businessinsider.com\/image\/5355bcd169bedd0334bfeb94-90-90\/the-untold-story-of-larry-pages-incredible-comeback.jpg","author":"Nicholas Carlson","author_ids":"Nicholas Carlson:08","post_type":"post"};    //]]>
+</script>
+<script type="text/javascript">
+    //<![CDATA[
+    
+        Author = "Nicholas Carlson";
+        Category = "Google|Larry Page|Longform";
+        AuthorType = "Staff";
+        Editor = "Nicholas Carlson";
+        BIISub = "none"
+            //]]>
+</script>
+<script type="text/javascript">
+    //<![CDATA[
+    
+        BI.nav_select = "Tech";
+        BI.highTrafficMode = 0;
+        BI.post.isDraft = 0;
+        BI.post.url = "http://www.businessinsider.com/larry-page-the-untold-story-2014-4";
+        BI.post.name = "larry-page-the-untold-story-2014-4";
+        BI.comments.currentPage = 0;
+        BI.comments.filterPundits = 1;
+        BI.comments.getAllComments = 1;
+            //]]>
+</script>    <!-- optimizely desktop -->
+        <!-- End optimizely desktop -->
+
+        <meta name="tbi-vertical" content="sai" />
+    <meta name="viewport" content="width=1024" />
+
+    <link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" media="print" href="/assets/css/print.css" />
+
+    <!--[if gte IE 9]>
+    <style type="text/css">
+        .gradient {
+            filter: none;
+        }
+    </style>
+    <![endif]-->
+
+    <!--[if lt IE 8]>
+        <link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="http://static3.businessinsider.com/assets/css/ie7_or_lower.css" />
+        <link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="http://static2.businessinsider.com/assets/css_vendor/font-awesome-ie7.min.css">
+    <![endif]-->
+    <!--[if IE 8]>
+        <link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="http://static5.businessinsider.com/assets/css/ie8.css" />
+    <![endif]-->
+    <!--[if lt IE 9]>
+        <script src="http://html5shim.googlecode.com/svn/trunk/html5.js"></script>
+        <script type="text/javascript" src="http://static3.businessinsider.com/assets/js/vendor/ie8/placeholders.min.js"></script>
+    <![endif]-->
+
+    <!--[if IE 9]>
+        <link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="http://static4.businessinsider.com/assets/css/ie9.css" />
+        <script type="text/javascript" src="http://static5.businessinsider.com/assets/js/shims/Element.classList.js"></script>
+    <![endif]-->
+
+    <script type="text/javascript">
+        var vertical = 'sai';
+        var PageType = 'post';
+        var post_id = '';
+        var _sf_startpt=(new Date()).getTime();
+    </script>
+
+    <!-- Kissmetrics -->
+    <script type="text/javascript">
+        var _kmq = _kmq || [];
+        var _kmk = _kmk || '999f578acebfab6dd29b540ab4ebbcbaafafa774';
+
+        function _kms(u){
+            setTimeout(function(){
+                var s = document.createElement('script');
+                var f = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0];
+                s.type = 'text/javascript';
+                s.async = true;
+                s.src = u;
+                f.parentNode.insertBefore(s, f);
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+            </script>
+    <!-- Kissmetrics -->
+
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+    <link rel="icon" type="image/ico" href="http://static5.businessinsider.com/assets/images/faviconBI.ico" />
+    <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="http://static4.businessinsider.com/assets/images/apple-touch-icon.png" />
+    <meta name="linkedin:owner" content="mid:218712">
+
+    <!--[if gte IE 9]>
+        <meta name="application-name" content="Business Insider - sai"/>
+        <meta name="msapplication-tooltip" content="Start the page in Site Mode"/>
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+        <meta name="msapplication-window" content="width=800;height=600"/>
+        <meta name="msapplication-navbutton-color" content="#4C7C8D"/>
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+<h1>The Untold Story Of Larry Page's Incredible Comeback</h1>
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+        	        <span>
+			    <span class="date-heat">
+	                <span class="date" data-bi-format="date" rel="1398347340">Apr. 24, 2014,  9:49 AM</span>		        </span>
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+            <span class="pageviews"><span class="sprites fire views" title="views">286,248</span></span>
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+            <p><div class="KonaFilter image-container"><div class="image on-image"><img src="http://static2.businessinsider.com/image/5355bcd169bedd0334bfeb94-1200-900/larry%20page%20cover%20graphic_01.jpg" border="0" alt="Larry Page: The Untold Story" width="800" /><p class="source"><span>Illustration by Mike Nudelman</span></p></div><p></div></p>
+<p>One day in July 2001, Larry Page decided to fire Google&rsquo;s project managers. All of them.</p>
+<p>It was just five years since Page, then a 22-year-old graduate student at Stanford, was struck in the middle of the night with a vision. In it, he somehow managed to download the entire Web and by examining the links between the pages he saw the world&rsquo;s information in an entirely new way.</p>
+<p>What Page wrote down that night became the basis for an algorithm. He called it PageRank and used it to power a new Web search engine called BackRub. The name didn&rsquo;t stick.</p>
+<p>By July 2001, BackRub had been renamed Google and was doing really well. It had millions of users, an impressive list of investors, and 400 employees, including about a half-dozen project managers.</p>
+<p>As at most startups, in Google&rsquo;s first year there were no management layers between the CEO, Page, and the engineers. But as the company grew, it added a layer of managers, people who could meet with Page and the rest of Google&rsquo;s senior executives and give the engineers prioritized orders and deadlines.</p>
+<p>Page, now 28, hated it. Since Google hired only the most talented engineers, he thought that extra layer of supervision was not just unnecessary but also an impediment. He also suspected that Google&rsquo;s project managers were steering engineers away from working on projects that were personally important to him. For example, Page had outlined a plan to scan all the world&rsquo;s books and make them searchable online, but somehow no one was working on it. Page blamed the project managers.</p>
+<p>Some dramatic streamlining was called for, he resolved. Instead of the project managers, all of Google&rsquo;s engineers would report to one person, a newly hired VP of engineering named Wayne Rosing, and Rosing would report directly to him.</p>
+<p>Google&rsquo;s human resources boss, a serious woman with bangs named Stacey Sullivan, thought Page&rsquo;s plan was nuts, according to &ldquo;<a href="http://www.amazon.com/dp/B009F7CVP6/" target="_blank">I'm Feeling Lucky</a>,&rdquo; Douglas Edwards' inside view of Google's early years. Sullivan told Page so. &ldquo;You can&rsquo;t just self-organize!&rdquo; she said. &ldquo;People need someone to go to when they have problems!&rdquo;</p>
+<p>Page ignored her.</p>
+<p>Sullivan took her concerns to Eric Schmidt. In March, Schmidt had become the chairman of Google. Everyone assumed he&rsquo;d be CEO as soon as he could leave his full-time job as CEO of Novell.</p>
+<p>Schmidt agreed with Sullivan. So did Page&rsquo;s executive coach, Bill Campbell. Everyone called Campbell &ldquo;Coach&rdquo; because he&rsquo;d once been Columbia University's football coach. He still walked and talked like he was pacing a sideline.</p>
+<p>As Steven Levy detailed in his own rollicking Google history, &ldquo;<a href="http://www.amazon.com/dp/1416596585/" target="_blank">In the Plex</a>,&rdquo; one evening, Campbell got into a big argument with Page about his plan. To prove his point, Campbell brought engineer after engineer into Page&rsquo;s office to offer their perspective. One after another, they told Page that they actually preferred to have a manager &mdash; someone who could end disagreements and give their teams direction.</p>
+<p>But Page was determined.</p>
+<p>Schmidt in particular may have been the worst person for Sullivan to turn to for help back then. Page had never been behind hiring him &mdash; or any CEO, for that matter. Google&rsquo;s investors made him do it.</p>
+<p>Before long, Schmidt might have presented an obstacle to Page&rsquo;s plan. But not yet. It was July 2001 and Schmidt hadn&rsquo;t officially become CEO. So Page went ahead.</p>
+<p>He deputized Rosing to break the news.</p>
+<p>That afternoon, all 130 or so engineers and a half-dozen project managers showed up. They stood outside Page&rsquo;s office amid Google&rsquo;s mismatched cubicles and couches &mdash; which, like the rest of the company&rsquo;s office furniture, had been bought from failed startups on the cheap.</p>
+<p>Finally, Rosing, a bald man in glasses, began to speak. Rosing explained that engineering was getting a reorganization: All engineers would now report to him, all project managers were out of a job.</p>
+<p>The news did not go over well. The project managers were stunned. They hadn&rsquo;t been warned. They&rsquo;d just been fired in front of all their colleagues.</p>
+<p>The engineers demanded an explanation. So Page gave one. With little emotion, speaking in his usual flat, robotic tone, he explained that he didn&rsquo;t like having non-engineers supervising engineers. Engineers shouldn't have to be supervised by managers with limited tech knowledge. Finally, he said, Google&rsquo;s project managers just weren&rsquo;t doing a very good job.</p>
+<p>As Page talked, he kept his gaze averted, resisting direct eye contact. Though he was an appealing presence with above-average height and nearly black hair, he was socially awkward.</p>
+<p>The news was met with a chorus of grumbling. Finally, one of the engineers in the room, Ron Dolin, started yelling at Page. He said an all-hands meeting was no place to give a performance review. What Page was doing was &ldquo;completely ridiculous,&rdquo; he said, and &ldquo;totally unprofessional.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>&ldquo;It sucked,&rdquo; one of the project managers present said later. &ldquo;I felt humiliated by it. Larry said in front of the company that we didn't need managers, and he talked about what he didn't like about us. He said things that hurt a lot of people.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>In the end, the layoffs didn&rsquo;t stick. The project managers Page had intended to fire that day were instead brought into Google&rsquo;s growing operations organization, under the leadership of Urs H&ouml;zle.</p>
+<p>Page&rsquo;s reorganization didn&rsquo;t last long either. While some engineers thrived without supervision, problems arose. Projects that needed resources didn&rsquo;t get them. Redundancy became an issue. Engineers craved feedback and wondered where their careers were headed.</p>
+<p>Eventually, Google started hiring project managers again.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;I did my best to advise that there is true value in management, and you can set a tone by how you manage this,&rdquo; Stacy Sullivan recalled in &ldquo;I'm Feeling Lucky.&rdquo; &ldquo;Hopefully it was a lesson learned for Larry.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>By August 2001, Schmidt had fully extricated himself from his responsibilities at Novell. He became Google&rsquo;s CEO &mdash; so-called adult supervision for Page and his co-founder, Brin.</p>
+<p>And for a long time, Larry Page was very unhappy.</p>
+<p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table"><div><div class="image on-image"><img src="http://static5.businessinsider.com/image/51fa8230ecad04d34600000b-1200-924/early-google-employees-1.jpg" border="0" alt="early google employees" /><p class="source"><span>Early Googler</span></p><p class='caption'>Google, 1999</p></div><p></div></div>Everyone knows the Steve Jobs story &mdash; how he was fired from the company he founded &mdash; Apple &mdash; only to return from exile decades later to save the business.</p>
+<p>What&rsquo;s less-well understood is that Apple&rsquo;s board and investors were absolutely right to fire Jobs. Early in his career, he was petulant, mean, and destructive. Only by leaving Apple, humbling himself, and finding a second success (with Pixar) was he able to mature into the leader who would return to Apple and build it into the world&rsquo;s most-valuable company.</p>
+<p>Larry Page is the Steve Jobs of Google.</p>
+<p>Like Jobs, Page has a co-founder, Sergey Brin, but Page has always been his company&rsquo;s true visionary and driving force.</p>
+<p>And just as Apple&rsquo;s investors threw Jobs out of his company, Google&rsquo;s investors ignored Page&rsquo;s wishes and forced him to hire a CEO to be adult supervision.</p>
+<p>Both then underwent a long period in the wilderness. Steve Jobs&rsquo; banishment was more severe, but Page also spent years at a remove from the day-to-day world of Google.</p>
+<p>As with Jobs, it was only through this long exile that Page was able to mature into a self-awareness of his strengths and weaknesses.</p>
+<p>Then, like Jobs, Page came back with wild ambitions and a new resolve.</p>
+<h2><strong>Lawrence Edward Page</strong></h2>
+<p><div class="KonaFilter image-container float_right"><div class="image on-image"><img src="http://static1.businessinsider.com/image/5203e5da69beddbd1200000b-711-920/n.tesla.jpg" border="0" alt="Nikola Tesla" width="480" /><p class="source"><span><a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/N.Tesla.JPG">Wikimedia Commons</a></span></p><p class='caption'>Nikola Tesla</p></div><p></div></p>
+<p>On the cold, clear night of Jan. 7, 1943, Nikola Tesla quietly slept in his suite at the Hotel New Yorker, 33 floors above the streets of Manhattan. Suddenly, his chest erupted in pain. Then his heart stopped.</p>
+<p>A day later, a hotel maid decided to ignore a &ldquo;do not disturb&rdquo; sign on Tesla&rsquo;s door. She found his body. The great inventor was dead.</p>
+<p>A Serbian immigrant born in 1856, Tesla invented the way almost all of the world&rsquo;s electricity is generated today. He also envisioned and created wireless communication. But he died having spent the better part of his last decade collecting a pension and feeding pigeons, unable to persuade new investors to fund his latest wild visions. He died believing he could invent a weapon to end all war, a way for power to travel wirelessly across the oceans, and plan for harnessing energy from space. He died alone and in debt.</p>
+<p>Tesla was a brilliant man. He spoke eight languages and had a photographic memory. Inventions would appear in his mind fully formed. But he was lousy at business.</p>
+<p>In 1885, he told his boss, Thomas Edison, that he could improve his motors and generators. Edison told him, &ldquo;There's $50,000 in it for you &mdash; if you can do it.&rdquo; Tesla did as he&rsquo;d promised, and in return Edison gave him a $10 raise.</p>
+<p>Tesla quit. He formed his own company, Tesla Electric Light &amp; Manufacturing. But he soon disagreed with his investors over the direction of the business. They fired him, and he was forced to dig ditches for a year.</p>
+<p>In 1900 he persuaded JPMorgan to invest $150,000 in another company. The money was gone by 1901. Tesla spent the rest of his life writing JPMorgan asking for more money. He never got it.</p>
+<p>The year after Tesla died, in 1944, New York Herald Tribune journalist John Joseph O&rsquo;Neill wrote a biography about the inventor, who had been a friend.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;During the last three decades of his life, it is probable that not one out of tens of thousands who saw him knew who he was,&rdquo; the biography, &ldquo;<a href="http://www.amazon.com/Prodigal-Genius-Life-Nikola-Tesla/dp/1931882851/" target="_blank">Prodigal Genius: The Life of Nikola Tesla</a>,&rdquo; concludes.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;Even when the newspapers, once a year, would break out in headlines about Tesla and his latest predictions concerning scientific wonders to come, no one associated that name with the excessively tall, very lean man, wearing clothes of a bygone era, who almost daily appeared to feed his feathered friends.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>&ldquo;He was just one of the strange individuals of whom it takes a great many of varying types to make up a complete population of a great metropolis.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>Forty-one years after those words were published, in 1985, a 12-year-old in Michigan finished reading Tesla's biography and cried.</p>
+<p>That was Larry Page.</p>
+<p>The child of a pair of computer science professors at Michigan State University, Larry grew up in a messy house. There were computers, gadgets, and tech magazines everywhere. The atmosphere &mdash; and Page&rsquo;s attentive parents &mdash; fostered creativity and invention.</p>
+<p>In that moment, Page realized it wasn&rsquo;t enough to envision an innovative technological future. Big ideas aren&rsquo;t enough. They need to be commercialized. If Page wanted to be an inventor, he was going to have to start a successful company, too.</p>
+<p>Tesla&rsquo;s story also taught Page to watch out for the Thomas Edisons of the world &mdash; people who will use you and place your dreams in the service of their own cynical ends.</p>
+<p><div class="KonaFilter image-container"><div class="image on-image"><img src="http://static1.businessinsider.com/image/5357f6cc6da8113d5b4608ff-1200-858/rtr17usq.jpg" border="0" alt="Larry Page" width="800" /><p class="source"><span>Reuters</span></p></div><p></div></p>
+<h2><strong>Larry&rsquo;s Rules For Management</strong></h2>
+<p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table float_right"><div><div class="image on-image"><img src="http://static1.businessinsider.com/image/4dbafb7b49e2ae3e771c0000-398-287/larry_sergey_good.jpg" border="0" alt="Sergey Brin and Larry Page" /><p class="source"><span><a href="http://xooglers.blogspot.com/2011/04/tgif-show-from-1999.html">Doug Edwards, Xooglers</a></span></p></div><p></div></div></p>
+<p>Google incorporated on Sept. 4, 1998 &mdash; two years after the idea of ranking Web pages by their inbound links came to Page in a dream. He made himself CEO, and his best friend, Sergey Brin, was named co-founder.</p>
+<p>Co-founders are often forgotten by history. Steve Jobs had two at Apple. Mark Zuckerberg had four at Facebook.</p>
+<p>Sergey Brin was a different kind of sidekick to Page. They had met at Stanford, where Brin was outgoing and energetic, known among professors for his habit of bursting into their offices without knocking.</p>
+<p>To Page&rsquo;s startup-turned-global-technology company, Brin would bring a much-needed extroversion that Page lacked. Brin excelled at strategy, branding, and developing relationships between Google and other companies. He was a partner to Page, if, ultimately, a junior one.</p>
+<p>While Google is often thought of as the invention of two young computer whizzes &mdash; Sergey and Larry, Larry and Sergey &mdash; the truth is that Google is a creation of Larry Page, helped along by Sergey Brin.</p>
+<p>Page and Brin had raised $1 million from friends and family to launch their startup, moving off Stanford&rsquo;s campus and into a rented garage.</p>
+<p>By February 1999, the startup had already outgrown the garage, relocating to an office above a bike shop in Palo Alto, California. Seven months later, Google outgrew that office, moving to a nondescript building in an office park a couple of miles off the highway in nearby Mountain View.</p>
+<p>Outside that building, in an asphalt parking lot, yellow police tape marked off an area where Page, Brin, and the rest of Google&rsquo;s employees &mdash; Googlers, they called themselves &mdash; played roller hockey. The games were full contact. Employees wore pads and would come back inside from games drenched in sweat and sometimes bloodied and bruised. &ldquo;No one held back when fighting the founders for the puck,&rdquo; Douglas Edwards wrote. &ldquo;The harder you played, the more respect you earned.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>Inside the beige office building, the game was twice as tough. Yes, there was free food for all employees and a massage therapist on site. And, with brightly colored exercise balls and couches everywhere, the place looked like a kindergarten crossed with a freshman dorm.</p>
+<p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table float_left"><div><div class="image on-image"><img src="http://static2.businessinsider.com/image/5355f3b66da81162126301e1-473-236/early-google-employees-1.png" border="0" alt="early google employees" /><p class="source"><span><a href="http://ledbook.edublogs.org/2012/07/20/the-earliest-20-googler-still-there？/">Ledblook.edublogs</a></span></p></div><p></div></div></p>
+<p>But for Page&rsquo;s employees, working at Google felt more like a never-ending thesis defense. Everywhere you looked, there were know-it-alls ready to gleefully tear into you. Page had originally bonded with Brin over a day of fierce argument, and that&rsquo;s how the relationship grew. Their debates were not shouting matches. They were a series of blunt points made by one side, and then the other, with a little name-calling thrown in. Page would call one of Brin&rsquo;s ideas stupid. Brin would say Page&rsquo;s idea was naive. They&rsquo;d both called each other bastards.</p>
+<p>Page never felt any deterioration of his friendship with Brin after these fights, so he styled his interaction with other Googlers in the same unvarnished way. Page once told a room full of Google&rsquo;s first marketing employees that their profession was built on an ability to lie.</p>
+<p>Page had a tendency to communicate through emphatic body language. He&rsquo;d lift an eyebrow in a way that made you know he thought your idea was stupid. If you said something that made him angry or uncomfortable, he&rsquo;d respond in a quieter tone, and wouldn&rsquo;t be able to look at you while he did it.</p>
+<p>He became infamous for his lack of social grace. A slow-loading application during a product demonstration would prompt him to start counting out loud.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;One one-thousand.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>&ldquo;Two one-thousand.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>Page encouraged his senior executives to fight the way he and Brin went at it. In meetings with new hires, one of the two co-founders would often provoke an argument over a business or product decision. Then they would both sit back, watching quietly as their lieutenants verbally cut each other down. As soon as any argument started to go circular, Page would say, &ldquo;I don't want to talk about this anymore. Just do it.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>It wasn&rsquo;t that he was a tyrant. It&rsquo;s just that he connected to people over their ideas, not their feelings.</p>
+<p>Early Google HR boss Heather Cairns remembers once spotting Page talking intently with Google&rsquo;s janitor after work hours.</p>
+<p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table float_right"><div><div class="image on-image"><img src="http://static5.businessinsider.com/image/5355f438ecad04b533bfeb97-400-300/google-hr-heather-cairns-1999.jpg" border="0" alt="Google HR Heather Cairns 1999" /><p class='caption'>Heather Cairns</p></div><p></div></div></p>
+<p>She later asked Page what they were talking about so seriously.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;I want to know how everyone does their job,&rdquo; he replied, going on to offer a detailed recitation of the janitor&rsquo;s method for placing empty trash bags at the bottom of each barrel so he could replace them easily.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;It&rsquo;s very efficient,&rdquo; Page said approvingly, &ldquo;and he saves time doing that, and I learned from that.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>Page hadn&rsquo;t been a social child. But in college and graduate school, he&rsquo;d been able to connect with people over external abstractions: visions of the future, cool technologies. At Google, he kept his interaction with employees on this level. He managed without regard to feelings.</p>
+<p>Asked about his approach to running the company, Page once told a Googler his method for solving complex problems was by reducing them to binaries, then simply choosing the best option. Whatever the downside he viewed as collateral damage he could live with.</p>
+<p>When Page went to Stanford after receiving his bachelor&rsquo;s in computer science from the University of Michigan, he expected he&rsquo;d have to make a choice between becoming an academic and building a company. Choosing the former would mean giving up the opportunity to become the inventor of widely used applications. But building a company would force him to deal with people in a way he didn&rsquo;t enjoy. For Google&rsquo;s first few years, he got to have the best of both worlds: He was building a product that millions of people used, and he created an interpersonal culture intensely focused on ideas and outcomes rather than emotional niceties.</p>
+<p>For many years, Google thrived under this type of management.</p>
+<p>For many employees, the combative atmosphere was a reasonable price to pay for working at a company with a real clarity of purpose.</p>
+<p>Even in cases where the environment left bruises, solid ideas won. In &ldquo;In The Plex,&rdquo; Steven Levy tells the story of how, in 2000, Google hired an associate product manager named Wesley Chan and put him in charge of building something called Google Toolbar, a way for users to search without having to open Microsoft Explorer. Chan figured out that no one was using it because it didn&rsquo;t do anything special for users. He decided it could double as a pop-up-ad blocker.</p>
+<p>He pitched the idea to Page in a meeting.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;That&rsquo;s the dumbest thing I&rsquo;ve ever heard!&rdquo; Page replied. &ldquo;Where did we find you?&rdquo;</p>
+<p>Chan was undaunted, however. Shortly thereafter, he secretly installed the improved Toolbar onto Page&rsquo;s computer. When Page later mentioned to a room full of people that he was seeing fewer pop-ups, Chan told him why. The Toolbar was launched.</p>
+<p>Page eventually wrote down his rules for management:</p>
+<ul>
+<li>Don't delegate: Do everything you can yourself to make things go faster.</li>
+<li>Don't get in the way if you're not adding value. Let the people actually doing the work talk to each other while you go do something else.</li>
+<li>Don't be a bureaucrat.</li>
+<li>Ideas are more important than age. Just because someone is junior doesn't mean they don't deserve respect and cooperation.</li>
+<li>The worst thing you can do is stop someone from doing something by saying, &ldquo;No. Period.&rdquo; If you say no, you have to help them find a better way to get it done.</li>
+</ul>
+<p>The niceties of social interaction weren't the only rules Page was happy to violate.</p>
+<p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table float_right"><div><div class="image on-image"><img src="http://static2.businessinsider.com/image/5356bc7669bedd955b7ea9ad-551-413/google-server-farm-7.jpg" border="0" alt="Google server farm" /><p class="source"><span><a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=avP5d16wEp0&feature=player_embedded">Google</a></span></p><p class='caption'>A Google server rack</p></div><p></div></div></p>
+<p>In 1999, for instance, the method by which large Web companies such as eBay, Yahoo, and Google added server space had become fairly routine. They purchased servers and installed them in cages at giant warehouses owned by third-party vendors. The warehouse companies would pay for the power that kept the servers running and the air conditioning that kept them cool, and the website owners would pay for space by the square foot. Page figured if Google was going to pay per square foot, he was going to stuff as many servers into that space as he could. He took apart servers and began hunting for ways to shrink them. The first thing to go? All the off switches.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;Why would you ever want to turn a server off?&rdquo; he reportedly asked.</p>
+<p>Stripped of useless components and fitted with corkboard to keep wires from crossing, Google developed new super-slim servers. They looked ugly. But before long, Google would end up paying the same price to host 1,500 servers as early rival Inktomi paid to host 50. As a result, Google&rsquo;s search ran a lot faster, and Inktomi, along with many of Google&rsquo;s other search rivals, was left in the dust.</p>
+<p>Despite all his stunning success running Google during its first two years &mdash; or perhaps because of it &mdash; Larry Page was about to lose his job.</p>
+<div align="center"><hr width="100%" size="2" /></div>
+<h2><strong>Into the Wilderness</strong></h2>
+<p>During the first half of 1999, Google experienced an insane surge in popularity. That ballooning usage necessitated new capital to invest in more servers and a growing staff. But Google wasn&rsquo;t making any money yet.</p>
+<p>As Page and Brin began seeking new investors, Page had one requirement above all: He and Brin would retain a majority of the company&rsquo;s voting stock and ultimate control over Google.</p>
+<p>At first, Silicon Valley&rsquo;s venture capitalists laughed off the notion.</p>
+<p>Google kept growing, and the giggles faded. Before long, the Valley&rsquo;s two highest-profile venture capital firms &mdash; Kleiner Perkins and Sequoia Capital &mdash; agreed to invest a combined total of $25 million under Page&rsquo;s terms.</p>
+<p>But the investors had a stipulation of their own. In exchange for allowing Page and Brin to retain a majority ownership of Google, they wanted Page, then 26, to step down as CEO. They wanted him to hire adult supervision.</p>
+<p>As Steven Levy reported, John Doerr, the partner from Kleiner Perkins, told Page that a world-class CEO would do a &ldquo;much better job of building a world-class management team.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>Page took the deal. Google needed the money.</p>
+<p>A couple of months after the deal closed, however, when there was no way the investors could back out, Page called Doerr and informed the Venture Capitalist that he and Brin had experienced a change of heart.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;We actually think we can run the company between the two of us,&rdquo; he said.</p>
+<p>It is possible that Page had initially agreed with Doerr that Google needed a world-class CEO, only to change his mind later. But probably not.</p>
+<p>Page had always been a control freak. A college friend told Levy that even back at the University of Michigan, Page was &ldquo;controlling and paranoid&rdquo; because &ldquo;he wanted to make sure everything was done well and right.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>In 1998, Page and Brin decided to take all eight of Google&rsquo;s employees on a company ski trip to Lake Tahoe. When they went to rent a van, they discovered they could save $2.50 per day if they designated a single driver. Page designated himself. He drove the whole way while everyone else played math games in the back.</p>
+<p>This was a given, Douglas Edwards wrote. &ldquo;Larry wasn't about to put his life in anyone else's hands.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>The truth was, Page did not think he needed any help running Google &mdash; at least not beyond the help provided by Brin &mdash; and that&rsquo;s what he told his new investor.</p>
+<p>Doerr flipped out. It was obvious to him Page wasn&rsquo;t ready to lead a major corporation, and the way he&rsquo;d conveyed his views on the issue wasn&rsquo;t encouraging.</p>
+<p>He suggested that Page meet with a bunch of big tech CEOs &mdash; Apple&rsquo;s Steve Jobs, Intel&rsquo;s Andy Grove, Amazon&rsquo;s Jeff Bezos &mdash; and ask them about their jobs. Doerr thought Page would come away convinced he could use help.</p>
+<p>Page readily agreed.</p>
+<p>After all the meetings, he called Doerr and delivered some surprising news. Page was convinced that Google could use a CEO after all. But only if that CEO was Steve Jobs.</p>
+<p>Obviously, that wasn&rsquo;t going to happen &mdash; but Doerr was glad to hear that Page believed someone in the world could help. Together, they started interviewing other candidates. Doerr introduced Page and Brin to the CEO of Novell, Eric Schmidt.</p>
+<p>Page liked Schmidt OK. Unlike most executives, Schmidt had been a programmer. In fact, years ago he had written code for a software tool that Google was still using. Brin liked Schmidt because he was a &ldquo;Burner,&rdquo; an attendee of the annual psychedelic Burning Man festival held in a Nevada desert.</p>
+<p>Google hired Schmidt. He joined as chairman in March 2001 and became CEO in August.</p>
+<p>Page went along with the arrangement but wasn&rsquo;t happy about it. He fretted about his place in the new hierarchy &mdash; his title would be president of products &mdash; and even began to wonder if he&rsquo;d become unnecessary to the company he&rsquo;d founded.</p>
+<p>It was during this uncertain period, in July 2001, that Page dragged Google through his misbegotten engineering reorganization, immediately proving to most observers that Doerr had been right all along.</p>
+<p>Page may also have had another motive for the move: Getting rid of managers who might have ended up reporting to Schmidt may have seemed like a way for Page to maintain his control.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;I can't think of anything that people at Google were ever so upset about &mdash; at least in engineering,&rdquo; former Google engineer and Gmail inventor Paul Buchheit told Edwards. &ldquo;People had some sense of ownership of the company, that it was this big happy family. And all of a sudden, some of your friends were kicked off the island. You're, like, &lsquo;This isn't what I thought it was. I thought we were all in it together.&rsquo;&rdquo;</p>
+<p>Google had come a long way with Page running the place like a hockey game crossed with a thesis defense. But quietly, Google employees were thrilled to have someone with a more deft, empathetic touch now running the show.</p>
+<h2><strong>That&rsquo;s What Schmidt&rsquo;s For</strong></h2>
+<p>Over the next several years, Google grew into a massive global business.</p>
+<p>Always in consultation with Page and Brin, Schmidt kept things on an even keel. He hired a team of executives, built a sales force, and took Google public.</p>
+<p>Everyone inside Google still regarded Larry Page as their ultimate boss. He approved every hire, and it was his signature on the day of Google&rsquo;s initial public offering, Aug. 19, 2004, that turned hundreds of people into millionaires &mdash; and Page himself into a billionaire.</p>
+<p>But gradually Page became a more distant, remote figure. To use a metaphor from Google&rsquo;s earlier years, Page was no longer driving the van. He&rsquo;d hired a driver and was daydreaming in the back.</p>
+<p>It was a slow retreat. During the first few years, Page kept a tight grip on Google&rsquo;s product development.</p>
+<p>One of Schmidt&rsquo;s first efforts after joining as CEO in August 2001 was to convince Page that Google needed to hire a vice president of product management. Page thought the role was superfluous.</p>
+<p><div class="KonaFilter image-container float_left"><div class="image on-image"><img src="http://static1.businessinsider.com/image/5356bc1269beddb25a7ea9ad-689-517/jonathan-rosenberg.jpg" border="0" alt="Jonathan Rosenberg" width="480" /><p class='caption'>Jonathan Rosenberg</p></div><p></div></p>
+<p>Nonetheless, Schmidt persuaded him to hire Jonathan Rosenberg for the job. Rosenberg came from Excite@Home, a massively funded high-profile startup that failed in the late 1990s.</p>
+<p>But just because Rosenberg got the job and had the title didn&rsquo;t mean Page was going to make room for him at Google.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;I would come to the staff meeting with my structured agenda, the market research we needed to do, the one- and two-year road maps that we needed to develop, and Larry would basically mock them and me,&rdquo; Rosenberg later told a reporter.</p>
+<p>Rosenberg also had a very hard time hiring product managers. He kept bringing in top graduates from Harvard&rsquo;s and Stanford&rsquo;s MBA programs, and Page kept rejecting them.</p>
+<p>Rosenberg eventually asked Page what he was doing wrong.</p>
+<p>Page told him to stop telling engineers what to do &mdash; and to stop trying to hire other non-engineers to do it too.</p>
+<p>One of Page&rsquo;s closest confidantes at Google, a rising executive named Marissa Mayer, finally clued Rosenberg in, as Levy tells it. He should stop trying to hire MBAs to be product managers and start hiring computer science graduates with an interest in business.</p>
+<p>The only way Page was ever going to loosen his grip and allow a management layer to come between him and Google&rsquo;s engineers was if that layer was made up of other engineers.</p>
+<p>Rosenberg took the advice and it worked. Soon Google had an army of product managers. Page took a step back.</p>
+<p>A couple of years into Rosenberg&rsquo;s career at Google, he met Larry Page&rsquo;s mom. Her son was showing her around campus.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;What does he do?&rdquo; Page&rsquo;s mother asked about Rosenberg.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;Well, at first I wasn&rsquo;t sure,&rdquo; Page told her. &ldquo;But I&rsquo;ve decided that now he&rsquo;s the reason I sometimes have free time.&rdquo;</p>
+<h2><strong>The Slow Fade</strong></h2>
+<p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table float_right"><div><div class="image on-image"><img src="http://static2.businessinsider.com/image/4c3f225f7f8b9a9542200000-610-458/google-eric-larry-rtrs.jpg" border="0" alt="google eric schmidt larry page sergey brin" /><p class="source"><span>Reuters</span></p><p class='caption'>Sergey Brin, Larry Page, and Eric Schmidt</p></div><p></div></div></p>
+<p>None of this is to say Page ever stopped reviewing, approving, and contributing to the products Google shipped.</p>
+<p>Along with Brin, Page controlled a majority of the company&rsquo;s voting shares. Basically, he owned the place. And doing work on products interested him in a way that dealing with people did not. Plus, he was really good at it.</p>
+<p>Before Google launched Gmail in 2004, its creator, Paul Buchheit, brought it to Page&rsquo;s open cubicle office for a review.</p>
+<p>As Buchheit called the program up on Page&rsquo;s computer, the boss made a face.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;It&rsquo;s too slow,&rdquo; Page said.</p>
+<p>Buchheit disagreed. It was loading just fine, he said.</p>
+<p>No, Page insisted. It had taken a full 600 milliseconds for the page to load.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;You can&rsquo;t know that,&rdquo; Buchheit said. But when he got back to his office, he looked up the server logs. It had taken exactly 600 milliseconds for Gmail to load.</p>
+<p>Page remained a deciding voice in big strategic initiatives like Google&rsquo;s multibillion-dollar bid for wireless spectrum and its $1.65 billion acquisition of video-sharing site YouTube in 2006.</p>
+<p>But to Googlers, it felt like Page was much less involved with the day-to-day management of the company.</p>
+<p>When Eric Schmidt held big meetings with his direct reports, a group called the Operating Committee, or OC, Page would show up, but he&rsquo;d have a laptop open in front of him the whole time. Brin would do the same.</p>
+<p>Neither would participate in the meeting until Schmidt said something like, &ldquo;Boys, I need your attention now.&rdquo; Then Page or Brin would look up and offer a sharp opinion on the matter at hand. Characteristically, Page would offer his two cents while staring off into an empty corner of the room.</p>
+<p>On occasion, Page would grow more animated, and Schmidt would carefully shut him down, saying, &ldquo;We heard you, Larry. Thank you.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>On some issues, Page&rsquo;s opinion was simply ignored. For example, after Google had become the Internet&rsquo;s most successful advertising business, Page decided the company should destroy the advertising agency industry. To his thinking, it was obviously a highly inefficient system that could be erased with the help of technology. Not only did the company opt not to take on this battle, but Schmidt and his top advertising executives, Tim Armstrong and Sheryl Sandberg, did their best to make sure none of Google&rsquo;s many important ad-agency clients caught wind of Page&rsquo;s ideas on the topic.</p>
+<p>Over time, Page came to appreciate Schmidt&rsquo;s strengths very much. Page&rsquo;s goal had been to invent something that made the world better and to see it become properly commercialized. Google search had certainly done the former, and Schmidt had played a huge role in building the kind of company that could capitalize financially on Page&rsquo;s vision. He wasn&rsquo;t like any of the villains who had plagued Nikola Tesla&rsquo;s life.</p>
+<p>As his comfort level with Schmidt increased, Page receded further.</p>
+<p>In 2007, he decided he was going to too many meetings. He tended to turn down these requests, but Google executives who wanted his input had found a workaround &mdash; sending their meeting invitations straight to his assistants, who would dutifully load up his calendar. So Page got rid of his assistants. This forced anyone who wanted to meet with Page to stalk him through Google&rsquo;s office. In this situation, his longstanding social deficiencies served him well: He got good at dismissing people with a friendly seeming nod over the shoulder while he kept walking.</p>
+<p>He also grew tired of giving interviews. In 2008, Page told Google&rsquo;s communications team that they could have a total of eight hours of his time that year. Why should he have to talk to the outside world?</p>
+<p>That&rsquo;s what Schmidt was for.</p>
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+    <h1 itemprop="name">The Untold Story Of Larry Page's Incredible Comeback</h1>
+    <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/larry-page-the-untold-story-2014-4" itemprop="url">The Untold Story Of Larry Page's Incredible Comeback</a>
+    <img src="http://static5.businessinsider.com/image/5355bcd169bedd0334bfeb94/the-untold-story-of-larry-pages-incredible-comeback.jpg"  itemprop="image" />
+    <div itemprop="description"><p>One day in July 2001, Larry Page decided to...</p></div>
+</div>
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+- The Atlantic</a>
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+				<div class="media-body">
+					<a class="hive-link" href="http://stilldrinking.org/programming-sucks" target="_blank">Programming Sucks</a>
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+					<a class="hive-link" href="http://mashable.com/2014/04/29/star-wars-episode-vii-cast-announced/" target="_blank">'Star Wars: Episode VII' Cast Announced</a>
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+					<a class="hive-link" href="http://time.com/79590/donald-sterling-kareem-abdul-jabbar-racism/" target="_blank">Kareem Abdul-Jabbar on Donald Sterling's Racism and the NBA
+- TIME</a>
+				</div>
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+					<a class="hive-link" href="http://boingboing.net/2014/04/30/where-are-the-stolen-girls-of.html" target="_blank">Where are the stolen girls of Nigeria? And why don't we care
+more?</a>
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+Businesses : Shots</a>
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+					<a class="hive-link" href="http://www.bloomberg.com/now/2014-04-30/bitcoin-now-bloomberg/" target="_blank">Bitcoin Now on Bloomberg | Blog</a>
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+</script>
+<noscript>
+  <img height="1" width="1" alt="" style="display:none;" src="//www.bizographics.com/collect/?pid=1301&fmt=gif" />
+</noscript>
+<!--end-->
+
+<script type="text/javascript">if(!NREUMQ.f){NREUMQ.f=function(){NREUMQ.push(["load",new Date().getTime()]);var e=document.createElement("script");e.type="text/javascript";e.src=(("http:"===document.location.protocol)?"http:":"https:")+"//"+"js-agent.newrelic.com/nr-100.js";document.body.appendChild(e);if(NREUMQ.a)NREUMQ.a();};NREUMQ.a=window.onload;window.onload=NREUMQ.f;};NREUMQ.push(["nrfj","beacon-1.newrelic.com","4b4136998e","2646431","ZVZVZRBVXEJVVkJRDVwcdEQRQF1cG0VZSxY=",0,196,new Date().getTime(),"","","","",""]);</script></body>
+</html>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_businessinsider3.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_businessinsider3.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..1da4951a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_businessinsider3.json
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.businessinsider.com/larry-page-the-untold-story-2014-4",
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "One day in July 2001, Larry Page decided to...",
+        "domain": "www.businessinsider.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.businessinsider.com/larry-page-the-untold-story-2014-4",
+        "meta_keywords": "Google, Larry Page, Longform, Nicholas Carlson,",
+        "cleaned_text": "One day in July 2001, Larry Page decided to fire Google",
+        "meta_favicon": "http://static5.businessinsider.com/assets/images/faviconBI.ico",
+        "meta_lang": "en"
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/cbslocal1.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cbslocal.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/cbslocal1.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_cbslocal.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cbslocal.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cbslocal.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..37fabbb7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cbslocal.json
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://newyork.cbslocal.com/2012/06/08/bc-morning-show-american-hero-kelly-malloy/", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "Boomer &amp; Craig were thrilled to welcome an American Hero into the Allstate Studio, as Kelly Malloy stopped-by and was given the royal treatment she deserved...", 
+        "domain": "newyork.cbslocal.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://newyork.cbslocal.com/2012/06/08/bc-morning-show-american-hero-kelly-malloy/", 
+        "meta_keywords": "vibNews", 
+        "cleaned_text": "Boomer & Craig were thrilled to welcome an American Hero into the Allstate Studio, as Kelly", 
+        "tags": [
+            "Boomer & Carton", 
+            "Kelly Malloy", 
+            "Bobby Dwyer"
+        ], 
+        "meta_favicon": "http://s2.wp.com/i/favicon.ico?m=1311976027g", 
+        "meta_lang": "en"
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/cnbc1.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cnbc1.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/cnbc1.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_cnbc1.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cnbc1.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cnbc1.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..a4d63208
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cnbc1.json
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.cnbc.com/id/44613978", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "The Fed launched much anticipated \"operation twist\" with a twist\u2014it is also taking direct aim at mortgages. The Fed also warned of significant downside economic risks. Check out how it changed its statement.", 
+        "domain": "www.cnbc.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.cnbc.com/id/44613978", 
+        "meta_keywords": "Bonds,Economy,Interest Rates,Economy (Global),Banking,Economic Measures,Debt,Central Banks,Ben Bernanke,Federal Reserve,Currencies,Investment Strategy,Top Blogs", 
+        "cleaned_text": "Some traders found Wednesday's Fed statement to be a bit gloomier than expected.", 
+        "meta_favicon": "http://media.cnbc.com/i/CNBC/CNBC_Images/mobile_images/cnbc_iphone_icon.png", 
+        "meta_lang": null
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/cnet1.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cnet.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/cnet1.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_cnet.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cnet.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cnet.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..2e1aa03a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cnet.json
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://news.cnet.com/8301-30686_3-20014053-266.html?tag=topStories1", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "The phone company is adding bells and whistles to its Fios TV service, including an app that turns an iPad into a TV and several other new options for taking your video content on the go. Read this blog post by Marguerite Reardon on Signal Strength.", 
+        "domain": "news.cnet.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://news.cnet.com/8301-30686_3-20014053-266.html?tag=topStories1", 
+        "meta_keywords": "Marguerite Reardon, wireless, broadband, telecom", 
+        "cleaned_text": "NEW YORK--Verizon Communications is prepping a new", 
+        "tags": [
+            "iPad", 
+            "Verizon Communications", 
+            "Verizon Fios TV", 
+            "Fios", 
+            "Apple iPad"
+        ], 
+        "meta_favicon": "", 
+        "meta_lang": null
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/cnn1.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cnn1.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/cnn1.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_cnn1.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cnn1.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cnn1.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..ced9eb91
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cnn1.json
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.cnn.com/2010/POLITICS/08/13/democrats.social.security/index.html", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "Democrats pledged Friday to not only keep Social Security in place, but use the historic program against Republicans ahead of the midterm election.", 
+        "domain": "www.cnn.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.cnn.com/2010/POLITICS/08/13/democrats.social.security/index.html", 
+        "meta_keywords": "", 
+        "cleaned_text": "Washington (CNN) -- Democrats pledged ", 
+        "title": "Democrats to use Social Security against GOP this fall - CNN.com", 
+        "meta_favicon": "http://i.cdn.turner.com/cnn/.element/img/3.0/global/misc/apple-touch-icon.png", 
+        "meta_lang": "en"
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cnn_arabic.html b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cnn_arabic.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..5dcb66f1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cnn_arabic.html
@@ -0,0 +1,382 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">
+<html lang="ar"><head>
+<title>معارضون يسيطرون على مخازن للصواريخ بريف دمشق - CNNArabic.com</title>
+<meta content="IE=EmulateIE7" http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible"/>
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"/>
+<meta property="og:image" content="http://i.cdn.turner.com/cnn/arabic/2013/middle_east/8/3/syria.clashes/Gal.syria.assad.army.jpg_-1_-1.jpg"/>
+<meta property="og:title" content="معارضون يسيطرون على مخازن للصواريخ بريف دمشق"/>
+<meta property="og:url" content="http://arabic.cnn.com/2013/middle_east/8/3/syria.clashes/index.html"/>
+<link rel="canonical" href="http://arabic.cnn.com/2013/middle_east/8/3/syria.clashes/index.html"/>
+<meta content="215296135184920" property="fb:app_id"/>
+<meta content="article" property="og:type"/>
+<meta content="CNNArabic" property="og:site_name"/>
+<meta property="og:description" content="أكدت جهات سورية معارضة أن فصائل مسلحة معارضة لنظام الرئيس بشار الأسد وعلى صلة بـ&quot;الجيش الحر&quot; تمكنت من السيطرة على مستودعات للأسلحة بريف دمشق تضم كميات، في الوقت الذي حض فيه الائتلاف الوطني السوري المعارض الفصائل الكردية والإسلامية المتقاتلة في شمالي البلاد إلى &quot;ضبط النفس.&quot;"/>
+<link rel="image_src" href="http://i.cdn.turner.com/cnn/arabic/2013/middle_east/8/3/syria.clashes/Gal.syria.assad.army.jpg_-1_-1.jpg"/>
+<link href="http://arabic.cnn.com/.element/css/3.0/common.css" type="text/css" rel="stylesheet"/>
+<link href="http://arabic.cnn.com/.element/css/3.0/mosaic.css" type="text/css" rel="stylesheet"/>
+ <!--[if IE]>
+  <style type="text/css">
+   #cnn_videobox .cnn_vidtxt {float:none;}
+  </style>
+<![endif]-->
+<script src="http://i.cdn.turner.com/cnn/.element/js/3.0/protoaculous.1.8.2.min.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
+<script src="http://i.cdn.turner.com/cnn/.element/js/3.0/swfobject-2.2.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
+<script src="http://i.cdn.turner.com/cnn/.element/js/3.0/csiManager.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
+<script src="http://i.cdn.turner.com/cnn/.element/js/3.0/StorageManager.js?20100728" type="text/javascript"></script>
+<script src="http://i.cdn.turner.com/analytics/cnnarabic/ais.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
+<script type="text/javascript" src="/.element/js/2.0/arabic_main.js"/>
+<script type="text/javascript">        
+    var cnnDocDomain = '';
+        if(location.hostname.indexOf('cnn.com')>0) {cnnDocDomain='cnn.com';}        
+    if(location.hostname.indexOf('turner.com')>0) {if(document.layers){cnnDocDomain='turner.com:'+location.port;}else{cnnDocDomain='turner.com';}}          if(cnnDocDomain) {document.domain = cnnDocDomain;}
+// DO NOT PUT ANYTHING BENEATH THIS!
+</script>
+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://arabic.cnn.com/.element/js/3.0/Programs/mme.js"></script>
+<script type="text/javascript">
+  var CNN_gallery_0_ad_0 = "/cnnarabic_adspaces/3.0/homepage/bot1.120x90.ad";
+  var CNN_gallery_0_ad_1 = "/cnnarabic_adspaces/3.0/homepage/bot2.120x90.ad";
+  var CNN_gallery_0_ad_2 = "/cnnarabic_adspaces/3.0/homepage/bot3.120x90.ad";
+
+</script>
+
+<script type="text/javascript" language="JavaScript1.1" src="http://ar.atwola.com/file/adsWrapper.js"></script>
+<style type="text/css">
+<!--
+.aoltextad { text-align: justify; font-size: 12px; color: black; font-family: Georgia, sans-serif }
+-->
+</style>
+
+<script language="JavaScript1.2" type="text/javascript">
+
+function CNN_getCookies() {
+    var hash = new Array;
+    if ( document.cookie ) {
+        var cookies = document.cookie.split( '; ' );
+        for ( var i = 0; i < cookies.length; i++ ) {
+            var namevaluePairs = cookies[i].split( '=' );
+            hash[namevaluePairs[0]] = unescape( namevaluePairs[1] ) || null;
+        }
+    }
+    return hash;
+}
+
+function CNN_parseCookieData( cookieDataString ) {
+    var cookieValues = new Object();
+    var separatePairs = cookieDataString.split( '&' );
+    for ( var i = 0; i < separatePairs.length; i++  ) {
+        var separateValues = separatePairs[i].split( ':' );
+        cookieValues[separateValues[0]] = separateValues[1] || null;
+    }
+    return cookieValues;
+}
+
+// default values
+var adHeadOffset = 0;
+var adHeadClass = "us.low";
+
+var allCookies = CNN_getCookies();
+var adHeadCookie = allCookies[ "Target" ] || null;
+var isClassAndOffsetValid = false;
+var alreadySwappedTargetImage = false;
+var alreadySwappedCookieCrumb = false;
+
+if ( adHeadCookie ) {   // got milk?
+    var adHeadHash = CNN_parseCookieData( adHeadCookie );
+    //alert("o=" +  adHeadHash[ "o" ] + "\nclass=" + adHeadHash[ "class"]);
+    if ( adHeadHash[ "o" ] && adHeadHash[ "class" ] ) {
+        var validClassesAndOffsets = [ 'us.low', 0, 'us.high', 1, 'intl', 2, 'intl', 3, 'us.edu', 0, 'us.gov', 0, 'us.mil', 0, 'us.org', 0 ];
+        for ( var i = 0; i < validClassesAndOffsets.length; i+=2 ) {
+            if ( validClassesAndOffsets[i] == adHeadHash[ "class" ] && validClassesAndOffsets[i+1] == adHeadHash[ "o" ] ) {
+                isClassAndOffsetValid = true;
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    if ( isClassAndOffsetValid ) {
+        adHeadOffset = adHeadHash[ "o" ];
+        adHeadClass = adHeadHash[ "class" ];
+    }
+}
+
+document.adoffset = adHeadOffset;
+
+//alert( "GLOBAL\nalreadySwappedTargetImage=" + alreadySwappedTargetImage + "\nisClassAndOffsetValid=" + isClassAndOffsetValid );
+
+var alreadySwappedDETargetImage = false;
+var cnnDEadDEonCookie = false;
+    
+</script>
+
+<!--<script type="text/javascript" src="/cnnarabic_adspaces/arabic_cnn_adspaces.js"></script>-->
+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://i.cdn.turner.com/cnn/cnn_adspaces/cnn_adspaces.js"></script>
+
+
+
+</head>
+<body>
+<a name="top_of_page"/>
+<div id="fb-root"/><a href="#ContentArea"><img style="display: none;" vspace="0" hspace="0" border="0" height="1" width="10" align="right" alt="" src="http://i.cdn.turner.com/cnn/images/1.gif"/></a>
+<!-- begin default international header -->
+<!-- TODO: unobtrusive js refactor -->
+<div id="cnn_hdr">
+    <div id="cnn_hdr-main">
+        <div class="hdr-wrap">
+            <div id="hdr-banner">
+        <h1>
+        <span>CNN</span>
+        <a id="hdr-banner-title" href="/" title=""><img src="/.element/img/2.0/hdr-globe-central.gif" width="244" height="82" alt="CNN" /></a>
+        </h1>
+        </div>
+        <div id="hdr-search">
+                <form method="get" action="http://search.arabic.cnn.com/search?" onsubmit="">
+                <div class="ftr-search-datacntr">
+                    <div class="ftr-search-tfield"><input type="text" name="q" size="12" maxlength="40" value=""></div>
+                    <div class="ftr-search-sicon"><input type="image" src="/.element/img/2.0/search/btn_search_hp_text.gif" width="55" height="21" alt="Submit"></div>
+<input type="hidden" name="site" value="default_collection">
+<input type="hidden" name="client" value="test">
+<input type="hidden" name="output" value="xml_no_dtd">
+<input type="hidden" name="proxystylesheet" value="test">
+<input type="hidden" name="proxyreload" value="1">
+
+                </div>
+                </form>
+            </div>
+            <div id="hdr-editions" style="width:450px;">
+                <ul>
+                            <li class="no-pad-right">&#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1576;&#1593;&#1577;: &nbsp;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1576;&#1610;&#1577;</li>
+                            <li class="lftrgt_border"><a id="cnn_switchEdition_us" href="http://us.cnn.com/?hpt=ed_US" title="CNN US">U.S.</a></li>
+                            <li><a href="http://edition.cnn.com/?hpt=ed_Intl" title="CNN International">INTERNATIONAL</a></li>
+                            <li class="no-border"><a href="http://mexico.cnn.com/?hpt=ed_Mexico" title="CNN M&Eacute;XICO">M&Eacute;XICO</a></li>
+
+                </ul>
+                                <div class="cnn_clear"></div>
+                                <div style="padding-top:2px;">
+                                <ul>
+                                        <li class="no-pad-right"><span>:&nbsp;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1604;&#1601;&#1586;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606;</span></li>
+                                        <li><a href="http://www.cnn.com/CNN/Programs/">US</a></li>
+                                        <li><a href="http://www.cnn.com/CNNI/">CNNi</a></li>
+                                        <li><a href="http://cnnespanol.cnn.com/">CNN en Espa&#241;ol</a></li>
+                                        <li class="no-border"><a href="http://www.hlntv.com/">HLN</a></li>
+                                </ul>
+                                </div>
+                                <div class="cnn_clear"></div>
+                                <div style="padding:2px 50px 0 0; height:23px;">
+                                <ul>
+                                        <li class="no-border"><a href="http://www.facebook.com/CNNArabic"><img src="/images/icons/facebook_icon.png" width="17" height="17" border="0"/></a></li>
+                                        <li class="no-border"><a href="http://www.twitter.com/cnnarabic"><img src="/images/icons/twitter_icon.png" width="17" height="17" border="0" /></a></li>
+                                        <li class="no-border"><a href="/rss/"><img src="/images/icons/rss_icon.png" width="17" height="17" border="0"/></a></li>
+                <li class="no-border"><a href="http://www.youtube.com/cnnarabic"><img src="/images/icons/youtube.icon.jpg" width="17" height="17" border="0"/></a></li>
+                                </ul>
+                                </div>
+
+
+            </div>
+            
+        </div>
+    </div>
+    <div id="cnn_hdr-nav">
+        <ul id="intl-menu">
+            <li class="no-border"><a id="nav-home" class="nav-media no-border" href="/" title="Breaking, World, Business, Sports, Entertainment and Video News from CNNArabic.com">&#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1601;&#1581;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1574;&#1610;&#1587;&#1610;&#1577;</a></li>
+            <li class="no-border"><a id="nav-video" class="nav-media no-border" href="/video/" title="Breaking News Videos from CNNArabic.com">&#1601;&#1610;&#1583;&#1610;&#1608;</a></li>
+            <li><a id="nav-middle-east" class="nav-on" href="/middle_east/" title="Middle east News Headlines and Video from CNNArabic.com">&#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1608;&#1587;&#1591;</a></li>
+            <li><a id="nav-world" href="/world/" title="World News Headlines and Video from CNNArabic.com">&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;</a></li>
+            <li><a id="nav-business" href="/business/" title="World Business News Headlines and Video from CNNArabic.com">&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583; &#1608;&#1571;&#1593;&#1605;&#1575;&#1604;</a></li>
+            <li><a id="nav-entertainment" href="/entertainment/" title="Entertainment News Headlines and Video from CNNArabic.com">&#1605;&#1606;&#1608;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578;</a></li>
+            <li><a id="nav-tech" href="/scitech/" title="Technology News Headlines and Video from CNNArabic.com">&#1589;&#1581;&#1577; &#1608;&#1578;&#1603;&#1606;&#1608;&#1604;&#1608;&#1580;&#1610;&#1575;</a></li>
+            <li><a id="nav-world-sport" href="/sport/" title="World Sport News Headlines and Video from CNNArabic.com">&#1585;&#1610;&#1575;&#1590;&#1577;</a></li>
+            <li><a id="nav-special" href="/special/" title="Special Coverage Headlines and Video from CNNArabic.com">&#1605;&#1604;&#1601;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1578;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1585;</a></li>
+        </ul>
+    </div>
+</div>
+
+
+<!-- end header -->
+
+
+<script language="javascript" type="text/javascript">
+<!--
+var cnnSectionName = "Middle_east";
+//--></script>
+
+<div align="center" id="cnnContainer">
+<div class="cnn_maincntnr">
+<!-- this is where the breaking news CSI code will go -->
+<div id="cnnBannerContainer"></div>
+<script type="text/javascript">
+CSIManager.getInstance().call('/.element/ssi/breaking_news/1.0/banner.html','','cnnBannerContainer',cnnRenderArabicBanner);
+</script>
+
+<div class="cnn_contentarea"><div class="cnn_adcntr728x90t"><div><script type="text/javascript"> cnnad_newTileIDGroup(new Array('728x90_top','336x280_lft')); </script> 
+<!-- ADSPACE: middle_east/article/top.728x90 -->
+<!-- CALLOUT|http://ads.cnn.com/html.ng/site=cnn_arabic&cnn_arabic_pagetype=article&cnn_arabic_pos=728x90_top&cnn_arabic_rollup=middle_east&page.allowcompete=no&params.styles=fs|CALLOUT -->
+<div id="ad-850427" align="center" style="padding: 0; margin: 0; border: 0;"></div><script>cnnad_createAd("850427","http://ads.cnn.com/html.ng/site=cnn_arabic&cnn_arabic_pagetype=article&cnn_arabic_pos=728x90_top&cnn_arabic_rollup=middle_east&page.allowcompete=no&params.styles=fs","90","728");cnnad_registerSpace(850427,728,90);</script>
+</div><div class="cnn_adtitle"> </div></div>
+<div class="cnn_storyarea" id="cnnContentContainer"><div class="cnn_stryarblkbr"> </div>
+<div class="cnn_strybtntools">    <div id="cnn_gplus">
+    <div class="g-plusone" data-size="tall"></div>
+    <script type="text/javascript">
+    (function () {
+        var po = document.createElement('script'); po.type = 'text/javascript'; po.async = true;
+        po.src = 'https://apis.google.com/js/plusone.js';
+        var s = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; s.parentNode.insertBefore(po, s);
+    })();
+    </script>
+    </div>
+    <div id="cnn_linkedin"><script src="//platform.linkedin.com/in.js" type="text/javascript"></script><script type="IN/Share" data-counter="top"></script></div>
+<div id="cnn_twitter"><iframe style="width:60px; margin:10px 0 0 10px;" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" allowtransparency="true" src="https://platform.twitter.com/widgets/tweet_button.html?count=vertical&amp;lang=ar&amp;url=http://arabic.cnn.com/2013/middle_east/8/3/syria.clashes/index.html&amp;via=cnnarabic">
+    </iframe></div>
+         <div id="cnn_facebook">
+<iframe allowTransparency="true" style="border:none; overflow:hidden; width:60px; height:90px;" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" src="//www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=http%3A%2F%2Farabic.cnn.com%2F2013%2Fmiddle_east%2F8%2F3%2Fsyria.clashes%2Findex.html&amp;send=false&amp;layout=box_count&amp;width=60&amp;show_faces=false&amp;locale=ar_AR&amp;colorscheme=light&amp;action=recommend&amp;height=900">
+</iframe></div>
+         </div><h1>معارضون يسيطرون على مخازن للصواريخ بريف دمشق</h1><div class="cnn_stryathrtmp"><div class="cnn_strytmstmp">الأحد، 04 آب/اغسطس 2013، آخر تحديث 02:21 (GMT+0400)</div></div>
+<div class="cnn_strycntntrgt"><div class="cnn_stryimg640"><img border="0" height="360" width="640" src="Gal.syria.assad.army.jpg_-1_-1.jpg" alt=""/></div><p><b>دمشق، سوريا (CNN) -- أكدت جهات سورية معارضة أن فصائل مسلحة معارضة لنظام الرئيس بشار الأسد وعلى صلة بـ"الجيش الحر" تمكنت من السيطرة على مستودعات للأسلحة بريف دمشق تضم كميات من الصواريخ ومضادات الدروع، في الوقت الذي حض فيه الائتلاف الوطني السوري المعارض الفصائل الكردية والإسلامية المتقاتلة في شمالي البلاد إلى "ضبط النفس."</b></p><p>وقال المرصد السوري لحقوق الإنسان، وهو هيئة معارضة مقرها لندن، إن مقاتلين من لواء الاسلام - جبهة النصرة- كتيبة التوحيد- قوات المغاوير - كتائب شهداء القلمون، وعدة كتائب أخرى، سيطروا على ثلاثة <a href="../../2/jordan.syria.borders.drugs.and.weapons/index.html">مستودعات للذخيرة</a> بالقرب من بلدة قلدون في منطقة القلمون بريف دمشق.</p>
+        <p>وبحسب المرصد فقد اغتنم مقاتلو الكتائب المقاتلة <a href="../../../../syria.2011/8/1/assad.army-day/index.html">أسلحة مضادة للدروع وصواريخ</a> أرض- أرض (غراد) وذخائر أخرى متنوعة, كما تجددت الاشتباكات بين مقاتلين من الكتائب المقاتلة من طرف والقوات النظامية ومسلحين من اللجان الشعبية التابعة لها من <a href="../../../../world/7/22/EU.ist.hezbollah.wing.terror.list/index.html">الطائفة الشيعية</a> من طرف آخر في منطقة السيدة زينب.</p>
+        <p>وفي محافظة الحسكة شمال شرقي البلاد، أفاد المرصد عن اشتباكات دارت بعد منتصف ليل الجمعة - السبت، في محيط بلدة تل حلف قرب مدينة رأس العين بين و"حدات حماية الشعب" الكردية، ومقاتلي ما يعرف بـ"الدولة الإسلامية في العراق والشام" وجبهة النصرة وبعض الكتائب المقاتلة من طرف آخر.</p>
+        <p>ولم ترد تقارير حول الخسائر البشرية، في في حين دارت اشتباكات عنيفة بين الطرفين في وقت متأخر من ليل الجمعة، في قرية التويمية، الواقعة بين منطقة أصفر ونجار وقرية مشرافة في جنوب مدينة راس العين، إثر محاولة مقاتلي الجبهة و"الدولة الإسلامية" التقدم باتجاه المدينة.</p>
+        <p>أما الائتلاف الوطني السوري المعارض، فقد دعا في بيان له كافة الكتائب والفصائل المقاتلة في الشمال السوري إلى "ضرورة الوعي بأهمية المرحلة الراهنة، وبضبط النفس والتحلي بالحكمة لضمان سلامة المدنيين وإخلاء سبيل أي أشخاص موقوفين أو معتقلين."</p>
+        <p>وشدد الائتلاف على "ضرورة الابتعاد عن الأعمال الاستفزازية بكافة أشكالها، ويحذر كل من يستغل المرحلة الراهنة لتطبيق أجندات سياسية، وترك القرار للشعب السوري الحر ليختار مصيره بملء إرادته" في بيان يأتي بالترافق مع الحديث عن كون تلك المواجهات مقدمة لولادة حكومة تدير المناطق التي يقطنها الأكراد في سوريا بشكل مستقل.</p>
+        <div class="cnn_divline cnn_divln3pxblck"> </div>
+<div style="padding:10px 0;">
+<p style="font:normal 12px/18px 'Tahoma';">ترحب شبكة CNN بالنقاش الحيوي والمفيد، وكي لا نضطر في موقع CNN بالعربية إلى مراجعة التعليقات قبل نشرها. ننصحك بمراجعة <a href="/community_guidelines.html">إرشادات الاستخدام</a>  للتعرف إليها جيداً. وللعلم فان جميع مشاركاتك يمكن استخدامها، مع اسمك وصورتك، استنادا إلى <a href="/privacy.html">سياسة الخصوصية</a> بما يتوافق مع <a href="/terms.html">شروط استخدام الموقع</a>.</p>
+<p style="font:bold 11px/18px 'Tahoma';"> الآراء الواردة أدناه لا تعبر عن رأي موقع CNN بالعربية، بل تعكس وجهات نظر أصحابها فقط.</p>
+</div>
+<div data-width="620" data-num-posts="10" class="fb-comments" data-href="http://arabic.cnn.com/2013/middle_east/8/3/syria.clashes/index.html"> </div>
+
+         </div>
+<div class="cnn_strycntntlft"><div class="cnn_stryad"><!-- ADSPACE: middle_east/article/lft.336x280 -->
+<!-- CALLOUT|http://ads.cnn.com/html.ng/site=cnn_arabic&cnn_arabic_pagetype=article&cnn_arabic_pos=336x280_lft&cnn_arabic_rollup=middle_east&page.allowcompete=no&params.styles=fs|CALLOUT -->
+<div id="ad-64509" align="center" style="padding: 0; margin: 0; border: 0;"></div><script>cnnad_createAd("64509","http://ads.cnn.com/html.ng/site=cnn_arabic&cnn_arabic_pagetype=article&cnn_arabic_pos=336x280_lft&cnn_arabic_rollup=middle_east&page.allowcompete=no&params.styles=fs","280","336");cnnad_registerSpace(64509,336,280);</script>
+</div><div class="cnn_adtitle"><img border="0" alt="" height="5" width="42" src="/.element/img/2.0/global/misc/advertisement.gif"/></div><div class="cnn_divline cnn_divlscrct"> </div>
+<div class="cnn_strycrcntr"><div class="cnn_strycrcntrpad" style="padding-bottom:17px;">
+<div class="cnn_strycrcntrnwsp">
+<h4>&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1578;&#1589;&#1601;&#1581;&#1575;&#1611;</h4>
+<div class="cnn_clear"></div>
+<div class="cnn_divline"></div>
+<div class="cnn_stryccnwsp2">
+<div class="cnn_stryccnwsp3">
+<h2><a href="http://arabic.cnn.com/2013/middle_east/8/4/bashir.saudi/index.html">السودان: السعودية تمنع مرور طائرة البشير بأجوائها </a></h2> 
+</div>
+<div class="cnn_clear"></div>
+</div>
+<div class="cnn_divline"></div>
+<div class="cnn_stryccnwsp2">
+<div class="cnn_stryccnwsp3">
+<h2><a href="http://arabic.cnn.com/2013/middle_east/8/4/azhar.qardawi/index.html">شيخ الأزهر يحفظ طلب إقالة القرضاوي من "كبار العلماء" </a></h2> 
+</div>
+<div class="cnn_clear"></div>
+</div>
+<div class="cnn_divline"></div>
+<div class="cnn_stryccnwsp2">
+<div class="cnn_stryccnwsp3">
+<h2><a href="http://arabic.cnn.com/2013/twitter/8/4/Ahlam.nidal.alahmadiyah/index.html">أحلام وزوجها يستعدان لمقاضاة إعلامية لبنانية </a></h2> 
+</div>
+<div class="cnn_clear"></div>
+</div>
+<div class="cnn_divline"></div>
+<div class="cnn_stryccnwsp2">
+<div class="cnn_stryccnwsp3">
+<h2><a href="http://arabic.cnn.com/2013/entertainment/8/3/youtube.02aug/">يوتيوب: القرضاوي ينتقد ملك السعودية وسما المصري تشتم أوباما </a></h2> 
+</div>
+<div class="cnn_clear"></div>
+</div>
+<div class="cnn_divline"></div>
+<div class="cnn_stryccnwsp2">
+<div class="cnn_stryccnwsp3">
+<h2><a href="http://arabic.cnn.com/2013/middle_east/8/4/saudi.drugs/index.html">السعودية: إحباط تهريب مئات آلاف الحبوب المخدرة </a></h2> 
+</div>
+<div class="cnn_clear"></div>
+</div>
+<div class="cnn_divline"></div>
+<div class="cnn_clear"></div>
+ </div></div>
+<div class="cnn_divline cnn_divlscrc"> </div><div class="cnn_strycrcntrad"><div><!-- ADSPACE: middle_east/article/lft.300x150 -->
+<!-- CALLOUT|http://ads.cnn.com/html.ng/site=cnn_arabic&cnn_arabic_pagetype=article&cnn_arabic_pos=300x150_lft&cnn_arabic_rollup=middle_east&page.allowcompete=no&params.styles=fs|CALLOUT -->
+<div id="ad-696261" align="center" style="padding: 0; margin: 0; border: 0;"></div><script>cnnad_createAd("696261","http://ads.cnn.com/html.ng/site=cnn_arabic&cnn_arabic_pagetype=article&cnn_arabic_pos=300x150_lft&cnn_arabic_rollup=middle_east&page.allowcompete=no&params.styles=fs","150","300");cnnad_registerSpace(696261,300,150);</script>
+</div><div class="cnn_adtitle"><img border="0" alt="" height="5" width="42" src="/.element/img/2.0/global/misc/advertisement.gif"/></div></div></div></div>
+<div class="cnn_clear"> </div></div></div>
+<script type="text/javascript">
+    window.fbAsyncInit = function () {
+        FB.init({ appId: '215296135184920', status: true, cookie: true, xfbml: true });
+    };
+    (function () {
+        var e = document.createElement('script'); e.async = true;
+        e.src = 'https://connect.facebook.net/ar_AR/all.js';
+        document.getElementById('fb-root').appendChild(e);
+    } ());
+</script>
+<div id="cnn_ftrcntnt">
+<div id="cnn_ftrcntntinner" class="clearfix">
+<div class="cnn_ftrdivl1"></div>
+
+
+<div id="ftr-search">
+<form method="get" action="http://search.arabic.cnn.com/search?" onsubmit="">
+    <div class="ftr-search-datacntr">
+       <div class="ftr-search-tfield"><input type="text" name="q" size="12" maxlength="40" value=""/></div>
+       <div class="ftr-search-sicon"><input type="image" src="/.element/img/2.0/search/btn_search_hp_text.gif" width="55" height="21" alt="Submit"/></div>
+<input type="hidden" name="site" value="default_collection">
+<input type="hidden" name="client" value="test">
+<input type="hidden" name="output" value="xml_no_dtd">
+<input type="hidden" name="proxystylesheet" value="test">
+<input type="hidden" name="proxyreload" value="1">
+
+    </div>
+</form>
+</div>
+
+<div class="cnn_clear"></div>
+<div class="cnn_divline" style="background-color:#EBEBEB; margin-top:3px"></div>
+
+<div class="cnn_ftrnvlnks">
+<div><a href="/">&#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1601;&#1581;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1574;&#1610;&#1587;&#1610;&#1577;</a> | <a href="/video/">&#1601;&#1610;&#1583;&#1610;&#1608;</a> | <a href="/middle_east/">&#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1608;&#1587;&#1591;</a> | <a href="/world/">&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;</a> | <a href="/business/">&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;</a> | <a href="/entertainment/">&#1605;&#1606;&#1608;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578;</a> | <a href="/scitech/">&#1589;&#1581;&#1577; &#1608;&#1578;&#1603;&#1606;&#1608;&#1604;&#1608;&#1580;&#1610;&#1575;</a> | <a href="/sport/">&#1585;&#1610;&#1575;&#1590;&#1577;</a> | <a href="/special/">&#1605;&#1604;&#1601;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1578;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1585;</a></div>
+
+<div style="color:#CC0000;">
+ <a href="javascript:CNN_openPopup('/mobile/sms.html','external','toolbar=no,location=no,directories=no,status=no,menubar=no,scrollbars=yes,resizable=yes,width=540,height=560')" style="color:#CC0000;">&#1582;&#1583;&#1605;&#1577; &#1570;&#1582;&#1585; &#1582;&#1576;&#1585; &#1604;&#1604;&#1585;&#1587;&#1575;&#1574;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1589;&#1610;&#1577;</a> &nbsp;|&nbsp; <a href="/email/" style="color:#CC0000;">&#1582;&#1583;&#1605;&#1577; &#1570;&#1582;&#1585; &#1582;&#1576;&#1585; &#1604;&#1604;&#1576;&#1585;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1604;&#1603;&#1578;&#1585;&#1608;&#1606;&#1610;</a> &nbsp;|&nbsp; <a href="/rss/" style="color:#CC0000;Font-size:11px;">RSS</a> &nbsp;|&nbsp; <a href="/mobile/tv/" style="color:#CC0000;">&#1588;&#1575;&#1588;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1600; CNN &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1605;&#1608;&#1604;</a> &nbsp;|&nbsp; <a href="http://www.twitter.com/cnnarabic/" style="color:#CC0000;">Twitter</a> &nbsp;|&nbsp; <a href="http://www.facebook.com/cnnarabic/" style="color:#CC0000;">Facebook</a>
+</div>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="cnn_ftrdivl2"></div>
+
+<div class="cnn_ftrlnggcntr">
+<div><a href="http://edition.cnn.com/espanol/">CNN en ESPA&Ntilde;OL</a> | <a href="http://www.cnnchile.com">CNN Chile</a> | <a href="http://www.cnnmexico.com/">M&Eacute;XICO</a> | <a href="http://edition.cnn.com/">English</a> | <span class="cnn_ftrljapan"><a href="http://www.cnn.co.jp/" class="cnn_ie6png"><img src="http://i.cdn.turner.com/cnn/.element/img/3.0/1px.gif" width="32" height="11" alt="" border="0"></a></span> | <span class="cnn_ftrlturkish"><a href="http://www.cnnturk.com/" class="cnn_ie6png"><img src="http://i.cdn.turner.com/cnn/.element/img/3.0/1px.gif" width="32" height="11" alt="" border="0"/></a></span></div>
+<div><a href="/terms.html">&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1583;&#1605;&#1577;</a> | <a href="/privacy.html">&#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1589;&#1608;&#1589;&#1610;&#1577;</a> | <a href="http://www.cnnmediainfo.com/" rel="nofollow">&#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1593;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578;</a> | <a href="/about.us/">&#1605;&#1606; &#1606;&#1581;&#1606;&#1567;</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="cnn_ftrlgcpy">
+<div><img src="http://i.cdn.turner.com/cnn/.element/img/3.0/global/footer/pngs/footer_cnn_logo.png" width="23" height="11" alt="" border="0" class="cnn_ie6png">&copy; 2013 Cable News Network. <a href="http://www.turner.com/" class="cnn_ftrtbslink">Turner Broadcasting System, Inc.</a> All Rights Reserved.</div>
+<div class="cnn_ftrlgcpy1"><a href="http://edition.cnn.com/CNNI/" rel="nofollow">CNN International TV</a> | <a href="http://us.cnn.com/CNN/Programs/" rel="nofollow">CNN US TV</a> | <a href="http://www.turner.com/careers/" rel="nofollow">Work for us</a></div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="cnn_clear"></div>
+</div><!-- /cnn_ftrcntntinner -->
+</div><!-- /cnn_ftrcntnt -->
+
+<script type="text/javascript" language="javascript">
+//Middle East Article Page 
+var cna_metadata = {
+section: ["Middle East"],
+friendly_name: "Middle East",
+template_type: "content"};
+</script>
+<!--<img src="http://i.cdn.turner.com/cnn/1.gif" alt="" id="TargetImage" name="TargetImage" width="1" height="1" onLoad="getAdHeadCookie(this)">-->
+<script>
+//UGD 
+cnnad_ugsync(); 
+</script>
+
+<script language="JavaScript1.1" src="http://ar.atwola.com/file/adsEnd.js"></script>
+<!-- JSMD Code-->
+<script language="JavaScript" src="/.element/js/2.0/jsmd/jsmd.js"></script>
+<script language="JavaScript" type="text/javascript">
+jsmd = _jsmd.init();
+jsmd.send();
+</script>
+<!-- / End JSMD Code -->
+<!-- Chartbeat Code-->
+<script language="JavaScript" src="http://arabic.cnn.com/.element/js/3.0/chartbeat.js"></script>
+<!-- / Chartbeat Code-->
+
+</div></div>
+</body></html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cnn_arabic.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cnn_arabic.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..dea7ee50
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_cnn_arabic.json
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://arabic.cnn.com/2013/middle_east/8/3/syria.clashes/index.html", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "", 
+        "domain": "arabic.cnn.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://arabic.cnn.com/2013/middle_east/8/3/syria.clashes/index.html", 
+        "meta_keywords": "", 
+        "cleaned_text": "\u062f\u0645\u0634\u0642\u060c \u0633\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0627 (CNN) -- \u0623\u0643\u062f\u062a \u062c\u0647\u0627\u062a \u0633\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0639\u0627\u0631\u0636\u0629 \u0623\u0646 \u0641\u0635\u0627\u0626\u0644 \u0645\u0633\u0644\u062d\u0629 \u0645\u0639\u0627\u0631\u0636\u0629 \u0644\u0646\u0638\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0626\u064a\u0633 \u0628\u0634\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u062f \u0648\u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0635\u0644\u0629 \u0628\u0640\"\u0627\u0644\u062c\u064a\u0634 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\" \u062a\u0645\u0643\u0646\u062a \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0637\u0631\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0633\u062a\u0648\u062f\u0639\u0627\u062a \u0644\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0644", 
+        "meta_favicon": "", 
+        "meta_lang": "ar"
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_donga_korean.html b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_donga_korean.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..1fb8b11a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_donga_korean.html
@@ -0,0 +1,841 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC '-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN' 'http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd'>
+<html>
+<head>
+<title>[CEO&]창의적 열정과 소통, 초일류 시험인증 기업이 간다 : 뉴스 : 동아닷컴</title>
+<meta name='keywords' content='뉴스, 기사, 속보, 정치, 경제, 사회, 국제, 문화, 사설, 컬럼, 동아일보, 동아닷컴, news, donga.com'>
+<meta name='description' content="경기도 용인에 자리 잡은 민간 시험인증 전문기업 ㈜디지털이엠씨(www.digitalemc.com). 14년째 세계 각국의 통신&middot;안전&middot;전파 규격 시험과 인증 한 우물만 파고 있는 이 회사 박채규 대표가 만나기로 한 주인공이다. 그는 전기전자&middot;무선통신&middot;자동차 전장품 분야에서 국제적으로 인정받는 전문가다.    &ldquo;시험인증 분야는 새로운 기술에 대한 준비와 교육 없이는 아무것도 이루어 낼 수 없습니다. 따라서 임직원의 교육과 자질 향상을 위해 많은 시간과 비용을 투자하고 있지요.&rdquo;    ㈜디지털이엠씨의 하루 일과는 항상 바쁘게 돌아간다. 이 회사에선 원어민이 진행하는 사내 영어강좌가 1년 내내 이어진다. 파트와 팀별로 전문기술교육, 세미나 등도 수시로 이뤄진다. 해외 인증기관과의 교류가 무엇보다 중요한 업무이기에 해당 국가의 규격, 시험, 인증에 대한 교육 강도는 상상을 초월한다. 회사의 막내에서부터 CEO까지 막힘없는 &lsquo;소통경영&rsquo;이 이루어지는 곳이 ㈜디지털이엠씨다. 이 회사 이동훈 이사는 &ldquo;소통을 수용하는 열">
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+<div class="article_title">
+    <p class="location">뉴스&nbsp;&gt;&nbsp;경제&nbsp;&gt;&nbsp;<strong>기업·CEO</strong></p>
+    <h1>[CEO&]창의적 열정과 소통, 초일류 시험인증 기업이 간다</h1>
+    <p class="title_foot">기사입력 <span class="date">2013-10-24 03:00:00</span> 기사수정 <span class="date2">2013-10-24 03:00:00</span></p>
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+    <strong>㈜디지털이엠씨</strong><br><br><div class='articlePhotoC'><img src='http://dimg.donga.com/wps/NEWS/IMAGE/2013/10/23/58406114.2.jpg' width='500'><div id='divBox' class='ad' style='width:500px;'></div></div>경기도 용인에 자리 잡은 민간 시험인증 전문기업 ㈜디지털이엠씨(www.digitalemc.com). 14년째 세계 각국의 통신·안전·전파 규격 시험과 인증 한 우물만 파고 있는 이 회사 박채규 대표가 만나기로 한 주인공이다. 그는 전기전자·무선통신·자동차 전장품 분야에서 국제적으로 인정받는 전문가다. <br><br> “시험인증 분야는 새로운 기술에 대한 준비와 교육 없이는 아무것도 이루어 낼 수 없습니다. 따라서 임직원의 교육과 자질 향상을 위해 많은 시간과 비용을 투자하고 있지요.” <br><br> ㈜디지털이엠씨의 하루 일과는 항상 바쁘게 돌아간다. 이 회사에선 원어민이 진행하는 사내 영어강좌가 1년 내내 이어진다. 파트와 팀별로 전문기술교육, 세미나 등도 수시로 이뤄진다. 해외 인증기관과의 교류가 무엇보다 중요한 업무이기에 해당 국가의 규격, 시험, 인증에 대한 교육 강도는 상상을 초월한다. 회사의 막내에서부터 CEO까지 막힘없는 ‘소통경영’이 이루어지는 곳이 ㈜디지털이엠씨다. 이 회사 이동훈 이사는 “소통을 수용하는 열린 기업문화, 창의적인 열정을 끌어내는 젊고 합리적인 리더십이 직원들이 몰입할 수 있는 일터를 만든 비결”이라고 귀띔했다. <br><br> 1999년 설립된 ㈜디지털이엠씨는 철저한 업무 분장을 통한 리스크관리 체계를 갖추고 있다. 기술시험 및 인증연구소와 영업팀, 관리팀, 해외지사(베이징·타슈켄트), 합작법인(브라질)으로 조직됐다. <br><br> 분야별 시험시설 장비 기술전문인력 등은 세계 어느 곳과 경쟁해도 손색 없을 정도로 높은 수준을 자랑한다. 삼성, LG를 포함해 1300여 개 고객사를 대상으로 전 세계 150여 개 국가의 규격 인증 서비스를 제공하고 있다. <br><br> 창립 15주년을 준비하는 ㈜디지털이엠씨의 각오는 남다르다. 우선 5월 동종업계가 엄두도 못내는 막대한 투자를 단행해 의료기기 전문 인증센터를 개관했다. 유럽연합(EU) 미국 중국 브라질 등 전 세계 180여 개 국가의 표준 시험과 인증시스템을 구축한 것은 기존 인증서비스 용역의 통념을 깨는 사건이었다.<br><br> 서비스도 특화했다. 중소형 의료기기는 물론이고, 초대형 X선 기기까지 한 곳에서 시험하고 인증을 받을 수 있는 특별함을 갖췄다. 주목되는 것은 이 회사의 의료기기 전문 인증센터가 16일 식품의약품안전처로부터 사설 기관 최초로 시험 기관으로 지정받았다는 점이다. <br><br> 이 일을 계기로 ㈜디지털이엠씨는 더 다양한 스펙트럼의 인증 서비스를 제공하겠다고 선언했다. 이 회사는 이달 말 이란 국가인증(CRA) 공인시험소 및 인증서 발급기관으로 확정된다. 해당 업무가 개시되면 수출입 기업의 고충 해결은 물론이고 일본, 중국 등의 인접국가로부터도 상당한 시험, 인증 수주가 예상되고 있다. <br><br> ㈜디지털이엠씨가 주목하는 ‘이머징마켓(신흥시장)’ 이란은 원유생산량 등 보유자원이 막대해 잠재 구매력이 매우 큰 시장으로 평가되고 있지만, 그동안 서방세계와의 정치적 문제로 인해 경제활동에 많은 제약을 받아 왔다. 하지만 최근 변화의 바람이 불고 있어 향후 이란 시장을 노크하는 수출기업들이 늘어날 것으로 보인다. <br><br>▼ <b>“2년 후 상장 목표… 100년 기업 일굴 터”</b> ▼<br><br><div class='articlePhotoR'><img src='http://dimg.donga.com/wps/NEWS/IMAGE/2013/10/23/58406115.2.jpg' width='160'><span class='t' style='width:140px;'>박채규 대표</span></div>“다국적 시험인증평가 업체들은 산업혁명이 일어난 이후 무려 200여 년의 역사를 가지고 있습니다. 매출 규모도 엄청나지요. 어려운 싸움이 되겠지만 지금까지 국내에서 탄탄한 기본기를 쌓은 만큼 해외시장 개척도 어렵지 않을 것으로 보입니다.”<br><br> ㈜디지털이엠씨 박채규 대표는 이제는 좁은 국내를 넘어 글로벌 인증기업과 승부해야 할 때라고 강조한다. 한 해 매출 수 조원을 올리며 전 세계에서 보폭을 확대해가는 다국적 기업에 맞서 회사의 면역력을 키워나가겠다는 의지다. <br><br> 그는 시험·인증 업무에 남다른 열정을 표시한다. “세계로 뻗어가는 국내 기업들이 많은 국가들의 법령과 규제에 낙오되지 않고 선제적으로 대응할 수 있도록 지원에 나가는 시험인증 사업을 한다는 것 자체가 자부심과 책임감을 갖게 해준다”는 것이다. <br><br> 회사가 매년 20∼30%의 안정적인 성장세를 기록하고 있지만, 그는 시험·인증 산업에서 더욱 시장 경쟁력을 확보하기 위한 본격적인 행보를 내디뎠다. 최근 국내 첫 식약처 지정 사설 의료기기 전문 인증센터를 설립한 데 이어, 이란 등 특수국가의 공인시험 자격도 획득했다. 2년 후엔 해당 분야 최초로 상장 계획도 가지고 있다. 그는 회사의 발전이 곧 국가의 발전이라는 생각으로 장밋빛 미래를 설계 중이다. <br><br> “우리가 가지고 있는 목표는 확고합니다. 젊은 조직의 열정과 변화를 두려워하지 않는 도전의식을 가지고 세계 초일류 시험인증 기관으로 도약할 겁니다. 회사가 글로벌 기업으로 발전한다는 청사진에 한 번도 의문을 가진 적이 없습니다.”<br><br> 시험인증 분야에서 100년 기업을 일구겠다는 그는 ㈜디지털이엠씨가 앞으로 세계 시험인증 시장의 강자로 군림할 날이 꼭 올 것이라는 확신에 차 있다.<br><br>최윤호 기자 uknow@donga.com<br><br><br>
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+<div class='aside_AD02'><iframe allowtransparency='true' width='273' height='230' scrolling='no' frameborder='0' marginheight='0' marginwidth='0' src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_sx.ads/2012.donga.com/fixed@x11'><a href='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/click_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/fixed@x11'><img src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/fixed@x11' alt='RightBanner'></a></iframe></div><div class='aside_AD04'><iframe allowtransparency='true' width='300' height='307' scrolling='no' frameborder='0' marginheight='0' marginwidth='0' src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_sx.ads/2012.donga.com/fixed@x12'><a href='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/click_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/fixed@x12'><img src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/fixed@x12' alt='RightBanner'></a></iframe></div><div class='aside_AD06'><iframe allowtransparency='true' width='300' height='307' scrolling='no' frameborder='0' marginheight='0' marginwidth='0' src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_sx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x29'><a href='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/click_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x29'><img src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x29' alt='LeftBanner'></a></iframe></div><div class='aside_AD01_1'><iframe allowtransparency='true' width='300' height='308' scrolling='no' frameborder='0' marginheight='0' marginwidth='0' src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_sx.ads/2013.donga.com/news@x50'><a href='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/click_nx.ads/2013.donga.com/news@x50'><img src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_nx.ads/2013.donga.com/news@x50' alt='LeftBanner'></a></iframe></div><div class='aside_AD01_1'><iframe allowtransparency='true' width='298' height='248' scrolling='no' frameborder='0' marginheight='0' marginwidth='0' src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_sx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x43'><a href='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/click_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x43'><img src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x43' alt='LeftBanner'></a></iframe></div>
+<!-- // 광고 -->
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+<!-- 분야별 TOP 뉴스 -->
+
+<!-- // 분야별 TOP 뉴스 -->
+
+
+ <!-- 분야별 콘텐츠, 핫이슈 -->
+        <div class='partCont'>
+            <div class='politics'>
+                <h4><a href='http://economy.donga.com/'><img src='http://image.donga.com/home2012/images/sub/tit_major_02_1.gif' width='92' height='13' alt='주요뉴스'></a></h4><div class='thum'><a href='http://economy.donga.com/East/3/all/20131217/59597922/2' class='thum_img'><img src='http://dimg.donga.com/wps/ECONOMY/FEED/Business_Top/59597922.2.thumb.jpg' width='100' height='60' alt='img'></a><a href='http://economy.donga.com/East/3/all/20131217/59597922/2' class='thum_list'><strong>철도요금 10배 인상? 민영화 ‘괴담’의 진실</strong>한 대학생이 던진…</a></div><ul><li><strong><a href='http://economy.donga.com/East/3/all/20131217/59592713/1'>몽클레르, 상장 첫날 주가 50% 폭등 </a></strong></li><li><a href='http://economy.donga.com/East/3/all/20131217/59603150/1'>로또 당첨금 1조원 찍나?…미국은 로또 ‘열풍’ </a></li><li><a href='http://economy.donga.com/East/3/all/20131217/59600076/1'>‘주민 벽’에 부딪힌 행복주택, 오해와 진실 </a></li></ul><br><br>
+            </div>
+            <div class='car'>
+                <div class='pc_p'><h2><a href='http://car.donga.com'><img src='http://image.donga.com/home2012/images/sub/tit_car.gif'></a></h2><ul><li><a href='http://car.donga.com/East/3/all/20131217/59599528/1'><img src='http://dimg.donga.com/wps/ECONOMY/FEED/dongAuto_Main/59599528.1.thumb.jpg' width='116' height='65'<em>“新제네시스 BMW 5시리즈 넘어서…”</em></a></li><li><a href='http://car.donga.com/East/3/all/20131217/59605045/2'><img src='http://dimg.donga.com/wps/ECONOMY/FEED/dongAuto_Main/59605045.2.thumb.jpg' width='116' height='65'<em>피아트의 미래 “예술대 학생이 만든 피아트 500”</em></a></li></ul></div>
+            </div>
+            <div class='issueBox'>
+                <div class='hot'><a href='http://news.donga.com/Issue/Top_70010000000810'><img src='http://img.donga.com/donga2013/images/sub/tit_hot_issue.gif' alt='핫이슈'> 김준일 기자의 핫플레이스</a></div>
+                <div class='moreBox'><select id='seriesList' title='분야별 연재 목록'><option value=''>경제 연재 더보기</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000809>일자리 리스타트</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/70010000000808>100세 시대… 더 오래 일하는 대한민국</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000807>스토리 &</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/70010000000806>아파트 미리보기</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/70010000000805>기업과 함께, 부활 전통시장</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/70010000000803>세계 전통시장을 가다</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/70010000000804>한국 기업에 다시 날개를</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/70010000000797>글로벌 환율전쟁</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000800>긴급점검 무너지는 부동산시장</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000796>작지만 세계 일류</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000795>대한민국 새 심장이 뛴다</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000794>한국의 착한 기업 GBI</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000793>‘손톱밑 가시’를 뽑자</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/70010000000792>도전해야 청춘이다</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000791>40-80 클럽, 앞으로 5년에 달렸다</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000790/2>비즈 포토</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000789>석동빈 기자의 DRIVEN</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000788>시선집중, 이 주식</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000787>좌충우돌 부동산</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000786>마스터 PB의 재테크 어드바이스</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000783>e휴지통</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/70010000000784>Close Up</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000785>오늘의 핫 이슈</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000782>시시콜콜 금융투자</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/70030000000706>청년드림</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000778>패기의 CEO</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000777>따뜻한 한국기업 세계를 품다</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000776>한중수교 20년, 미래로 가는 KORINA</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000775>1기관 1시장, 전통시장 가는 날</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70040100000112>김병희의 ‘광고 TALK’</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000773>도시형 생활주택 A to Z</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000772>무역1조달러 시대 성장 코리아의 신화</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70040100000105>경제 프리즘</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000771/2>주목! 이 사람</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000770>머니 비하인드</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000769>차세대 리더 54인 분석</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000746>금융 CEO 새해 구상</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000768>톡톡 경제</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000740>이남수의 부자 부동산</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000741>펀드 닥터</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000742>똑똑한 재테크</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000767>인턴으로 취업뚫기</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000734>똑똑한 펀드</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000735>A+ 자기소개서 만들기</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000732>2010 G20서 2020 G10으로</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000584>경제 카페</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000731>데스크 시각</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70080000000305>오늘의 섹션 피플</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_729>월요 전망대</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_728>송동근의 멘탈 투자 강의</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_727>닥터봉의 돈되는 부동산</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_677>동아 오프블로그</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_719>A+ 리포트</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_720>비즈 에티켓</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_722>장수기업,  이것이 달랐다</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_721>누가 시장을 움직이는가</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_724>지상현 교수의 디자인 읽기</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_725>한국기업, 부활의 노래</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_723>박영균의 비즈 북스</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=hope2009$b_716>일자리가 살길이다</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=hope2009$b_715>탈출! 가계부채</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_693>요즘 부자들은</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_681>마켓 투데이</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_682>맞춤 재테크</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_685>비즈피플</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_684>조용준의 버핏 따라하기</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_683>This week</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_686>금융교실</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_688>망하지 않는 법</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_691>부동산 인사이트</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_692>저탄소 녹색성장</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_690>NEXT KOREA</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_687>전경련교과서로 배웁시다</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000679>아하! 경제뉴스</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000638>지금 경제계에선</option><option value=http://news.donga.com/Series/List_70010000000633>석동빈 기자의 자동차 이야기</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_239>e노블리안스</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_425&a=l>CEO 라운지</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_413&a=l>Car in Car</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_370&a=l>파워 네트워크</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_212&a=l>데스크전망대</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_326&a=l>소비자 금융</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_282&a=l>오늘의 경제동향</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_110&a=l>CF 히트예감</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_04&a=l>새상품</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_94&a=l>비즈파일</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_219&a=l>In & Out</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_115&a=l>분양정보</option><option value=/fbin/moeum?n=dstory$b_281&a=l>경제계 인사</option></select><input type='image' src='http://img.donga.com/donga2013/images/sub/btn_move2.gif' alt='이동' onClick='javascript:if($("#seriesList").val()!="") document.location.href=$("#seriesList").val();'></div>
+            </div>
+        </div>     
+
+<!-- 스포츠 인기영상 코너 -->
+
+<!-- 스포츠 칼럼 -->
+
+<!-- 치어리더 화보 -->
+
+
+<!-- 스타 ★★ 화보 -->
+
+
+
+<div class='hot_pv'><div class='p'>
+    <h2><img src='http://img.donga.com/donga2013/images/sub/tit_pictures.gif' alt='HOT PICTURES'></h2>
+    <ul><li><a href='http://photo.donga.com/view.php?idxno=201312020028&category=0033'  class='pic'><img src='http://dimg.donga.com/carriage/NEWS/images/view_hot_picture/1387179240_view_hot_picture_image_0.jpg' width='124' height='80'><span class='frameBd'>&nbsp;</span><em>찰리 쉰 새 여친<br>포르노스타 브렛</em></a></li><li><a href='http://photo.donga.com/view.php?idxno=201312100012&category=0033'  class='pic'><img src='http://dimg.donga.com/carriage/NEWS/images/view_hot_picture/1387179853_view_hot_picture_image_1.jpg' width='124' height='80'><span class='frameBd'>&nbsp;</span><em>디카프리오 여친<br>아찔한 가슴노출</em></a></li><li><a href='http://photo.donga.com/view.php?idxno=201312160001&category=0046'  class='pic'><img src='http://dimg.donga.com/carriage/NEWS/images/view_hot_picture/1387179428_view_hot_picture_image_2.jpg' width='124' height='80'><span class='frameBd'>&nbsp;</span><em>프란치스코 교황<br>모자 벗기는 아이</em></a></li><li><a href='http://photo.donga.com/view.php?idxno=201312160003&category=0002'  class='pic'><img src='http://dimg.donga.com/carriage/NEWS/images/view_hot_picture/1387179651_view_hot_picture_image_3.jpg' width='124' height='80'><span class='frameBd'>&nbsp;</span><em>故 넬슨 만델라<br>장례식 엄수</em></a></li></ul>
+</div><div class='v'>
+    <h2><img src='http://img.donga.com/donga2013/images/sub/tit_video.gif' alt='HOT VIDEO'></h2>
+    <ul><li><a href='http://etv.donga.com/VIEW/?idxno=201312160060407&category=001005'><img src='http://dimg.donga.com/carriage/NEWS/images/view_hot_video/1387264755_view_hot_video_image_0.jpg' width='124' height='80'><span class='frameBd'>&nbsp;</span><em>AOA, 가슴 라인<br>드러나는 초밀착 의상</em><span class='play'><img src='http://img.donga.com/donga2013/images/common/btn_play2.png'' alt='PLAY'></span></a></li><li><a href='http://reuters.donga.com/View?m=view&no=23363'><img src='http://dimg.donga.com/carriage/NEWS/images/view_hot_video/1387263887_view_hot_video_image_1.jpg' width='124' height='80'><span class='frameBd'>&nbsp;</span><em>누가 딸이야?…‘예쁜 엄마’<br>사진 콘테스트 “앗 뜨거”</em><span class='play'><img src='http://img.donga.com/donga2013/images/common/btn_play2.png'' alt='PLAY'></span></a></li><li><a href='http://etv.donga.com/VIEW/?idxno=201312170060435&category=001008'><img src='http://dimg.donga.com/carriage/NEWS/images/view_hot_video/1387264810_view_hot_video_image_2.jpg' width='124' height='80'><span class='frameBd'>&nbsp;</span><em>中 초대형 싱크홀 발생<br>“지름 60m, 깊이 30m 규모”</em><span class='play'><img src='http://img.donga.com/donga2013/images/common/btn_play2.png'' alt='PLAY'></span></a></li><li><a href='http://reuters.donga.com/View?m=view&no=23361'><img src='http://dimg.donga.com/carriage/NEWS/images/view_hot_video/1387264211_view_hot_video_image_3.jpg' width='124' height='80'><span class='frameBd'>&nbsp;</span><em>말(馬) 취급 받으며 성적<br>쾌감 얻는 31세女, 변태?</em><span class='play'><img src='http://img.donga.com/donga2013/images/common/btn_play2.png'' alt='PLAY'></span></a></li></ul>
+</div></div>
+
+<!-- 광고 -->
+<div class='aside_AD08'><iframe width='300' height='250' scrolling='no' frameborder='0' marginheight='0' marginwidth='0' src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_sx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x35'><a href='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/click_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x35'><img src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x35' alt='BottomBanner'></a></iframe></div>
+<div class='aside_AD09'><iframe allowtransparency='true' width='300' height='215' scrolling='no' frameborder='0' marginheight='0' marginwidth='0' src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_sx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x39'><a href='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/click_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x39'><img src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x39' alt='neo_newbottom'></a></iframe></div>
+<!-- // 광고 -->    </div>
+</div>
+<!-- body end -->
+
+        <!-- 오늘의 동아닷컴 -->
+    <div id='todayDonga'>
+        <div class='td_tit'>
+            <h2><img src='http://img.donga.com/donga2013/images/sub/tit_today_donga.gif' alt='오늘의 dongA.com'></h2>
+            <div class='td_sns'>
+                <a href='http://pinterest.com/dongamedia/' target='_blank'><img src='http://image.donga.com/home2012/images/common/icon_pinterest.png' alt='핀터레스트'></a>
+                <a href='http://twitter.com/dongamedia'  target='_blank'><img src='http://img.donga.com/donga2013/images/common/icon_twitter_2.gif' alt='트위터'></a>
+                <a href='http://www.facebook.com/dongamedia' target='_blank'><img src='http://img.donga.com/donga2013/images/common/icon_facebook_2.gif' alt='페이스북'></a>
+                <a href='http://www.donga.com/news/mynews_guide.html'  target='_blank' class='my'><img src='http://img.donga.com/donga2013/images/common/btn_my_news.gif' alt='마이뉴스 설정'></a>
+            </div>
+        </div>
+        <iframe width='980' height='425' scrolling='no' frameborder='0' marginheight='0' marginwidth='0'
+            src='http://openapi.donga.com/newsstand/donga?m=iframe'></iframe>
+    </div>
+    <!-- // 오늘의 동아닷컴 -->
+    <hr>
+    <div id='footer'>
+        <iframe width='100%' height='86' frameborder='0' scrolling='no' marginwidth='0' marginheight='0' src='http://img.donga.com/home2012/iframe/f_banner.html' title='하단 배너' class='footerBanner'></iframe>
+        <div class='footerNav'>
+            <p>
+                <strong>동아일보</strong>
+                <a href='http://www.donga.com/docs/ilbo/' class='bgNone'>회사소개</a>
+                <a href='http://www.donga.com/docs/ilbo/event/index.html'>문화스포츠사업</a>
+                <a href='http://www.presseum.or.kr/'>신문박물관</a>
+                <a href='http://www.inchonmemorial.co.kr/'>인촌기념회</a>
+                <a href='http://www.hjpeace.or.kr/'>화정 평화재단</a>
+                <a href='http://www.donga.com/docs/ilbo/advertisement/'>신문광고안내</a>
+                <a href='http://readers.donga.com/'>구독신청</a>
+                <a href='http://www.donga.com/docs/ilbo/svc/'>독자서비스</a>
+                <a href='http://www.donga.com/docs/ilbo/html/01_company/company_07.htm'>정정보도 신청</a>
+                <a href='http://dongne.donga.com/'>'동네' 블로그</a>
+            </p>
+            <p>
+                <strong>동아닷컴</strong>
+                <a href='http://www.donga.com/docs/intro/company/aboutdonga_01.html' class='bgNone'>회사소개</a>
+                <a href='http://www.donga.com/docs/intro/2004/ad_01.html'>광고 (인터넷, 전광판)</a>
+                <a href='http://www.donga.com/docs/intro/2004/cooperation_01.html'>제휴안내</a>
+                <a href='http://faq.donga.com/sub_03.html'>회원약관</a>
+                <strong><a href='http://faq.donga.com/sub_04.html'>개인정보취급방침</a></strong>
+                <a href='http://www.donga.com/docs/for_teenagers_doc.html'>청소년보호정책</a>
+                <a href='https://secure.donga.com/faq/index.php?jebo=1'>기사제보</a>
+                <a href='http://faq.donga.com/'>고객센터</a>
+                <a href='http://www.donga.com/docs/intro/sitemap.html'>사이트맵</a>
+                <a href='http://rss.donga.com/'>RSS <img src='http://img.donga.com/home2011/images/footer_icon_rss.gif' alt='rss'></a>
+            </p>
+        </div>
+        <div class='copyright'>
+            <p class='fLogo'><a href='http://www.donga.com/'><img src='http://img.donga.com/home2011/images/footer_logo.gif' width='75' height='18' alt='donga'></a></p>
+            <p class='address'>주소 : 서울특별시 서대문구 충정로 29 | 등록번호 : 서울아00741 | 등록일자 : 2009년 1월16일 | 발행·편집인 : 김일흥<br>모든 콘텐츠를 커뮤니티, 카페, 블로그 등에서 무단 사용하는 것은 저작권법에 저촉되며, 법적 제재를 받을 수 있습니다. Copyright by donga.com </p>
+        </div>
+    </div>
+    <hr>
+    <div id='left_AD'>
+        <iframe width='120' height='160' scrolling='no' frameborder='0' marginheight='0' marginwidth='0' src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_sx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x05'><a href='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/click_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x05'><img src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x05' alt='LeftBanner'></a></iframe><iframe width='120' height='603' scrolling='no' frameborder='0' marginheight='0' marginwidth='0' src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_sx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x06'><a href='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/click_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x06'><img src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x06' alt='LeftBanner'></a></iframe>
+    </div>
+    <div id='right_AD'>
+        <iframe width='120' height='600' scrolling='no' frameborder='0' marginheight='0' marginwidth='0' src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_sx.ads/2013.donga.com/news@x12'><a href='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/click_nx.ads/2013.donga.com/news@x12'><img src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_nx.ads/2013.donga.com/news@x12' alt='RightBanner'></a></iframe> <iframe class='samsung_e' width='120' height='240' scrolling='no' frameborder='0' marginheight='0' marginwidth='0' src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_sx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x55'><a href='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/click_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x55'><img src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x55' alt='rightBanner'></a></iframe><iframe width='120' height='600' scrolling='no' frameborder='0' marginheight='0' marginwidth='0' src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_sx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x14'><a href='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/click_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x14'><img src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x14' alt='rightBanner'></a></iframe><iframe class='r_AD_3' width='120' height='600' scrolling='no' frameborder='0' marginheight='0' marginwidth='0' src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_sx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x47'><a href='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/click_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x47'><img src='http://ar.donga.com/RealMedia/ads/adstream_nx.ads/2012.donga.com/news@x47' alt='topBanner'></a></iframe>
+    </div>
+</div>
+</body>
+</html>
+<script type='text/javascript' charset='euc-kr' src='http://eimg.donga.com/donga2013/js/scrollBanner.js'></script><script type='text/javascript'>initMoving(document.getElementById('left_AD'), 1, 0, 2000);</script>
+<!-- 쉐이프팝업 300*250 미니 쉐이프팝업 150*150-->
+<script type='text/javascript' charset='euc-kr' src='http://cad.donga.com/www_view_main_naver.js'></script>   
+
+<!--포토링크 광고 평일판 -->
+<script src='http://p.lumieyes.com/encodeB_donga3.js' charset='utf-8'></script>   
+
+<!--포토링크 광고 주말판 적용(2013.02.08)-->
+<!--
+<script type="text/javascript">
+var lumieyes = "";
+lumieyes += '<img src="http://cad.donga.com/lumynus/donga.jpg" width="250" height="55" border="0" usemap="#Map" />';
+lumieyes += '<map name="Map" id="Map">';
+lumieyes += '<area shape="rect" coords="0,10,248,27" href="http://www.h-edu.net/" target="_blank" />';
+lumieyes += '<area shape="rect" coords="0,31,247,48" href="http://news.donga.com/3/all/20130131/52729593/2 " target="_blank" />';
+lumieyes += '</map>';
+if(document.getElementById('divBox')) document.getElementById('divBox').innerHTML = lumieyes;
+</script>
+-->
+<!-- //포토링크 광고 -->
+<script src='http://cad.donga.com/solspectrum_image.js' type='text/javascript'></script>   
+<script src='http://adimg.donga.com/madv/img/icon/donga_view_iocnad.js' type='text/javascript'></script>   
+
+<script>
+    $(document).ready( function() {
+        changeFontSize() ;
+        getNewsCount() ;
+    } ) ;
+    document.charset="utf-8" ;
+</script>
+<script>var _GCD = '3';</script><script src='http://dimg.donga.com/acecounter/acecounter_V70.20130719.js'></script><script>_PL(_rl);</script>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_donga_korean.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_donga_korean.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..829d7420
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_donga_korean.json
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://news.donga.com/3/all/20131023/58406128/1",
+    "target_language": "ko",
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "경기도 용인에 자리 잡은 민간 시험인증 전문기업 ㈜디지털이엠씨(www.digitalemc.com). 14년째 세계 각국의 통신·안전·전파 규격 시험과 인증 한 우물만 파고 있는 이 회사 박채규 대표가 만나기로 한 주인공이다. 그는 전기전자·무선통신·자동차 전장품 분야에서 국제적으로 인정받는 전문가다.    “시험인증 분야는 새로운 기술에 대한 준비와 교육 없이는 아무것도 이루어 낼 수 없습니다. 따라서 임직원의 교육과 자질 향상을 위해 많은 시간과 비용을 투자하고 있지요.”    ㈜디지털이엠씨의 하루 일과는 항상 바쁘게 돌아간다. 이 회사에선 원어민이 진행하는 사내 영어강좌가 1년 내내 이어진다. 파트와 팀별로 전문기술교육, 세미나 등도 수시로 이뤄진다. 해외 인증기관과의 교류가 무엇보다 중요한 업무이기에 해당 국가의 규격, 시험, 인증에 대한 교육 강도는 상상을 초월한다. 회사의 막내에서부터 CEO까지 막힘없는 ‘소통경영’이 이루어지는 곳이 ㈜디지털이엠씨다. 이 회사 이동훈 이사는 “소통을 수용하는 열", 
+        "domain": "news.donga.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://news.donga.com/3/all/20131023/58406128/1", 
+        "meta_keywords": "뉴스, 기사, 속보, 정치, 경제, 사회, 국제, 문화, 사설, 컬럼, 동아일보, 동아닷컴, news, donga.com", 
+        "cleaned_text": "경기도 용인에 자리 잡은 민간 시험인증 전문기업 ㈜디지털이엠씨(www.digitalemc.com). 14년째 세계 각국의 통신·안전·전파 규격 시험과 인증 한 우물만 파고 있는 이 회사 박채규 대표가 만나기로 한 주인공이다. 그는 전기전자·무선통신·자동차 전장품 분야에서 국제적으로 인정받는 전문가다.“시험인증 분야는 새로운 기술에 대한 준비와 교육 없이는 아무것도 이루어 낼 수 없습니다. 따라서 임직원의 교육과 자질 향상을 위해 많은 시간과 비용을 투자하고 있지요.”㈜디지털이엠씨의 하루 일과는 항상 바쁘게 돌아간다. 이 회사에선 원어민이 진행하는 사내 영어강좌가 1년 내내 이어진다. 파트와 팀별로 전문기술교육, 세미나 등도 수시로 이뤄진다. 해외 인증기관과의 교류가 무엇보다 중요한 업무이기에 해당 국가의 규격, 시험, 인증에 대한 교육 강도는 상상을 초월한다. 회사의 막내에서부터 CEO까지 막힘없는 ‘소통경영’이 이루어지는 곳이 ㈜디지털이엠씨다. 이 회사 이동훈 이사는 “소통을 수용하는 열린 기업문화, 창의적인 열정을 끌어내는 젊고 합리적인 리더십이 직원들이 몰입할 수 있는 일터를 만든 비결”이라고 귀띔했다.1999년 설립된 ㈜디지털이엠씨는 철저한 업무 분장을 통한 리스크관리 체계를 갖추고 있다. 기술시험 및 인증연구소와 영업팀, 관리팀, 해외지사(베이징·타슈켄트), 합작법인(브라질)으로 조직됐다.분야별 시험시설 장비 기술전문인력 등은 세계 어느 곳과 경쟁해도 손색 없을 정도로 높은 수준을 자랑한다. 삼성, LG를 포함해 1300여 개 고객사를 대상으로 전 세계 150여 개 국가의 규격 인증 서비스를 제공하고 있다.창립 15주년을 준비하는 ㈜디지털이엠씨의 각오는 남다르다. 우선 5월 동종업계가 엄두도 못내는 막대한 투자를 단행해 의료기기 전문 인증센터를 개관했다. 유럽연합(EU) 미국 중국 브라질 등 전 세계 180여 개 국가의 표준 시험과 인증시스템을 구축한 것은 기존 인증서비스 용역의 통념을 깨는 사건이었다.서비스도 특화했다. 중소형 의료기기는 물론이고, 초대형 X선 기기까지 한 곳에서 시험하고 인증을 받을 수 있는 특별함을 갖췄다. 주목되는 것은 이 회사의 의료기기 전문 인증센터가 16일 식품의약품안전처로부터 사설 기관 최초로 시험 기관으로 지정받았다는 점이다.이 일을 계기로 ㈜디지털이엠씨는 더 다양한 스펙트럼의 인증 서비스를 제공하겠다고 선언했다. 이 회사는 이달 말 이란 국가인증(CRA) 공인시험소 및 인증서 발급기관으로 확정된다. 해당 업무가 개시되면 수출입 기업의 고충 해결은 물론이고 일본, 중국 등의 인접국가로부터도 상당한 시험, 인증 수주가 예상되고 있다.㈜디지털이엠씨가 주목하는 ‘이머징마켓(신흥시장)’ 이란은 원유생산량 등 보유자원이 막대해 잠재 구매력이 매우 큰 시장으로 평가되고 있지만, 그동안 서방세계와의 정치적 문제로 인해 경제활동에 많은 제약을 받아 왔다. 하지만 최근 변화의 바람이 불고 있어 향후 이란 시장을 노크하는 수출기업들이 늘어날 것으로 보인다.“다국적 시험인증평가 업체들은 산업혁명이 일어난 이후 무려 200여 년의 역사를 가지고 있습니다. 매출 규모도 엄청나지요. 어려운 싸움이 되겠지만 지금까지 국내에서 탄탄한 기본기를 쌓은 만큼 해외시장 개척도 어렵지 않을 것으로 보입니다.”㈜디지털이엠씨 박채규 대표는 이제는 좁은 국내를 넘어 글로벌 인증기업과 승부해야 할 때라고 강조한다. 한 해 매출 수 조원을 올리며 전 세계에서 보폭을 확대해가는 다국적 기업에 맞서 회사의 면역력을 키워나가겠다는 의지다.그는 시험·인증 업무에 남다른 열정을 표시한다. “세계로 뻗어가는 국내 기업들이 많은 국가들의 법령과 규제에 낙오되지 않고 선제적으로 대응할 수 있도록 지원에 나가는 시험인증 사업을 한다는 것 자체가 자부심과 책임감을 갖게 해준다”는 것이다.회사가 매년 20∼30%의 안정적인 성장세를 기록하고 있지만, 그는 시험·인증 산업에서 더욱 시장 경쟁력을 확보하기 위한 본격적인 행보를 내디뎠다. 최근 국내 첫 식약처 지정 사설 의료기기 전문 인증센터를 설립한 데 이어, 이란 등 특수국가의 공인시험 자격도 획득했다. 2년 후엔 해당 분야 최초로 상장 계획도 가지고 있다. 그는 회사의 발전이 곧 국가의 발전이라는 생각으로 장밋빛 미래를 설계 중이다.“우리가 가지고 있는 목표는 확고합니다. 젊은 조직의 열정과 변화를 두려워하지 않는 도전의식을 가지고 세계 초일류 시험인증 기관으로 도약할 겁니다. 회사가 글로벌 기업으로 발전한다는 청사진에 한 번도 의문을 가진 적이 없습니다.”시험인증 분야에서 100년 기업을 일구겠다는 그는 ㈜디지털이엠씨가 앞으로 세계 시험인증 시장의 강자로 군림할 날이 꼭 올 것이라는 확신에 차 있다.최윤호 기자 uknow@donga.com", 
+        "meta_favicon": "", 
+        "meta_lang": ""
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/elmondo1.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_elmondo1.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/elmondo1.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_elmondo1.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_elmondo1.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_elmondo1.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..56b6df19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_elmondo1.json
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2012/10/28/espana/1351388909.html",
+    "target_language": "es",
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "Detenida en Francia Izaskun Lesaka Izaskun Lesaka pas\u00f3 a la c\u00fapula tras la detenci\u00f3n de Ata. Su pareja y lugarteniente, Joseba Iturbe, tambi\u00e9n ha sido detenido.", 
+        "domain": "www.elmundo.es", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2012/10/28/espana/1351388909.html", 
+        "meta_keywords": "Detenida, Francia, Izaskun, Lesaka, Espa\u00f1a", 
+        "cleaned_text": "Importante golpe a la banda terrorista ETA en Francia.", 
+        "meta_favicon": "", 
+        "meta_lang": null
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/elpais.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_elpais.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/elpais.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_elpais.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_elpais.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_elpais.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..f0ccb236
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_elpais.json
@@ -0,0 +1,92 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.sociedad.elpais.com/sociedad/2012/10/27/actualidad/1351332873_157836.html",
+    "target_language": "es",
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "Los recortes elevan la demora para operarse un 125% en a\u00f1o y medio. El n\u00famero de pacientes que esperan m\u00e1s de 180 d\u00edas para entrar en quir\u00f3fano crece un 178%", 
+        "domain": "www.sociedad.elpais.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.sociedad.elpais.com/sociedad/2012/10/27/actualidad/1351332873_157836.html", 
+        "meta_keywords": "lista, espera, agravar, recorte, elevar, demora, operar, 125 %, a\u00f1o, medio, n\u00famero, paciente, aguardar, 180, d\u00eda, entrar, quir\u00f3fano, crecer, 178 %", 
+        "cleaned_text": "Los recortes pasan factura a los pacientes.", 
+        "tags": [
+            "Asistencia sanitaria", 
+            "Igualdad", 
+            "Copa Davis", 
+            "Copa del Rey de F\u00fatbol", 
+            "Motociclismo", 
+            "Sistema sanitario", 
+            "Defensor del Lector", 
+            "Cine", 
+            "Vacunaci\u00f3n", 
+            "Giro de Italia", 
+            "Comunicaci\u00f3n", 
+            "Elecciones EE UU 2012", 
+            "Sanidad", 
+            "\u00daLTIMA HORA", 
+            "Columnas", 
+            "Pol\u00edtica social", 
+            "Medicina", 
+            "Ciencia", 
+            "Wimbledon", 
+            "Educaci\u00f3n", 
+            "US Open", 
+            "Videos Champions", 
+            "Administraci\u00f3n auton\u00f3mica", 
+            "Oscars", 
+            "Farmacias", 
+            "Salud", 
+            "M\u00e1s temas \u00bb", 
+            "Especialidades m\u00e9dicas", 
+            "F\u00fatbol", 
+            "Europa Convulsa", 
+            "Roland Garros", 
+            "Golf", 
+            "Gastronom\u00eda", 
+            "Copa del Rey Basket", 
+            "Tour de Francia", 
+            "Vuelta Espa\u00f1a", 
+            "C\u00e1ritas", 
+            "Otros Deportes", 
+            "F\u00f3rmula 1", 
+            "Champions League", 
+            "Ciclismo", 
+            "27 OCT 2012 - 12:14 CET", 
+            "Listas espera", 
+            "Editoriales", 
+            "RTVE", 
+            "Custodia hijos", 
+            "Juegos Ol\u00edmpicos", 
+            "Titulares \u00bb", 
+            "Vi\u00f1etas", 
+            "Sanidad p\u00fablica", 
+            "Atenci\u00f3n al paciente", 
+            "Tribunas", 
+            "Moda", 
+            "M\u00fasica", 
+            "Tenis", 
+            "Medio Ambiente", 
+            "Recortes sociales", 
+            "Teatro/Danza", 
+            "Baloncesto", 
+            "Comunidades aut\u00f3nomas", 
+            "Selecci\u00f3n Espa\u00f1ola", 
+            "Open Australia", 
+            "El Espa\u00f1ol", 
+            "Consumo", 
+            "Enfermedades raras", 
+            "Huelga General", 
+            "Declaracion Renta", 
+            "Elecciones Francia 2012", 
+            "Sociedad", 
+            "Elecciones Generales", 
+            "Libros", 
+            "Coches con Estilo", 
+            "El final de ETA", 
+            "Administraci\u00f3n p\u00fablica", 
+            "Centrales nucleares", 
+            "\u00cdndice", 
+            "Pacientes"
+        ], 
+        "meta_favicon": "http://ep01.epimg.net/favicon.png", 
+        "meta_lang": "es"
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/engadget1.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_engadget.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/engadget1.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_engadget.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_engadget.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_engadget.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..7f5a6b9f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_engadget.json
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.engadget.com/2010/08/18/verizon-fios-set-top-boxes-getting-a-new-hd-guide-external-stor/", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "Streaming and downloading TV content to mobiles is nice, but we enjoy watching TV... on the TV, and Verizon had plenty of that to talk", 
+        "domain": "www.engadget.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.engadget.com/2010/08/18/verizon-fios-set-top-boxes-getting-a-new-hd-guide-external-stor/", 
+        "meta_keywords": "", 
+        "cleaned_text": "Streaming and downloading TV content to mobiles is nice", 
+        "tags": [
+            "img 1.9", 
+            "external storage", 
+            "chaptering", 
+            "verizon", 
+            "esata", 
+            "Motorola", 
+            "multiroom", 
+            "gui", 
+            "Set-topBox", 
+            "set-top box", 
+            "1.9", 
+            "fios", 
+            "Android coverage by humans", 
+            "Img1.9", 
+            "moca", 
+            "fios tv", 
+            "ExternalStorage", 
+            "FiosTv", 
+            "FiOS TV", 
+            "dvr"
+        ], 
+        "meta_favicon": "http://www.blogsmithmedia.com/www.engadget.com/media/favicon.ico", 
+        "meta_lang": null
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/espn1.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_espn.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/espn1.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_espn.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_espn.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_espn.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..996b0f47
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_espn.json
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/commentary/news/story?id=5461430", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "Are Florida coach Urban Meyer and Alabama coach Nick Saban closing practice because of agents or because they like to control every aspect of their programs?", 
+        "domain": "sports.espn.go.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/commentary/news/story?id=5461430", 
+        "meta_keywords": "", 
+        "cleaned_text": "If you believe what college football coaches have said about sports", 
+        "meta_favicon": "", 
+        "meta_lang": null
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/foxnews1.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_foxNews.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/foxnews1.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_foxNews.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_foxNews.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_foxNews.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..b51645e3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_foxNews.json
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2010/08/14/russias-nuclear-help-iran-stirs-questions-improved-relations/", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "Russia's announcement that it will help Iran get nuclear fuel is raising questions about the better-than- ever relationship between Russia and the U.S. , according to President Obama, after the two former Cold War adversaries recently signed a nuclear reduction treaty.", 
+        "domain": "www.foxnews.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2010/08/14/russias-nuclear-help-iran-stirs-questions-improved-relations/", 
+        "meta_keywords": "", 
+        "cleaned_text": "Russia's announcement that it will help Iran get nuclear fuel is raising questions", 
+        "meta_favicon": "", 
+        "meta_lang": "en"
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_get_canonical_url.html b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_get_canonical_url.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..7fdddc38
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_get_canonical_url.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1478 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML+RDFa 1.0//EN"
+  "http://www.w3.org/MarkUp/DTD/xhtml-rdfa-1.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" version="XHTML+RDFa 1.0" dir="ltr"
+  xmlns:content="http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/"
+  xmlns:dc="http://purl.org/dc/terms/"
+  xmlns:foaf="http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/"
+  xmlns:og="http://ogp.me/ns#"
+  xmlns:rdfs="http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#"
+  xmlns:sioc="http://rdfs.org/sioc/ns#"
+  xmlns:sioct="http://rdfs.org/sioc/types#"
+  xmlns:skos="http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core#"
+  xmlns:xsd="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#">
+
+<head profile="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml/vocab">
+  <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+<meta property="og:description" content="Gun control advocates are looking for new options, including some tech strategies. On Wednesday, seven measures failed in the U.S. Senate, including an amendment that would have expanded background checks. Some gun control advocates are now looking in new directions. So-called &#039;smart guns&#039; are firearms that only authorized users can fire. But so far, there&#039;s not a single one on the market in the U.S." />
+<meta property="og:image" content="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/styles/story-block-image-140x94/public/gun1.JPG" />
+<meta property="og:type" content="article" />
+<meta property="og:title" content="Marketplace Tech for Friday, April 19, 2013" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/themes/sitetheme/favicon.ico" type="image/vnd.microsoft.icon" />
+<meta property="og:url" content="http://www.marketplace.org/shows/marketplace-tech-report/marketplace-tech-friday-april-19-2013" />
+<meta property="og:site_name" content="Marketplace.org" />
+<meta name="description" content="Gun control advocates are looking for new options, including some tech strategies. On Wednesday, seven measures failed in the U.S. Senate, including an amendment that would have expanded background checks. Some gun control advocates are now looking in new directions. So-called &#039;smart guns&#039; are firearms that only authorized users can fire. But so far, there&#039;s not a single one on the market in the U.S." />
+<meta name="Show" content="Marketplace Tech Report" />
+<link rel="canonical" href="/shows/marketplace-tech-report/marketplace-tech-friday-april-19-2013" />
+<meta name="generator" content="Drupal 7 (http://drupal.org)" />
+<link rel="shortlink" href="/node/88116" />
+<meta content="Marketplace Tech for Friday, April 19, 2013" about="/shows/marketplace-tech-report/marketplace-tech-friday-april-19-2013" property="dc:title" />
+<meta name="Show" content="Marketplace Tech Report" />
+<meta about="/shows/marketplace-tech-report/marketplace-tech-friday-april-19-2013" property="sioc:num_replies" content="0" datatype="xsd:integer" />
+<meta name="type" content="Episode" />
+  <title>Marketplace Tech for Friday, April 19, 2013 | Marketplace.org</title>
+  <link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" href="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/css/css_fDJvnR78P5lIyNdsVD9HuNFeL_90WLDcVOATKe4yoSQ.css" media="all" />
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+<style type="text/css" media="all">
+<!--/*--><![CDATA[/*><!--*/
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+
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+</style>
+<link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" href="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/css/css_wTdZhBi4eOAp2BJi8BcfhBx_WxfBXY9DA430-nF8PCs.css" media="all" />
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+
+<!--[if IE]>
+<link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" href="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/css/css_QRUgpJq0bo8-r5tS0t73JkfsnYq2jylkUc0I05wust8.css" media="all" />
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+<![endif]-->
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+                  <h1 property="dc:title" datatype="" class="node-title">Marketplace Tech for Friday, April 19, 2013</h1>
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+      <div class="field field-name-field-image field-type-image field-label-above multi-value-field"><div class="field-label">Episode Teaser Image:&nbsp;</div><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item first even"><img typeof="foaf:Image" src="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/styles/200x200/public/gun1.JPG" width="200" height="200" /></div></div></div>      <div class="field field-name-field-lede field-type-text-long field-label-above multi-value-field"><div class="field-label">Episode Description:&nbsp;</div><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item first even">Gun control advocates are looking for new options, including some tech strategies. On Wednesday, seven measures failed in the U.S. Senate, including an amendment that would have expanded background checks. Some gun control advocates are now looking in new directions. So-called 'smart guns' are firearms that only authorized users can fire. But so far, there's not a single one on the market in the U.S.</div></div></div>  </div>
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+  <h3><a href="/topics/tech/guns-and-dollars/are-smart-guns-ready-market">Are &#039;smart guns&#039; ready for market?</a></h3>
+  <div class="byline">
+  <div class="field field-name-field-byline-description field-type-list-text field-label-hidden multi-value-field"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item first even">by</div></div></div> <a href= http://www.marketplace.org/people/david-gura>David Gura</a><div class="field field-name-field-ref-bio-multi field-type-node-reference field-label-hidden"><div class="field-items"></div></div> | <div class="field field-name-field-date field-type-datetime field-label-hidden multi-value-field"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item first even"><span class="date-display-single" property="dc:date" datatype="xsd:dateTime" content="2013-04-19T06:53:03-05:00">Apr 19, 2013</span></div></div></div>  </div>
+  <div class="field field-name-field-lede field-type-text-long field-label-hidden multi-value-field"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item first even">Technology exists where only electronically recognized users can fire a gun, but are gun buyers interested?</div></div></div>      <em class='tags'>
+      <span class='label'>Posted In: </span>
+      <a href="/tags/guns">guns</a>, <a href="/tags/tech">Tech</a>, <a href="/tags/sensors">sensors</a>    </em>
+  </div>
+  </div>
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+      <div class="field field-name-field-image field-type-image field-label-hidden multi-value-field"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item first even"><a href="/topics/tech/everything-you-need-know-about-cispa"><img typeof="foaf:Image" src="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/styles/112x112/public/153660497.jpg" width="112" height="112" /></a></div></div></div>    </div>
+    <div class='comment-count'>
+    <span>0</span>
+  </div>
+  <h3><a href="/topics/tech/everything-you-need-know-about-cispa">Everything you need to know about CISPA</a></h3>
+  <div class="byline">
+  <div class="field field-name-field-byline-description field-type-list-text field-label-hidden multi-value-field"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item first even">Story By</div></div></div> <a href= http://www.marketplace.org/people/david-brancaccio>David Brancaccio</a><div class="field field-name-field-ref-bio-multi field-type-node-reference field-label-hidden"><div class="field-items"></div></div> | <div class="field field-name-field-date field-type-datetime field-label-hidden multi-value-field"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item first even"><span class="date-display-single" property="dc:date" datatype="xsd:dateTime" content="2013-04-19T06:11:13-05:00">Apr 19, 2013</span></div></div></div>  </div>
+  <div class="field field-name-field-lede field-type-text-long field-label-hidden multi-value-field"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item first even">CISPA passed in the House of Representatives. But what is the bill and what will it do for privacy and data?</div></div></div>      <em class='tags'>
+      <span class='label'>Posted In: </span>
+      <a href="/tags/sopa">SOPA</a>, <a href="/tags/pipa">PIPA</a>, <a href="/tags/cispa">CISPA</a>, <a href="/tags/online-privacy">online privacy</a>    </em>
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+                  <td id="episode_archive-2013-04-15" class="mon mini past has-events">
+            <div class="month mini-day-on"> <a href="/shows/marketplace-tech-report/marketplace-tech-monday-april-15-2013" title="Marketplace Tech for Monday, April 15, 2013">15</a> </div><div class="calendar-empty">&nbsp;</div>
+          </td>
+                  <td id="episode_archive-2013-04-16" class="tue mini past has-events">
+            <div class="month mini-day-on"> <a href="/shows/marketplace-tech-report/marketplace-tech-tuesday-april-16-2013" title="Marketplace Tech for Tuesday, April 16, 2013">16</a> </div><div class="calendar-empty">&nbsp;</div>
+          </td>
+                  <td id="episode_archive-2013-04-17" class="wed mini past has-events">
+            <div class="month mini-day-on"> <a href="/shows/marketplace-tech-report/marketplace-tech-wednesday-april-17-2013" title="Marketplace Tech for Wednesday, April 17, 2013">17</a> </div><div class="calendar-empty">&nbsp;</div>
+          </td>
+                  <td id="episode_archive-2013-04-18" class="thu mini past has-events">
+            <div class="month mini-day-on"> <a href="/shows/marketplace-tech-report/marketplace-tech-thursday-april-18-2013" title="Marketplace Tech for Thursday, April 18, 2013">18</a> </div><div class="calendar-empty">&nbsp;</div>
+          </td>
+                  <td id="episode_archive-2013-04-19" class="fri mini past has-events">
+            <div class="month mini-day-on"> <a href="/shows/marketplace-tech-report/marketplace-tech-friday-april-19-2013" title="Marketplace Tech for Friday, April 19, 2013" class="active">19</a> </div><div class="calendar-empty">&nbsp;</div>
+          </td>
+                  <td id="episode_archive-2013-04-20" class="sat mini past has-no-events">
+            <div class="month mini-day-off"> 20 </div><div class="calendar-empty">&nbsp;</div>
+          </td>
+              </tr>
+          <tr>
+                  <td id="episode_archive-2013-04-21" class="sun mini past has-events">
+            <div class="month mini-day-on"> <a href="/shows/marketplace-tech-report/marketplace-tech-monday-april-22-2013" title="Marketplace Tech for Monday, April 22, 2013">21</a> </div><div class="calendar-empty">&nbsp;</div>
+          </td>
+                  <td id="episode_archive-2013-04-22" class="mon mini today has-no-events">
+            <div class="month mini-day-off"> 22 </div><div class="calendar-empty">&nbsp;</div>
+          </td>
+                  <td id="episode_archive-2013-04-23" class="tue mini future has-no-events">
+            <div class="month mini-day-off"> 23 </div><div class="calendar-empty">&nbsp;</div>
+          </td>
+                  <td id="episode_archive-2013-04-24" class="wed mini future has-no-events">
+            <div class="month mini-day-off"> 24 </div><div class="calendar-empty">&nbsp;</div>
+          </td>
+                  <td id="episode_archive-2013-04-25" class="thu mini future has-no-events">
+            <div class="month mini-day-off"> 25 </div><div class="calendar-empty">&nbsp;</div>
+          </td>
+                  <td id="episode_archive-2013-04-26" class="fri mini future has-no-events">
+            <div class="month mini-day-off"> 26 </div><div class="calendar-empty">&nbsp;</div>
+          </td>
+                  <td id="episode_archive-2013-04-27" class="sat mini future has-no-events">
+            <div class="month mini-day-off"> 27 </div><div class="calendar-empty">&nbsp;</div>
+          </td>
+              </tr>
+          <tr>
+                  <td id="episode_archive-2013-04-28" class="sun mini future has-no-events">
+            <div class="month mini-day-off"> 28 </div><div class="calendar-empty">&nbsp;</div>
+          </td>
+                  <td id="episode_archive-2013-04-29" class="mon mini future has-no-events">
+            <div class="month mini-day-off"> 29 </div><div class="calendar-empty">&nbsp;</div>
+          </td>
+                  <td id="episode_archive-2013-04-30" class="tue mini future has-no-events">
+            <div class="month mini-day-off"> 30 </div><div class="calendar-empty">&nbsp;</div>
+          </td>
+                  <td id="episode_archive-2013-05-01" class="wed mini empty">
+            <div class="calendar-empty">&nbsp;</div>
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+                  <td id="episode_archive-2013-05-02" class="thu mini empty">
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+  <div class="panel-pane pane-views pane-buzzworthy" >
+              <h2 class="pane-title"><span>Buzzworthy</span>
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+    <img typeof="foaf:Image" src="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/styles/author-bio-image-45x45/public/pictures/picture-424461-1366641421.jpg" width="45" height="45" alt="Bittersweet&#039;s picture" title="Bittersweet&#039;s picture" />  </div>
+</div>  </div>   
+          <h4 class="field-content"><a href="/topics/life/education/law-school-worth-price">Is law school worth the price?</a></h4>     
+          <p>You have GOT to be kidding.</p>
+<p>First, to expect an unbiased answer from someone who is going to become a spokeperson for the school is just...</p>     
+  <em class="byline">        <strong>Bittersweet</strong> | Apr 22, 2013  </em>  </div>
+  <div class="views-row views-row-2 views-row-even">
+       
+  <div class="views-field views-field-picture">        <div class="field-content">  <div class="user-picture">
+    <img typeof="foaf:Image" src="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/styles/author-bio-image-45x45/public/pictures/picture-405046-1366205510.jpg" width="45" height="45" alt="jputtgen&#039;s picture" title="jputtgen&#039;s picture" />  </div>
+</div>  </div>   
+          <h4 class="field-content"><a href="/topics/world/chinas-toxic-harvest-growing-tainted-food-cancer-villages">China&#039;s toxic harvest: Growing tainted food in &quot;cancer villages&quot;</a></h4>     
+          <p>Thank you.  I read this story as a little window into a huge landscape of suffering:<br />
+delusion of a stuff-needing self leads to demand for...</p>     
+  <em class="byline">        <strong>jputtgen</strong> | Apr 17, 2013  </em>  </div>
+  <div class="views-row views-row-3 views-row-odd">
+       
+  <div class="views-field views-field-picture">        <div class="field-content">  <div class="user-picture">
+    <img typeof="foaf:Image" src="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/anonymous.jpg" alt="sparky81884&#039;s picture" title="sparky81884&#039;s picture" />  </div>
+</div>  </div>   
+          <h4 class="field-content"><a href="/topics/life/commentary/just-say-no-joint-tax-filing">Just say no to joint tax filing</a></h4>     
+          <p>I feel like individual filing would make things more complicated for married couples.  I, for instance, would need to split the income from our...</p>     
+  <em class="byline">        <strong>sparky81884</strong> | Apr 12, 2013  </em>  </div>
+  <div class="views-row views-row-4 views-row-even views-row-last">
+       
+  <div class="views-field views-field-picture">        <div class="field-content">  <div class="user-picture">
+    <img typeof="foaf:Image" src="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/anonymous.jpg" alt="Javasmom&#039;s picture" title="Javasmom&#039;s picture" />  </div>
+</div>  </div>   
+          <h4 class="field-content"><a href="/topics/tech/health-care/genetics-may-be-next-big-thing-medicine-what-cost">Genetics may be the next big thing in medicine, but at what cost?</a></h4>     
+          <p>One aspect of the cost of genetic testing that is rarely addressed is the effect of genetic testing on the cost/availability of health insurance...</p>     
+  <em class="byline">        <strong>Javasmom</strong> | Apr 12, 2013  </em>  </div>
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+<li class="leaf menu-mlid-5374"><a href="/topics/sustainability/future-jobs-o-matic"><span>Future Jobs-O-Matic</span></a></li>
+<li class="leaf menu-mlid-3243"><a href="http://www.marketplace.org/topics/life/big-book"><span>The Big Book</span></a></li>
+<li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2772"><a href="/topics/business/whiteboard" title="Visit The Whiteboard with Paddy Hirsch"><span>The Whiteboard</span></a></li>
+</ul></div>
+  </div>
+
+</div><!-- /.block -->
+<div id="block-block-1" class="block block-block odd">
+
+      
+  <div class="content">
+    <p>AMERICAN PUBLIC MEDIA</p>
+<p>261 S. Figueroa Street, Los Angeles, CA 90012</p>
+<p><a href="http://www.webbyawards.com/webbys/current_honorees.php?media_id=96&amp;category_id=711&amp;season=16" target="_blank"><img src="/sites/marketplace.org/files/webby_logo_110w_122h.png" alt="" width="110" height="132" /></a></p>
+  </div>
+
+</div><!-- /.block -->
+<div id="block-apm-footer-footer" class="block block-apm-footer last even">
+
+      
+  <div class="content">
+    <!-- apm_footer from http://common.publicradio.org/apm/footer/ --> <!--googleoff: index-->
+<!-- APM GLOBAL FOOTER START -->
+<div id="apmFooter">
+  <div id="apmFooterWrapper" class="apmFooterBackgroundColor">
+  <!-- START FOOTER COLOR BAR BLOCK -->
+  	<div id="apmFooterBar" class="apmFooterBarColor">			
+  		<span id="apmFooterBarImage">
+  		  <a href="http://www.americanpublicmedia.org" ><img alt="American Public Media" src="http://www.publicradio.org/config/cobrand/standard/images/apm002/apm_logo_h.png" id="apmWebLogoH" /></a>
+  		</span>
+  		<span id="apmFooterBarText" class="apmFooterBarTextColor">&copy;
+    		<script type="text/javascript">
+    			var copyDate = new Date();
+    			document.write(copyDate.getFullYear());
+    		</script>
+    		<span class="separator">|</span>
+    		<a href="http://americanpublicmedia.publicradio.org/terms/" class="apmFooterBarTextColor">Terms and Conditions</a>
+    		<span class="separator">|</span>
+    		<a href="http://americanpublicmedia.publicradio.org/privacy/" class="apmFooterBarTextColor">Privacy Policy</a>
+  		</span>
+  	</div>
+  
+  <!-- END FOOTER COLOR BAR BLOCK -->
+  
+  <!-- START CONTENT AND COLUMNS BLOCK -->
+  	<div id="apmFooterContent" class="apmFooterContentLinkColor">
+  		<div id="apmProgs">
+  	    <span class="title apmFooterTitleTextColor">Programs</span>
+    		<div id="apmProgList">
+        		<ul>
+    					<li><a href="http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/?refid=3">American RadioWorks</a></li>
+              <li><a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/?refid=3">BBC World Service</a></li>
+          		<li><a href="http://www.onbeing.org/?refid=3">On Being</a></li>
+          		<li><a href="http://composersdatebook.publicradio.org/?refid=3">Composers Datebook</a></li>
+          		<li><a href="http://www.marketplace.org/?refid=3">Marketplace</a></li>
+          		<li><a href="http://www.marketplace.org/shows/marketplace-money/?refid=3">Marketplace Money</a></li>
+          		<li><a href="http://www.marketplace.org/shows/marketplace-morning-report/?refid=3">Marketplace Morning Report</a></li>
+          		<li><a href="http://www.marketplace.org/shows/marketplace-tech-report/?refid=3">Marketplace Tech Report</a></li>
+          		<li><a href="http://performancetoday.publicradio.org/?refid=3">Performance Today</a></li>
+          		<li><a href="http://pipedreams.publicradio.org/?refid=3">Pipedreams</a></li>
+          		<li><a href="http://prairiehome.publicradio.org/?refid=3">A Prairie Home Companion</a></li>
+          		<li><a href="http://splendidtable.publicradio.org/?refid=3">The Splendid Table</a></li>
+          		<li><a href="http://www.thestory.org/?refid=3">The Story</a></li>
+          		<li><a href="http://symphonycast.publicradio.org/?refid=3">SymphonyCast</a></li>
+              <li><a href="http://www.witsradio.org/?refid=3">Wits</a></li>
+          		<li><a href="http://writersalmanac.publicradio.org/?refid=3">The Writer's Almanac</a></li>
+            <li><a href="http://americanpublicmedia.publicradio.org/programs/?refid=3">More&hellip;</a></li>
+    			</ul>
+    		</div>
+  		</div>
+  		<!-- END PROGRAM COLUMNS -->
+  
+  		<!-- START SUPPORT COLUMN -->
+  		<div id="apmFooterSupport">
+    	  <span class="title apmFooterTitleTextColor">Support American Public Media</span>
+    		<p class="apmPromoText apmFooterContentTextColor">American Public Media's online services are supported by users like you. <a href="https://contribute.publicradio.org/contribute/?refId=apm">Contribute now&hellip;</a></p>
+  		</div>
+  		<!-- END SUPPORT COLUMN -->
+  
+  		<!-- START MORE COLUMN -->
+  		<div id="apmFooterMore">
+  		  <span class="title apmFooterTitleTextColor">More from American Public Media</span>
+  	    <div class="apmMoreList">
+  			  <ul>
+            <li><a href="http://americanpublicmedia.publicradio.org/podcasts/">APM Podcasts/RSS Feeds</a></li>
+            <li><a href="http://americanpublicmedia.publicradio.org/newsletters/">APM Newsletters</a></li>
+            <li><a href="http://americanpublicmedia.publicradio.org/tools/itunes_u/">iTunes U</a></li>
+            <li><a href="http://www.publicradiotuner.com">Public Radio Tuner</a></li>
+            <li><a href="http://americanpublicmedia.publicradio.org/careers/">APM Careers</a></li>
+            <li><a href="http://americanpublicmedia.publicradio.org/">About APM</a></li>
+  				</ul>
+  			</div>
+  		</div>
+      <!-- END MORE COLUMN -->
+  	</div>
+    <!-- END CONTENT AND COLUMNS BLOCK -->
+  
+    <!-- START FINAL BLOCK -->
+    <div id="apmFooterEnd">&nbsp;</div>
+    <!-- END FINAL BLOCK -->
+  
+  </div> 
+</div>
+<!--googleon: index-->  </div>
+
+</div><!-- /.block -->
+  </div></div><!-- /.footer, /.region -->
+
+</div></div><!--   /#page, /#page-wrapper -->
+
+
+
+<!-- START OF SmartSource Data Collector TAG -->
+	<!-- Copyright (c) 1996-2010 WebTrends Inc.  All rights reserved. -->
+	<!-- Version: 9.3.0 -->
+	<!-- Tag Builder Version: 3.1  -->
+	<!-- Created: 10/4/2010 5:48:47 PM -->
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+	<noscript>
+	<div><img alt="DCSIMG" id="DCSIMG" width="1" height="1" src="http://statse.webtrendslive.com/dcs3aq2iruz5bd8nsolcyff8w_7s6r/njs.gif?dcsuri=/nojavascript&amp;WT.js=No&amp;WT.tv=9.3.0&amp;WT.dcssip=marketplace.publicradio.org"/></div>
+	</noscript>
+	<!-- END OF SmartSource Data Collector TAG -->
+
+	<!-- BEGIN Comscore --> 
+		<script> 
+		var _comscore = _comscore || []; 
+		_comscore.push({ c1: "2", c2: "6035974", c3: "", c4: "" }); 
+		(function() { 
+		var s = document.createElement("script"), el = document.getElementsByTagName("script")[0]; s.async = true; 
+		s.src = (document.location.protocol == "https:" ? "https://sb" : "http://b"  ) + ".scorecardresearch.com/beacon.js"; 
+		el.parentNode.insertBefore(s, el); 
+		})(); 
+		</script> 
+		<noscript> 
+		<img src="http://b.scorecardresearch.com/p?c1=2&c2=6035974&c3=&c4=&c5=&c6=&c15=&cv=2.0&cj=1" /> 
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+<script>
+window.onload=function() {
+  var links = document.getElementsByTagName("a");
+  for (var i=0, n=links.length;i<n;i++) {
+    if (links[i].className==="apmFooterBarTextColor"  && links[i].href=="http://americanpublicmedia.publicradio.org/terms/") {
+      links[i].href="http://www.marketplace.org/terms-use";
+      // remove this line if there are more than one checkout link
+    }
+       if (links[i].className==="apmFooterBarTextColor"  && links[i].href=="http://americanpublicmedia.publicradio.org/privacy/") {
+      links[i].href="http://www.marketplace.org/privacy-policy";
+      // remove this line if there are more than one checkout link
+    }
+
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+</script>
+<script type="text/javascript" src="/sites/marketplace.org/themes/sitetheme/js/wtJWPlayerV2.js"></script>
+<!-- UNCOMMENT THE FOLLOWING CODE TO DISPLAY THE OVERLAY -->
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+	<script type="text/javascript" src="/sites/default/themes/sitetheme/fancybox/fancybox/jquery.mousewheel-3.0.4.pack.js"></script>
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+	<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/sites/default/themes/sitetheme/fancybox/fancybox/jquery.fancybox-1.3.4.css" media="screen" />
+	<script type="text/javascript" src="/sites/default/themes/sitetheme/fancybox/cookie/jquery.cookie.js"></script>
+	<script type="text/javascript">
+     function openFancybox() {
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+			  if (visited == 'yes') {
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+		    $.cookie('visited', 'yes', { expires: date });
+		    $('#various1').fancybox();
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+
+
+
+
+
+    <a id="various1" href="#inline1" style='display:none;' title="">Inline</a></li>
+	<div style="display: none;">
+		<div id="inline1" style="width:650px;height:445px;overflow:hidden;">
+			<a href='http://www.marketplace.org/topics/elections/big-money-2012-frontline'><img src='/sites/default/themes/sitetheme/images/bigsky_takeover.png' /></a>
+		</div>
+	</div>
+	-->
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_get_canonical_url.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_get_canonical_url.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..12ca6956
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_get_canonical_url.json
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.marketplace.org/shows/marketplace-tech-report/marketplace-tech-friday-april-19-2013", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "Gun control advocates are looking for new options, including some tech strategies. On Wednesday, seven measures failed in the U.S. Senate, including an amendment that would have expanded background checks. Some gun control advocates are now looking in new directions. So-called 'smart guns' are firearms that only authorized users can fire. But so far, there's not a single one on the market in the U.S.", 
+        "domain": "www.marketplace.org", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.marketplace.org/shows/marketplace-tech-report/marketplace-tech-friday-april-19-2013", 
+        "meta_keywords": "", 
+        "cleaned_text": "Gun control advocates are looking for new options, including some tech strategies. On Wednesday", 
+        "tags": [
+            "SOPA", 
+            "PIPA", 
+            "online privacy", 
+            "Tech", 
+            "sensors", 
+            "guns", 
+            "CISPA"
+        ], 
+        "canonical_link": "http://www.marketplace.org/shows/marketplace-tech-report/marketplace-tech-friday-april-19-2013", 
+        "meta_favicon": "http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/themes/sitetheme/favicon.ico", 
+        "meta_lang": null
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_gizmodo1.html b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_gizmodo1.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..ad0fb982
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_gizmodo1.html
@@ -0,0 +1,74 @@
+
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class="publish-time js_publish_time" data-publishtime="1376751840652"><a class="text-light hover-switch" href="http://gizmodo.com/the-gear-and-apps-you-need-to-survive-the-next-semester-1141460933">    <span class="show-on-hover">8/17/13 11:04am</span><span class="hide-on-hover">  Yesterday 11:04am</span></a></span></span></div></div></div><div class="post-tools-wrapper-ng" data-forpost="1141460933"><div class="js_message post-action-message inline mrm text-tiny proxima"></div><div class="post-tools inline"><a class="edit-link text-micro proxima text-upper hide js_edit-post mrm" href="/posts/1141460933/edit" rel="nofollow">Edit</a><span class="view-stats inline-block proxima"  title="2,618 New Visitors"><span class="text-micro mrs">32,266</span><span class="icon downsized inline notranslate mhn">g</span></span><span class="js_liked-msg-place"></span><div class="button transparent no-text button-recommend pln"><a href="#" class="js_like has-tooltip tip-bottom no-hover" data-tooltip title="Recommend"><span class="txt text-micro text-upper mrs">6</span><span class="icon downsized notranslate mtn mhn js_like_icon">1</span></a></div><a href="http://gizmodo.com/the-gear-and-apps-you-need-to-survive-the-next-semester-1141460933#replies" class="button transparent phn button-reply js_reply-to-post-disabled" rel="nofollow"><span class="txt text-micro text-upper mrs">64</span><span class="icon downsized mhn notranslate">L</span></a></div></div></div><div class="row js_kinja-share-wrapper hide"><div class="twelve columns post-tools-above"><a href="#" class="js_kinja-share replywithshare inline-block"><span class="icon notranslate">K</span></a></div></div>   <header class="mtn mbl"><h1 class="headline"><a href="http://gizmodo.com/the-gear-and-apps-you-need-to-survive-the-next-semester-1141460933" data-id="">The Gear and Apps You Need to Survive the Next Semester</a></h1></header><div class="row"><div class="twelve columns"><span class="img-border mbs"><img class="marquee" src="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/18x4j2sntdhpcjpg/ku-bigpic.jpg" width="970" height="546" data-chomp-id="18x4j2sntdhpcjpg" data-asset-url="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/18x4j2sntdhpcjpg/ku-bigpic.jpg"/></span></div></div><div class="row post-content"><p data-textannotation-id="1a5496841b8e043832bdb1208a7f4c4b" class="first-text">Okay, this is it. Back to school, again. Whether it's your first college semester or you can see graduation on the horizon, these tools will make the next few months infinitely more bearable. </p>
+<p data-textannotation-id="d24154acf6f0ab122248eb40b19a1c31" class="has-media media-640"><span class="lightBoxWrapper"><span class="img-border"><img data-asset-url="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/18x4gw79fbq0ejpg/ku-xlarge.jpg" data-chomp-id="18x4gw79fbq0ejpg" alt="The Gear and Apps You Need to Survive the Next Semester" height="360" width="640" src="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/18x4gw79fbq0ejpg/ku-xlarge.jpg" class="transform-ku-xlarge"/></span><span class="magnifier lightBox hide"><span class="icon icon-white notranslate">S</span><span class="text"></span></span></span></p>
+<hr/>
+<h3 data-textannotation-id="94469d5a008c1e0528b12a142955a2fd">Take Note</h3>
+<p data-textannotation-id="85ddecaf2fdbc98ba6481b42aad934cc">This isn't 2003; you no longer need to carry a cumbersome spiral-bound notebook that will either get lost/torn/burned by your psycho ex the week before finals (<em>thanks again Kate!) </em>or<em> </em>filled with leaky pens and mechanical pencil graphite<em>. </em>Instead, load up one of these apps onto your laptop (<a href="http://gizmodo.com/the-new-macbook-air-comes-packing-intels-awesome-new-p-512277058">Mac</a>, <a href="http://gizmodo.com/acer-aspire-s7-review-the-pc-revival-is-late-but-its-1135589148">Windows</a>) and share your notes among your devices and classmates. </p><div class="inset_placeholder" id="inset_placeholder_512277058-1135589148"></div>
+<ul><li data-textannotation-id="59684d27b9ac39b466a05aed79fdc137"><strong><a href="http://evernote.com/evernote/" target="_blank">Evernote</a></strong> (<a href="https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.evernote&amp;hl=en" target="_blank">Android</a>, <a href="https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/evernote/id281796108?mt=8" target="_blank">iOS</a>, <a href="http://evernote.com/download/" target="_blank">Win</a>, <a href="http://evernote.com/download/" target="_blank">Mac</a>) is the BMOC of note-taking programs. It seamlessly distributes pictures, text, and video between your computer and mobile devices, allows you to clip web data, organize, and then share it. EverNote is freemiumware; coughing up the extra $45 a year nets you added security systems, offline notes, and increased storage capacity.</li><li data-textannotation-id="acf9c020bece92071077821f28a5cc8b"><strong><a href="http://simplenote.com/" target="_blank">Simplenote</a></strong> (<a href="https://simple-note.appspot.com/create/" target="_blank">iOS </a>only) is a dedicated, bare-bones iOS app. It only allows you to take text notes and is ad-supported unless you fork over $20 a year for the premium version.</li><li data-textannotation-id="cc04b64701ff21f7d4233902f8d299ec"><strong><a href="http://lifehacker.com/5805826/extensive-notes-is-a-ridiculously-full-featured-note+taking-app-for-android" target="_blank">Extensive Notes</a></strong> (<a href="https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.flufflydelusions.app.extensive_notes&amp;hl=en" target="_blank">Android</a>) is free note-taking app with more features than you'll know what to do with. It converts measurements, logs appointments, generates passwords, scans bar codes, and a litany of other things in addition to taking notes and making to-do lists.   </li></ul>
+<p data-textannotation-id="9edf01cc5ddcc95c6cb52e6badae28d2">If you've got an older Android tablet or phone, be sure to upgrade the stock keyboard with SwiftKey 3 (<a href="https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.touchtype.swiftkey&amp;hl=en" target="_blank">Android</a>). The $4 investment is well worth the time it'll save you. And if you're unlucky enough to be stuck with an 8 am class this term, you'll do well to bring an audio recorder like the Zoom <a href="http://gizmodo.com/5929802/zoom-q2hd-review-nice-mic-forgettable-video">Q2HD</a> or <a href="http://gizmodo.com/5974718/give-your-iphone-a-pro+quality-mic-with-the-zoom-iq5">iQ5 </a>in case you doze off. </p><div class="inset_placeholder" id="inset_placeholder_5929802-5974718"></div>
+<hr/>
+<h3 data-textannotation-id="884597a7ab632f50a47925306e640aa8" class="has-media media-640"><span class="lightBoxWrapper"><span class="img-border"><img data-asset-url="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/18x4hpiv0p6msjpg/ku-xlarge.jpg" data-chomp-id="18x4hpiv0p6msjpg" alt="The Gear and Apps You Need to Survive the Next Semester" height="360" width="640" src="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/18x4hpiv0p6msjpg/ku-xlarge.jpg" class="transform-ku-xlarge"/></span><span class="magnifier lightBox hide"><span class="icon icon-white notranslate">S</span><span class="text"></span></span></span></h3>
+<h3 data-textannotation-id="57f448439863a3d2685d373021b4adcc">Write It Right</h3>
+<div class="inset_placeholder" id="inset_placeholder_5990200"></div><p data-textannotation-id="8278fa7b0fe78db7ecdaa2412e251452">Don't be <a href="http://gizmodo.com/5990200/look-at-this-idiot-using-his-typewriter-in-a-starbucks">that guy</a>. Write your term papers like you actually live in the 21st century. <strong>Microsoft Office</strong> and <strong>Google Drive</strong> are solid choices for Windows and Android, both offering a wide range of functionality from their respective software suites.</p>
+<p data-textannotation-id="37228c4a2da2ff7ba832d4d466573ec7">Google's offering is free, though, while Office will run you <a href="http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/microsoft-office-365-university-2013-FX102918415.aspx?WT%2Eintid1=ODC_ENUS_FX101825650_XT103927654&amp;WT%2Eintid2=ODC_ENUS_FX102759646_XT103926411" target="_blank">$80 for a 4-year subscription</a>. Still,that's a pretty good deal compared to the $140 it would cost for you to keep it beyond your college years. Windows users should also check out an incredibly helpful text-editing app—especially for those studying the computer sciences—called <strong>Notepad++</strong> (<a href="http://notepad-plus-plus.org/" target="_blank">Win</a>). </p>
+<p data-textannotation-id="c2f9b7b51261e6b5ee345115d2b73794">There's nothing stopping an Apple user from employing Google Drive in the browser, of course, but if you're looking for a dedicated, local text editor, take a look at <strong><a href="http://www.iawriter.com/" target="_blank">iA Writer</a></strong> ($1 <a href="http://www.iawriter.com/ipad/" target="_blank">iPad</a>, <a href="http://www.iawriter.com/iphone/" target="_blank">iPhone</a>, <a href="http://www.iawriter.com/mac/" target="_blank">Mac</a>), an elegant and understated text editor that forces you to focus on the writing, not self-editing, and <strong><a href="http://gizmodo.com/editorial-for-ios-a-better-automated-way-to-edit-text-1150985562">Editorial</a></strong> ($5 <a href="http://go.redirectingat.com/?id=33330X911642&amp;site=gizmodo.com&amp;xs=1&amp;url=https%3A%2F%2Fitunes.apple.com%2Fus%2Fapp%2Feditorial%2Fid673907758%3Fmt%3D8&amp;xguid=fb015e2f739e5aa9056b4a173ab9159c&amp;xcreo=0&amp;sref=http%3A%2F%2Fgizmodo.com%2Feditorial-for-ios-a-better-automated-way-to-edit-text-1150985562&amp;pref=http%3A%2F%2Fgizmodo.com%2Fpreview%2Feverything-you-need-to-survive-the-next-semester-1141460933" target="_blank">iOS</a>), which automates many basic typing functions so that text-editing on a tablet isn't the nightmare it once was. And if neither of these are to your liking, <a href="http://gizmodo.com/5898681/find-the-best-ios-text-editor-for-you-with-this-insanely-detailed-chart">find one that is</a>. <strong>Text Expander</strong> ($5 <a href="https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/textexpander/id326180690?mt=8" target="_blank">iOS</a>, <a href="http://smilesoftware.com/TextExpander/index.html" target="_blank">Mac</a>) is another text-automation program but works in a variety of other platforms, allowing you to set custom shortcuts for commonly used phrases, scripts, and animated GIFs.</p><div class="inset_placeholder" id="inset_placeholder_1150985562-5898681"></div>
+<hr/>
+<h3 data-textannotation-id="0fbf0444a59ae1e8fcf0c1acb21d2ee8" class="has-media media-640"><span class="lightBoxWrapper"><span class="img-border"><img data-asset-url="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/18x4hwfgooxbgjpg/ku-xlarge.jpg" data-chomp-id="18x4hwfgooxbgjpg" alt="The Gear and Apps You Need to Survive the Next Semester" height="360" width="640" src="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/18x4hwfgooxbgjpg/ku-xlarge.jpg" class="transform-ku-xlarge"/></span><span class="magnifier lightBox hide"><span class="icon icon-white notranslate">S</span><span class="text"></span></span></span></h3>
+<h3 data-textannotation-id="4e5e570377925c0608a817344050c36f">Read on the Cheap</h3>
+<div class="inset_placeholder" id="inset_placeholder_5942283"></div><p data-textannotation-id="dee3577f943e5b31803e1e928192cfee">Textbook sales have got to be one of the biggest scams on a college campus. You shell out hundreds of dollars for them, use them for 12 weeks, and then sell them back for pennies on the dollar. And with tuition costs steadily rising around the country, this mandatory reaming doesn't sit well with many. So instead, buy a <a href="http://gizmodo.com/5942283/kindle-fire-hd-review-everything-a-tablet-should-beand-not-much-more"><strong>Kindle Fire HD</strong>, </a>or install the <strong>Kindle app</strong> (<a href="https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.amazon.kindle&amp;hl=en" target="_blank">Android</a>, <a href="https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/kindle-read-books-ebooks-magazines/id302584613?mt=8" target="_blank">iOS</a>) on your own tablet and hope that your classes are listed on <a data-amazonsubtag="[postId|1141460933[authorId|5722017953025243831" data-amazontag="gizmodoamzn-20" data-amazonasin="" target="_blank" href="http://www.amazon.com/gp/feature.html?tag=gizmodoamzn-20&amp;ascsubtag=[type|link[postId|1141460933[authorId|5722017953025243831&amp;docId=1000702481"><strong>Amazon's Textbook Rental</strong> service</a>. Since that's really what you're doing anyway, just renting them.</p>
+<hr/>
+<h3 data-textannotation-id="44a239175c9ef83b69440a541d4169f5"> </h3>
+<h3 data-textannotation-id="35c7dcd066f6fa20813c6513f18edfbb" class="has-media media-640"><span class="lightBoxWrapper"><span class="img-border"><img data-asset-url="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/18x4i9l0bqhosjpg/ku-xlarge.jpg" data-chomp-id="18x4i9l0bqhosjpg" alt="The Gear and Apps You Need to Survive the Next Semester" height="375" width="640" src="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/18x4i9l0bqhosjpg/ku-xlarge.jpg" class="transform-ku-xlarge"/></span><span class="magnifier lightBox hide"><span class="icon icon-white notranslate">S</span><span class="text"></span></span></span></h3>
+<h3 data-textannotation-id="5c980de23626af24a15b1bfeb5f33758">Be a Math Blaster</h3>
+<p data-textannotation-id="c58f948a16cd94c38b4def10ef39e8c9">What, you thought you were through with math just because you passed your SAT? Not a chance. Even the most liberal of liberal arts programs often have a math requirement, which means if you're not numerically inclined you're going to need a helping hand. Most lectures you can probably get away with using one of these mobile apps: </p>
+<ul><li data-textannotation-id="b28843285dd161fb6495f3164ad860a0"><strong>Quick Graph</strong> ($3 unlocked, <a href="https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/quick-graph-your-scientific/id292412367?mt=8" target="_blank">iOS</a>) offers a huge array of computational and visualization features, including VGA output for sharing your groundbreaking equation with the rest of the class. </li><li data-textannotation-id="f1b9a0599be5085a4be0029a71f1cff3"><strong>Free Graphing Calculator</strong> (Free, <a href="https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/free-graphing-calculator/id378009553?mt=8" target="_blank">iOS</a>) offers a full graphing scientific calculator with unit conversion and data-tabling functions. </li><li data-textannotation-id="75e50d424d5d61bb58c96d49e82272eb"><strong>Algeo</strong> (free - <a href="https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.algeo.algeo&amp;hl=en" target="_blank">Android</a>) is a simple yet powerful android calculator app designed specifically to assist with common algebra and calculus problems including symbolic differentiation, definite integrals, and Taylor-series calculations.</li><li data-textannotation-id="8dece23a15eaca81abb795b33e3dbe66"><strong>Mathlab Graphing Calculator</strong> ($5 unlocked, <a href="https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=us.mathlab.android&amp;hl=en" target="_blank">Android</a>) is built to match, and in some cases exceed, the capabilities of dedicated scientific graphing calculators. For $5, it's worth trying out, especially if it means you can forgo the purchase of a handheld unit.</li></ul>
+<hr/>
+<h3 data-textannotation-id="e80d98a6d8200f0ee8c2af7348921d6d" class="has-media media-640"><span class="lightBoxWrapper"><span class="img-border"><img data-asset-url="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/18x86zs5mbc0pjpg/ku-xlarge.jpg" data-chomp-id="18x86zs5mbc0pjpg" alt="The Gear and Apps You Need to Survive the Next Semester" height="360" width="640" src="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/18x86zs5mbc0pjpg/ku-xlarge.jpg" class="transform-ku-xlarge"/></span><span class="magnifier lightBox hide"><span class="icon icon-white notranslate">S</span><span class="text"></span></span></span></h3>
+<h3 data-textannotation-id="d8a027e2e2f406faa7574605969e00eb">Habla Something Other Than English</h3>
+<div class="inset_placeholder" id="inset_placeholder_734123988"></div><p data-textannotation-id="614137701b9da5d8b89f437dcc095671">Unless you passed your AP language requirements, get set for remedial foreign language studies. Rote memorization, huzzah! Of course you could always spice up your language lessons with some <a href="http://gizmodo.com/five-free-online-tools-to-learn-another-language-734123988">supplemental online courses</a>. They're free and they're way more fun than vocabulary flashcards. Your two best options are going to be: </p>
+<ul><li data-textannotation-id="56acb73ee7363f64d5f2df46905e2a58"><a href="http://www.duolingo.com/" target="_blank">Duolingo</a>, which is a crowd-sourced learning platform that delivers a semester's worth of college-level learning in a fraction of the time. </li><li data-textannotation-id="26c0e732d8a16db84c0d1d91f9ca6c94"><a href="http://livemocha.com/" target="_blank">Live Mocha</a>, which offers you the option to pay for lessons in cash or earn them by assisting and tutoring other students. Never pass up free tutoring.</li></ul>
+<hr/>
+<h3 data-textannotation-id="8f4bca59d9080effcdff3d4194d70db7" class="has-media media-640"><span class="lightBoxWrapper"><span class="img-border"><img data-asset-url="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/18x4i4pegoxd9jpg/ku-xlarge.jpg" data-chomp-id="18x4i4pegoxd9jpg" alt="The Gear and Apps You Need to Survive the Next Semester" height="360" width="640" src="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/18x4i4pegoxd9jpg/ku-xlarge.jpg" class="transform-ku-xlarge"/></span><span class="magnifier lightBox hide"><span class="icon icon-white notranslate">S</span><span class="text"></span></span></span></h3>
+<h3 data-textannotation-id="ea0a2e90405d3d0220d041b622866c0e">Share Your Media</h3>
+<p data-textannotation-id="01ff6eeb4ec554fdf0eb62c74f64b4cc">It's great that you've got your notes synced between your devices, but what about the rest of your documents, music, movies, and pirated <em>GoT </em>episodes? Depending on your platform, <strong><a href="https://drive.google.com/" target="_blank">Google Drive</a></strong>,<strong> <a href="https://www.icloud.com/" target="_blank">iCloud</a></strong>, and <strong><a href="https://login.live.com/login.srf?wa=wsignin1.0&amp;rpsnv=11&amp;ct=1376671513&amp;rver=6.2.6289.0&amp;wp=MBI_SSL_SHARED&amp;wreply=https:%2F%2Fskydrive.live.com%2F%3Fmkt%3Den-US&amp;lc=1033&amp;id=250206&amp;cbcxt=sky&amp;mkt=en-US&amp;cbcxt=sky" target="_blank">SkyDrive</a></strong> are the official options for Android, Apple, and Microsoft, respectively. <strong><a href="https://www.dropbox.com/" target="_blank">Dropbox</a></strong> (<a href="https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.dropbox.android&amp;hl=en" target="_blank">Android</a>, <a href="https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/dropbox/id327630330?mt=8" target="_blank">iOS</a>) and simply <a href="https://www.box.com/" target="_blank"><strong>Box</strong> </a>(<a href="https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.box.android" target="_blank">Android</a>, <a href="https://itunes.apple.com/app/box.net/id290853822?mt=8" target="_blank">iOS</a>, <a href="http://apps.microsoft.com/windows/en-US/app/box/5183c685-a8ee-4b9e-b716-9509ebde9a52" target="_blank">Win 8</a>) clients should be on your system no matter what platform you prefer—you can never have enough free storage.  </p>
+<div class="inset_placeholder" id="inset_placeholder_838758031"></div><p data-textannotation-id="245800d8eea2da372a1483eb0a80d40c">If you're looking for a hardware solution for your sharing needs, give the <strong><a href="http://gizmodo.com/sandisk-connect-share-and-stream-your-mobile-media-any-838758031">SanDisk Connect</a></strong> a look. For $50 - $100, depending on storage and streaming capacity, these wireless USB drives can not only act as remote hard drives but also as streaming media servers, allowing you and up to six other people watch your ill-gotten HBO originals.  </p>
+<hr/>
+<h3 data-textannotation-id="d4e55deeed9ff07e7d7a8563fb122ab9" class="has-media media-640"><span class="lightBoxWrapper"><span class="img-border"><img data-asset-url="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/17yaepdcc0gb3jpg/ku-xlarge.jpg" data-chomp-id="17yaepdcc0gb3jpg" alt="The Gear and Apps You Need to Survive the Next Semester" height="360" width="640" src="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/17yaepdcc0gb3jpg/ku-xlarge.jpg" class="transform-ku-xlarge"/></span><span class="magnifier lightBox hide"><span class="icon icon-white notranslate">S</span><span class="text"></span></span></span></h3><h3 data-textannotation-id="44a239175c9ef83b69440a541d4169f5"> </h3>
+<h3 data-textannotation-id="9f695d5d249e3fec69ae4101cef98366">Tune Up </h3>
+<p data-textannotation-id="57624cfc8c1a352c4f2aa385792249b6">The best way to churn our papers and alienate roommates is the crank the volume up to 11. Here's what you'll need to make all your favorite obscure bands shine.</p>
+<p data-textannotation-id="a4434aefc47efdf7ead3c6c451ea7d49">If you've got a lot of Apple products in your life, you'll want to look at the <strong><a data-amazonsubtag="[postId|1141460933[asin|B00903HKOC[authorId|5722017953025243831" data-amazontag="gizmodoamzn-20" data-amazonasin="B00903HKOC" target="_blank" href="http://www.amazon.com/Pioneer-XW-SMA3-K-Portable-featuring-Rechargeable/dp/B00903HKOC?tag=gizmodoamzn-20&amp;ascsubtag=[type|link[postId|1141460933[asin|B00903HKOC[authorId|5722017953025243831">Pioneer XW-SMA3</a></strong> portable speakers; you'll be able to do your music justice in your room or in the quad. If bluetooth on a budget is more your speed, check the $80 <strong><a href="http://soundfreaq.com/SFQ-07_Home" target="_blank">Soundfreaq Sound Spot</a></strong>.</p>
+<p data-textannotation-id="1fd996bb2da51cdc58df5af4f8743832">Conversely, if your roommate isn't a big fan of Death Metal, you should probably pick up a pair of headphones instead. The <strong><a href="http://www.harmankardon.com/estore/hk/us/products/HARKAR-CL/HARKAR-CL_HK_US?skuId=HARKAR-CL_HK_US" target="_blank">Harmon Kardon CL</a></strong> is a quality-made headphone but is a bit pricey for a college student's budget at $200 a pop. The <strong><a href="http://www.solrepublic.com/headphones/sol-republic-tracks?q=headphones/sol-republic-tracks-affordable-headphones-interchangeable-custom-indestructible" target="_blank">Sol Republic Tracks</a></strong> deliver slightly lesser sound compared to the HKs but are half their price as well.     </p>
+<p data-textannotation-id="edddee31d40a7fc8c7aafe752ae32bcd">Now all you need to do is figure out how to keep your electronic menagerie charged throughout the day and you might just make it through this semester with minimal brain damage. [<a href="http://www.technologyguide.com/feature/back-to-school-the-top-apps-to-keep-any-student-productive/" target="_blank">Technology Guide</a> - <a href="http://www.fastcompany.com/3000980/5-apps-help-you-swing-back-productivity-mode" target="_blank">FastCo</a> - <a href="http://www.lifehack.org/articles/lifehack/the-top-12-note-taking-apps-to-get-stuff-done-in-school.html" target="_blank">LifeHack</a> <em>Top Image: <a href="http://www.shutterstock.com/gallery-63814p1.html" target="_blank">Creativa</a>, Notes Image: <a href="http://www.shutterstock.com/gallery-76219p1.html" target="_blank">wavebreakmedia</a> / Shutterstock, Text Editors: <a href="http://www.shutterstock.com/gallery-68804p1.html" target="_blank">Taiga</a>, Dorm Room: <a href="http://www.shutterstock.com/gallery-664834p1.html" target="_blank">Vasin Lee</a>, Readers: Kyle Wagner , Reference: <a href="http://www.shutterstock.com/gallery-858136p1.html" target="_blank">Dmitry Elagin</a>, Maths:</em> <em><a href="https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=us.mathlab.android&amp;hl=en" target="_blank">Mathlab</a>, Language: <a href="http://www.shutterstock.com/gallery-321598p1.html" target="_blank">racorn</a></em>]</p><div id="inset_groups" class="hide"><aside data-ids="512277058-1135589148" class="referenced-wide twelve columns"><span class="text-upper proxima referenced-label">Related</span><div class="container position-relative"><div class="row"><div class="referenced-item six columns"><div class="six mobile-two columns pln"><a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset photo']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/the-new-macbook-air-comes-packing-intels-awesome-new-p-512277058"><span class="img-border"><img class="marquee" src="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/18qez8dq8zbo3jpg/k-small.jpg"/></span></a></div><h6 data-textannotation-id="8de13a0c2d4501f63c1e9ddf60773df3" class="headline"><a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset headline']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/the-new-macbook-air-comes-packing-intels-awesome-new-p-512277058">The New MacBook Air Comes Packing Intel's Awesome New Processor</a></h6><p data-textannotation-id="d7e6791db69b85780197a3d014ad25ff" class="text-small">Today's golden children may be iOS 7 and all things software, but that doesn't mean the actual machines running that software are being… <a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset read more link']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/the-new-macbook-air-comes-packing-intels-awesome-new-p-512277058">Read…</a></p></div><div class="referenced-item six columns"><div class="six mobile-two columns pln"><a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset photo']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/acer-aspire-s7-review-the-pc-revival-is-late-but-its-1135589148"><span class="img-border"><img class="marquee" src="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/18x06p9n1zsz3jpg/k-small.jpg"/></span></a></div><h6 data-textannotation-id="ebeb775ec30588881101635e6fde61eb" class="headline"><a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset headline']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/acer-aspire-s7-review-the-pc-revival-is-late-but-its-1135589148">Acer Aspire S7 Review: The PC Revival Is Late, But It's Here</a></h6><p data-textannotation-id="eccac32ca35f9357c3479aec52b1c7c2" class="text-small">Laptops are at a point right now where they should all be more or less excellent. Ultrabooks are into their third year of relevance, and the screens… <a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset read more link']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/acer-aspire-s7-review-the-pc-revival-is-late-but-its-1135589148">Read…</a></p></div></div></div></aside><aside data-ids="5929802-5974718" class="referenced-wide twelve columns"><span class="text-upper proxima referenced-label">Related</span><div class="container position-relative"><div class="row"><div class="referenced-item six columns"><div class="six mobile-two columns pln"><a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset photo']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/5929802/zoom-q2hd-review-nice-mic-forgettable-video"><span class="img-border"><img class="marquee" src="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/17us1dl1ublw8jpg/k-small.jpg"/></span></a></div><h6 data-textannotation-id="d8a12d5bb41ec0aace8dcbebb17b1a1a" class="headline"><a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset headline']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/5929802/zoom-q2hd-review-nice-mic-forgettable-video">Zoom Q2HD Review: Nice Mic, Forgettable Video</a></h6><p data-textannotation-id="a8db07fa0b59d044cc30edcab355a3a6" class="text-small">Zoom makes some fine audio recording equipment—not the best in the industry, but generally a fantastic value. Now, with the Q2HD, the company has… <a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset read more link']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/5929802/zoom-q2hd-review-nice-mic-forgettable-video">Read…</a></p></div><div class="referenced-item six columns"><div class="six mobile-two columns pln"><a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset photo']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/5974718/give-your-iphone-a-pro+quality-mic-with-the-zoom-iq5"><span class="img-border"><img class="marquee" src="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/18b0m8yjxhclcjpg/k-small.jpg"/></span></a></div><h6 data-textannotation-id="ddecd58f7f39186e2557145f41569098" class="headline"><a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset headline']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/5974718/give-your-iphone-a-pro+quality-mic-with-the-zoom-iq5">Give Your iPhone 5 a Pro-Quality Mic with the Zoom iQ5</a></h6><p data-textannotation-id="b79e6130cae846b078ad11f4ddb924e2" class="text-small">The iPhone 5's capable of capturing really impressive video with its 8MP camera but the accompanying sound quality isn't all that great.… <a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset read more link']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/5974718/give-your-iphone-a-pro+quality-mic-with-the-zoom-iq5">Read…</a></p></div></div></div></aside><aside data-ids="5990200" class="referenced-wide six right columns"><span class="text-upper proxima referenced-label">Related</span><div class="container position-relative"><div class="row"><div class="referenced-item twelve columns"><div class="six mobile-two columns pln"><a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset photo']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/5990200/look-at-this-idiot-using-his-typewriter-in-a-starbucks"><span class="img-border"><img class="marquee" src="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/18ha02cpzajf0jpg/k-small.jpg"/></span></a></div><h6 data-textannotation-id="c63c8fe660035702dc294fe10fe4f644" class="headline"><a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset headline']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/5990200/look-at-this-idiot-using-his-typewriter-in-a-starbucks">Look at This Idiot Using His Typewriter in a Starbucks</a></h6><p data-textannotation-id="adddf9be0159d22435f5c67578e0ddc0" class="text-small">We've already been plenty vocal on our opinions of people who use coffee shops as their personal office. But this guy—this digital rebel found… <a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset read more link']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/5990200/look-at-this-idiot-using-his-typewriter-in-a-starbucks">Read…</a></p></div></div></div></aside><aside data-ids="1150985562-5898681" class="referenced-wide twelve columns"><span class="text-upper proxima referenced-label">Related</span><div class="container position-relative"><div class="row"><div class="referenced-item six columns"><div class="six mobile-two columns pln"><a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset photo']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/editorial-for-ios-a-better-automated-way-to-edit-text-1150985562"><span class="img-border"><img class="marquee" src="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/18x4jxjk0t076jpg/k-small.jpg"/></span></a></div><h6 data-textannotation-id="bdde6a2cf2ace30f8c9f1437740b5242" class="headline"><a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset headline']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/editorial-for-ios-a-better-automated-way-to-edit-text-1150985562">Editorial for iOS: A Better, Automated Way to Edit Text on Your iPad</a></h6><p data-textannotation-id="a5d56ae965825f47362bbe448aac370a" class="text-small">Editing text on your iPad is never exactly an ideal situation, but if for whatever reason, you absolutely must, you might as well make the process as … <a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset read more link']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/editorial-for-ios-a-better-automated-way-to-edit-text-1150985562">Read…</a></p></div><div class="referenced-item six columns"><div class="six mobile-two columns pln"><a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset photo']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/5898681/find-the-best-ios-text-editor-for-you-with-this-insanely-detailed-chart"><span class="img-border"><img class="marquee" src="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/17ig5ogt6czenjpg/k-small.jpg"/></span></a></div><h6 data-textannotation-id="89cb3c246490f02b9d38416de4466244" class="headline"><a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset headline']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/5898681/find-the-best-ios-text-editor-for-you-with-this-insanely-detailed-chart">Find the Best iOS Text Editor For You With This Insanely Detailed Chart</a></h6><p data-textannotation-id="35daad01468e595d484cb0294c8e5e35" class="text-small">Not all iOS text editors are created equal, but this maddeningly comprehensive chart comparing just about every feature of more than 30 of the top… <a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset read more link']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/5898681/find-the-best-ios-text-editor-for-you-with-this-insanely-detailed-chart">Read…</a></p></div></div></div></aside><aside data-ids="5942283" class="referenced-wide six right columns"><span class="text-upper proxima referenced-label">Related</span><div class="container position-relative"><div class="row"><div class="referenced-item twelve columns"><div class="six mobile-two columns pln"><a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset photo']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/5942283/kindle-fire-hd-review-everything-a-tablet-should-beand-not-much-more"><span class="img-border"><img class="marquee" src="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/17ytqi6flxjqkjpg/k-small.jpg"/></span></a></div><h6 data-textannotation-id="d36eac7545e417201006074b2ba7d32e" class="headline"><a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset headline']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/5942283/kindle-fire-hd-review-everything-a-tablet-should-beand-not-much-more">Kindle Fire HD Review: Everything a Tablet Should Be—And Not Much More</a></h6><p data-textannotation-id="33f0ecf6b8e14ed144ed4ef1df2525d9" class="text-small">In some ways, the idea of the first Kindle Fire was more impressive than the product itself. It was a $200 tablet that actually worked. That alone… <a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset read more link']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/5942283/kindle-fire-hd-review-everything-a-tablet-should-beand-not-much-more">Read…</a></p></div></div></div></aside><aside data-ids="734123988" class="referenced-wide six right columns"><span class="text-upper proxima referenced-label">Related</span><div class="container position-relative"><div class="row"><div class="referenced-item twelve columns"><div class="six mobile-two columns pln"><a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset photo']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/five-free-online-tools-to-learn-another-language-734123988"><span class="img-border"><img class="marquee" src="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/18tk7jft3caqwjpg/k-small.jpg"/></span></a></div><h6 data-textannotation-id="d14e91f1482ff17924695aa17c4e2515" class="headline"><a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset headline']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/five-free-online-tools-to-learn-another-language-734123988">Five Free Online Tools to Learn Another Language</a></h6><p data-textannotation-id="d695e3030463a1481417e076705ff217" class="text-small">Rosetta Stone costs $500? Thank you, no. There are too many free language-learning resources on the Internet to warrant that sort of expense. Here… <a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset read more link']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/five-free-online-tools-to-learn-another-language-734123988">Read…</a></p></div></div></div></aside><aside data-ids="838758031" class="referenced-wide six right columns"><span class="text-upper proxima referenced-label">Related</span><div class="container position-relative"><div class="row"><div class="referenced-item twelve columns"><div class="six mobile-two columns pln"><a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset photo']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/sandisk-connect-share-and-stream-your-mobile-media-any-838758031"><span class="img-border"><img class="marquee" src="http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/18udunbk1in97jpg/k-small.jpg"/></span></a></div><h6 data-textannotation-id="8ace47ff8191df06ad28ecf22846a6ee" class="headline"><a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset headline']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/sandisk-connect-share-and-stream-your-mobile-media-any-838758031">SanDisk Connect: Share and Stream Your Mobile Media Anywhere (For Less)</a></h6><p data-textannotation-id="6c01488c8591c6674267dc2b128829c7" class="text-small">When was the last time you held a roll of 35mm film in your hands? For a vast majority of folks, it's been a while seeing as how most cell… <a onClick="window._gaq.push(['_trackEvent', 'Permalink page click', 'Permalink page click - inset read more link']);" href="http://gizmodo.com/sandisk-connect-share-and-stream-your-mobile-media-any-838758031">Read…</a></p></div></div></div></aside></div></div></div><div class="columns twelve mobile-four"><div class="post-tools-wrapper" data-forpost="1141460933"><div class="js_message post-action-message inline mrm text-tiny proxima"></div><div class="post-tools inline">   <span class="js_liked-msg-place"></span><div class="button dropdown split secondary js_toolsmenu" data-usertools="true" data-repost="true"><a href="#" class="js_like has-tooltip tip-bottom" data-tooltip title="Recommend"><span class="icon notranslate no-text js_like_icon">1</span></a><span></span><ul class="js_tools js_share-post-data" data-title="The Gear and Apps You Need to Survive the Next Semester" 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+        "meta_description": "Okay, this is it. Back to school, again. Whether it's your first college semester or you can see graduation on the horizon, these tools will make the next few months infinitely more bearable.", 
+        "domain": "gizmodo.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://gizmodo.com/the-gear-and-apps-you-need-to-survive-the-next-semester-1141460933", 
+        "meta_keywords": "How-2, mobile, apps, education, back to school, productivity, Gizmodo", 
+        "cleaned_text": "Okay, this is it. Back to school, again. Whether it's your first college semester or you can see graduation on the horizon, these tools will make the next few months infinitely more bearable.\n\nThis isn't 2003; you no longer need to carry a cumbersome spiral-bound notebook that will either get lost/torn/burned by your psycho ex the week before finals (thanks again Kate!) or filled with leaky pens and mechanical pencil graphite. Instead, load up one of these apps onto your laptop (Mac, Windows) and share your notes among your devices and classmates.\n\nIf you've got an older Android tablet or phone, be sure to upgrade the stock keyboard with SwiftKey 3 (Android). The $4 investment is well worth the time it'll save you. And if you're unlucky enough to be stuck with an 8 am class this term, you'll do well to bring an audio recorder like the Zoom Q2HD or iQ5 in case you doze off.\n\nDon't be that guy. Write your term papers like you actually live in the 21st century. Microsoft Office and Google Drive are solid choices for Windows and Android, both offering a wide range of functionality from their respective software suites.\n\nGoogle's offering is free, though, while Office will run you $80 for a 4-year subscription. Still,that's a pretty good deal compared to the $140 it would cost for you to keep it beyond your college years. Windows users should also check out an incredibly helpful text-editing app\u2014especially for those studying the computer sciences\u2014called Notepad++ (Win).\n\nThere's nothing stopping an Apple user from employing Google Drive in the browser, of course, but if you're looking for a dedicated, local text editor, take a look at iA Writer ($1 iPad, iPhone, Mac), an elegant and understated text editor that forces you to focus on the writing, not self-editing, and Editorial ($5 iOS), which automates many basic typing functions so that text-editing on a tablet isn't the nightmare it once was. And if neither of these are to your liking, find one that is. Text Expander ($5 iOS, Mac) is another text-automation program but works in a variety of other platforms, allowing you to set custom shortcuts for commonly used phrases, scripts, and animated GIFs.\n\nTextbook sales have got to be one of the biggest scams on a college campus. You shell out hundreds of dollars for them, use them for 12 weeks, and then sell them back for pennies on the dollar. And with tuition costs steadily rising around the country, this mandatory reaming doesn't sit well with many. So instead, buy a Kindle Fire HD, or install the Kindle app (Android, iOS) on your own tablet and hope that your classes are listed on Amazon's Textbook Rental service. Since that's really what you're doing anyway, just renting them.\n\nWhat, you thought you were through with math just because you passed your SAT? Not a chance. Even the most liberal of liberal arts programs often have a math requirement, which means if you're not numerically inclined you're going to need a helping hand. Most lectures you can probably get away with using one of these mobile apps:\n\nUnless you passed your AP language requirements, get set for remedial foreign language studies. Rote memorization, huzzah! Of course you could always spice up your language lessons with some supplemental online courses. They're free and they're way more fun than vocabulary flashcards. Your two best options are going to be:\n\nIt's great that you've got your notes synced between your devices, but what about the rest of your documents, music, movies, and pirated GoT episodes? Depending on your platform, Google Drive, iCloud, and SkyDrive are the official options for Android, Apple, and Microsoft, respectively. Dropbox (Android, iOS) and simply Box (Android, iOS, Win 8) clients should be on your system no matter what platform you prefer\u2014you can never have enough free storage.\n\nIf you're looking for a hardware solution for your sharing needs, give the SanDisk Connect a look. For $50 - $100, depending on storage and streaming capacity, these wireless USB drives can not only act as remote hard drives but also as streaming media servers, allowing you and up to six other people watch your ill-gotten HBO originals.\n\nThe best way to churn our papers and alienate roommates is the crank the volume up to 11. Here's what you'll need to make all your favorite obscure bands shine.\n\nIf you've got a lot of Apple products in your life, you'll want to look at the Pioneer XW-SMA3 portable speakers; you'll be able to do your music justice in your room or in the quad. If bluetooth on a budget is more your speed, check the $80 Soundfreaq Sound Spot.\n\nConversely, if your roommate isn't a big fan of Death Metal, you should probably pick up a pair of headphones instead. The Harmon Kardon CL is a quality-made headphone but is a bit pricey for a college student's budget at $200 a pop. The Sol Republic Tracks deliver slightly lesser sound compared to the HKs but are half their price as well.\n\nNow all you need to do is figure out how to keep your electronic menagerie charged throughout the day and you might just make it through this semester with minimal brain damage. [Technology Guide - FastCo - LifeHack Top Image: Creativa, Notes Image: wavebreakmedia / Shutterstock, Text Editors: Taiga, Dorm Room: Vasin Lee, Readers: Kyle Wagner , Reference: Dmitry Elagin, Maths: Mathlab, Language: racorn]",
+        "meta_favicon": "http://kinja.com/assets/images/logos/favicons/gizmodo.ico", 
+        "meta_lang": "en"
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/guardian1_result.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_guardian1.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/guardian1_result.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_guardian1.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_guardian1.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_guardian1.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..dc79a6aa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_guardian1.json
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2011/nov/18/kristen-wiig-bridesmaids", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "From working as a waitress to starring in hit film Bridesmaids: Kristen Wiig tells Emma Brockes how it happened", 
+        "domain": "www.guardian.co.uk", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2011/nov/18/kristen-wiig-bridesmaids", 
+        "meta_keywords": "Kristen Wiig,Film,Culture,Film", 
+        "cleaned_text": "Kristen Wiig has had the kind of summer one might imagine to be life-changing. For four years, she andAnnie Mumolo, her friend and co-writer, slaved over a comedy script commissioned by Judd Apatow about a woman whose best friend is getting married. It was the 38-year-old's first lead in a film, and her first full-length script to be produced. As an indication of how it played with audiences, I watched it on a plane last month with a friend who, during the scene in which the bride squats in the street to relieve herself after a bad kebab, laughed so long and hard a woman passing in the aisle leant over and said, \"What are you watching?\"\n\nWiig smiles when I tell her this. \"Proud,\" she says, of the day they filmed the shitting-in-the-street scene. \"A proud moment.\"\n\nWe are in the tearoom of a fashionable hotel in\u00a0Tribeca, the Manhattan neighbourhood where\u00a0Wiig lives. Before Bridesmaids, she was known to US audiences as a long-running cast member of Saturday Night Live and elsewhere for scene-stealing cameos in films such as Ghost\u00a0Town and Knocked Up.\n\nThat the film, by midsummer, had grossed more than $150m in the US and outstripped not only all of Apatow's other films, but every \"R-rated female comedy\" in history, puts Wiig in the zone of woman of the moment, although she chafes against this, with its implication that before Bridesmaids she was an ingenue.\n\n\"In most ways my life hasn't changed,\" she says. \"I know that's a boring answer. People want to hear that I bought all gold, fur\u2026\" She allows a perfectly timed beat. \"I would never wear fur.\"\n\nBut hasn't she had to turn down lots of offers?\n\n\"I mean. Yes, no. It feels weird to say that; you don't want to be like, 'Everyone wants me!' I mean. I guess Bridesmaids was definitely the biggest role I've ever had. And the fact that I co-wrote it and everything. But, um\u2026\" Wiig, who is slight, with very straight hair and an eager tilt to her body language, looks mortified. \"It's not like I have boxes of scripts arriving at my door.\"\n\nHer understatement is fuelled perhaps by the inevitable and awkward comparisons she has gained with other women in her business, as if the culture can sustain only a couple at a time. Wiig has been getting \"the new Tina Fey\" quite a lot \u2013 Fey was head writer at SNL when Wiig joined \u2013 although the comparison is faulty. Wiig is an actor first and a comedian second, and with a film directed by Sean Pennin the pipeline and another, Imogene, in which she stars alongside Annette Bening and Matt Dillon, wants to develop\u00a0her career away from comedy. \"People always call me a comedian. And I don't really see myself like that. I guess I just consider myself an actor who does comedy. But who wants to do other things as well.\"\n\nIt took her a long time to get here. After growing up in upstate New York, she went to university in Arizona and studied art before dropping out after the first year and going to LA\u00a0to try to make it as an actor. Arizona is a notorious party college, but Wiig says all of that was out of her system by the time she left high school, where she had a few shaky years. \"I was not that good a student because I was very\u2026 social. I cared more about going out with my friends. I\u00a0didn't quite realise the importance of school. But then when I went to college I took it much more seriously, because I enjoyed it.\"\n\nHow social was she? Suspended?\n\n\"Um. Not for more than a couple of days. There were suspensions.\" Her expression fixes. \"That's the past.\" Before the spotlight was so firmly on her, Wiig talked publicly about her minor-league acts of teenage hooliganism, including being caught underage drinking at a Grateful Deadgig, skipping school and, what she called the worst of it, smashing pot plants on a neighbour's porch, which she feels terrible about. As she entered her 20s her parents were still worried, she says, and then when she kicked in her degree and told them she wanted to be an actor, \"probably the most worried they could be\".\n\n\"Yes. Also, they didn't want me to get disappointed. They would always mention the numbers \u2013 do you know how many people are trying to do what you're doing? Your chances are really slim. And they're right. Technically. But when you're 20, you're like, why can't you just support me?! Can't you be proud that I'm trying to go after my dream?\" She pulls a whiny face and tilts her head. \"But they came around quickly when they saw how happy it made me. They would come and see me in the horrible little shows that I was in.\"\n\nWiig hadn't any great sense of being funny when she was growing up. Her dad, she says, tells a lot of jokes. Her mother is funny, but \"mom funny, where she isn't trying to be funny, but is\". Before retiring, her father ran a marina on one of the lakes upstate in New York (the name Wiig is from his Norwegian heritage). Her mother was an artist. Even after all these years, they haven't quite shed the sense of precariousness around their daughter's life; when she tells them she's in a movie, her mother will say tentatively, \"Is that something we can see in theatres?\" Wiig smiles and says, \"They're still getting used to the idea that I'm working and it's OK.\"\n\nWith good reason. Wiig was 11 years in LA before she got the call from Saturday Night Live, during which time her income was erratic. She had arrived in the city with no professional contacts and a nagging sense of insurmountable competition. \"I was incredibly intimidated and had no experience. I felt very scared and unsure and I didn't have any r\u00e9sum\u00e9, and everyone around me was very beautiful and young and I\u00a0thought, oh, maybe I should work in a store and enjoy the weather. But I started taking improv classes and that's what got me started.\"\n\nImprov was something she had never heard of before. But when she turned up to watch a gig one day at the Groundlings, the famous LA improv troupe with alumni such as Lisa Kudrow, Conan O'Brienand Will Ferrell, something resonated. The idea of standing on stage and making up stuff was, she says, less scary to her than the notion of saying lines, with the lurking fear there was a right and a wrong way to say them. With improvisation, there was no right and\u00a0wrong: \"You can't mess it up and you can't forget your lines.\"\n\nHer enthusiasm wouldn't pay the bills, however, and Wiig worked at a series of day jobs, including at a floral design studio for a couple of years, and as a waitress in the refectory at Universal Studios. Now and then she'll run into someone on a TV show or a movie, and wonder where she knows them from. \"And then I'll remember: oh yeah, I\u00a0used to serve you Cobb salad.\"\n\nThere were many long, dark nights of the soul. \"Oh my God, every month, yeah, because you don't have a lot of money coming in. When I\u00a0look back, it was one of the best times of my life, because you're so in it with your friends. But you do have those moments when you're like: have I given it a try, should I stop, should I quit? But, no. You have a family there, you have a space to put shows on. I would rather be doing what I love and living above a garage \u2013 which I did \u2013 than not.\"\n\nThe call came in 2005. Wiig flew to New York for the first of several auditions with the Saturday Night Live creators. The audition format was standup, which she had never done before, and in front of a terrifying panel includingLorne Michaels, the legendary SNL producer, and Tina Fey. Wiig was required to unveil a range of characters of her own creation that might be suitable for the sketch show and, quivering up there alone on stage, she fully expected to be met with silence. When she heard a few laughs, she gathered strength, got through it and was called back for a second audition. After which, nothing. And then the new season started. \"So I thought, right, pretty clear \u2013 thanks for coming. And then after the third show I got a call saying I was hired, come in\u2026\"\n\nWiig joined the show at a time when it was undergoing a cultural transition. Fey was the first female head writer and has written about the formally macho culture of the show \u2013 men pissing in jars by their desks, etc, which she put to comic use in 30 Rock. It was tough, she says, walking into a workplace where everyone knew each other: \"Kind of like going into someone's living room for a party and they are really comfortable and have their shoes off and are sitting on the couch and I walk in and am a little dressed up and don't know where to stand? They were all very welcoming and nice but I knew I wasn't at that place yet where I could take my shoes off.\"\n\nShe was excited to be working with the likes of\u00a0Fey, Amy Poehlerand Rachel Dratch, although\u00a0Wiig is reluctant to describe the still testosterone-heavy environment at SNL as off-putting. \"I mean, I mean, merely by numbers there are more men that work there, but I don't consider it\u2026 I don't even think about it. Men work there, women work there, we have a lot of amazing female writers on staff right now\u2026 There are more men, but I don't think anyone really\u2026\"\n\nWas she a fan of Fey's before she joined the\u00a0show?\n\n\"Um. I've watched the show since I was born. I mean I definitely admire all the stuff that she's accomplished, especially coming from SNL and being head writer, and then doing 30 Rock and all\u00a0these movies and her book, I mean it's definitely something where you go, oh, that can\u00a0happen. Someone can do that. She's done it. She deserves it.\"\n\nTo date, Bridesmaids has earned in the region of $286m worldwide; it doesn't need the qualifier \"best female comedy\" since it outgrossed Apatow's entire back catalogue, including Anchorman and The 40-Year-Old Virgin. Still, Wiig does not claim feminist dividends for the film \u2013 that it allowed women actors to be as gross on screen as men. She says when she and Mumolo were writing the shitting-in-the-street scene (\"Can that be the title of the piece?\"), it wasn't with an eye on levelling the playing field, nor was there much discussion of whether the market would tolerate that kind of vulgarity from women. No. \"I think when you are doing anything\u00a0creative and you think, 'What are the critics going to think?' instead of what you want to express, it can get a little muddy, and \u2013 I'm talking so seriously about this shitting-in-the-street \u2013 but with that in particular we were like, oh, this is a fun way to end the scene, and Annie used to do an impression of someone slowly realising they were shitting their pants, kind of\u00a0slowly going down on to the ground. She\u00a0would just do it as a joke, and it would always make me laugh really hard. She took it to a whole new level.\"\n\nApatow had approached Wiig and asked her to write a script for him after they worked together on Knocked Up, in which she played a small pivotal role as Katherine Heigl's bitchy boss. In\u00a0her five minutes on screen, Wiig managed to communicate brilliantly the gap between what her character was saying and thinking. She and Mumolo first conceived of Bridesmaids not as a wedding movie per se, but as a movie about friendship. \"I mean, it's called Bridesmaids, I get that. But it's about women who, when they reach that age, whether it's in their 30s or not, thought they were supposed to be somewhere else. That's where we started from. And the fact that Annie had been to seven weddings in two years. And that she had friends who were marrying money and she'd showed up at the country club for the bridal shower with her wing mirrors duct-taped to her car, and at the end of the night had to crawl through her window because the front door would always swell when it was hot out. But if it's your best friend, you don't want to be\u00a0complaining\u2026\"\n\nOn paper at least, it didn't look too promising, with the generic title and the number of lame wedding movies in a seemingly exhausted genre. Apatow's name raised suspicions, too, about the use to which certain characters would be put, especially that of Megan, played by Melissa McCarthy, who looked like the inevitable one-fat-girl-in-the-group and the obvious butt of fat-girl jokes. In fact, McCarthy is the other break-out star of the film, and \"the character that didn't care what anybody else thought. It was a lesson my character needed to learn. She doesn't care what anyone thinks, she's in her own world, but is generous and sweet. We wanted to have that opposite look on life, the character who seems at first like there was nothing she could say that would help, but\u2026\"\n\nThe writing of the dialogue was relatively easy, says Wiig, compared with figuring out what should happen in each scene, and the film went through countless draft versions, crammed in around other work commitments, so that Mumolo, for example, would fly out to Mexico where Wiig was filming, to work on it for a weekend. In early drafts, the women ended up in Vegas, but that got chucked out when, over the four years of writing, it was used up in other wedding films such as The Hangover.\n\nApart from the fact that it is very funny, Bridesmaids ultimately works because it has a kind of sweet sincerity and the friendship between the two lead characters seems real. It bemuses Wiig that the film has widely been described as \"raunchy\". It's really not raunchy. \"Raunchy means like Porky's,\" she says and smiles. \"Which is my next movie; it's going to be a Porky's prequel.\"\n\nAfter six years in New York, Wiig is finally at home in the city. It was tough in the early days, she says, and when friends came to visit she would burst into tears as they left. (\"I was so embarrassed. I thought, oh my God, they're going to go back and say, 'Kristen's not good. She is noooot coping well.'\") If accounts are to be believed, she was briefly married to an actor called Hayes Hargrove and currently lives with her partner, a film-maker called Brian Petsos, but she responds to even the mildest question about her domestic life with a frozen smile. She would, of course, rather talk about acting, and her success in her first lead role \u2013 \"I felt like I had to do a good job or no one would ever invite me to the party again\" \u2013 has, despite her scrupulous modesty, been rewarded with the kind of films she always hoped she'd walk into. In the Sean Penn film The Comedian, which is still in the early stages of production, Wiig will co-star with Robert De Niro. It will be the real test of whether she is leading lady material, and whether she can carry a film without jokes. \"I don't really think about it,\" says Wiig. \"When you're in it, you're in it.\"\n\nIn the meantime, she has sketches to write and shoot as part of the gruelling schedule of Saturday Night Live. After the interview, she is due in at the office for the weekly writing night, when everyone is required to be in at 4pm and stay until the following morning. Wiig is riding so high at the moment that when, as we leave, I ask her to confirm her age, I'm surprised when she grimaces. Yes, she says, she's 38. Why the face? Under her breath, like a dangerous heresy, she says, \"I feel like women are asked their age more than men.\" And she snaps on a smile and leaves the restaurant.", 
+        "tags": [
+            "Kristen Wiig"
+        ], 
+        "meta_favicon": "/favicon.ico", 
+        "meta_lang": "en"
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/huffpo2.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_huffingtonPost2.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/huffpo2.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_huffingtonPost2.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_huffingtonPost2.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_huffingtonPost2.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..2a0153c2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_huffingtonPost2.json
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/10/06/alabama-workers-immigration-law_n_997793.html", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "MONTGOMERY, Ala. -- Alabama's strict new immigration law may be backfiring. Intended to force illegal workers out of jobs, it is also driving away many construction workers, roofers and field hands in the country legally who do backbreaking jobs that Americans generally won't.", 
+        "domain": "www.huffingtonpost.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/10/06/alabama-workers-immigration-law_n_997793.html", 
+        "meta_keywords": "alabama, workers, leave, state, as, immigration, law, takes, effect, business", 
+        "cleaned_text": "MONTGOMERY, Ala. -- Alabama's strict new immigration law may be backfiring.", 
+        "meta_favicon": "/favicon.ico", 
+        "meta_lang": "en"
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue115.html b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue115.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..0b968cfc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue115.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1740 @@
+
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+            <li class="hat_tab " id="hat_tab_bol">
+            <a class="hat_site_title" href="http://online.barrons.com/home" rel="nofollow">Barron's</a>     
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+              <ul class="hat_dd_list">  
+            <li id="hat_tab_port" class="hat_dd_item ">
+            <a href="http://portfolio.wsj.com?mod=wsj_port_hat" rel="nofollow"  >Portfolio</a>
+            </li>      
+            <li id="hat tab big charts" class="hat_dd_item ">
+            <a href="http://bigcharts.marketwatch.com/" rel="nofollow"  >BigCharts</a>
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+            <a href="http://www.efinancialnews.com/" rel="nofollow"  >Financial News</a>
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+            <a href="http://www.smartmoney.com/" rel="nofollow"  >SmartMoney</a>
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+            <a href="http://wsjstudent.com/" rel="nofollow"  >Student Journal</a>
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+            <a href="http://www.marketwatch.com/Game/" rel="nofollow"  >Virtual Stock Exchange</a>
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+            <li id="hat tab WSJ Classifieds" class="hat_dd_item ">
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+            <li id="hat tab WSJ Classroom" class="hat_dd_item hidden">
+            <a href="http://classroom.wsj.com/" rel="nofollow"  >WSJ Classroom</a>
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+            <li id="hat tab WSJ Radio" class="hat_dd_item ">
+            <a href="http://www.wsjradio.com/" rel="nofollow"  >WSJ Radio</a>
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+            <li id="wsjwine" class="hat_dd_item ">
+            <a href="http://www.wsjwine.com/" rel="nofollow"  >WSJ Wine</a>
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+    <div id="globalHeaderAutoComplete" class="hdrSearchList hidden">
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+              <h3 class="sLbl">Also in WSJ.com:</h3>
+              <ul>
+                <li class="lnLi hidden"><a href="#">Latest News</a></li>
+                <li class="lnLi"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/itp">Today's Paper</a></li>
+                <li class="lnLi"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/most_popular.html">Most Popular</a></li>
+                <li class="lnLi hidden"><a href="#">Streams (TBD)</a></li>
+                <li class="lnLi"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/video">Video</a></li>
+                <li class="lnLi"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/blogs">Blogs</a></li>
+                <li class="lnLi">
+                    <h4 class="sLbl noLine">Editions</h4>
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+                        <li class="lnLi"><a class="ln" href="http://europe.wsj.com/home-page?_wsjregion=europe&_homepage=/home/europe">Europe</a></li>
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+                        <li class="lnLi"><a class="ln" href="http://online.wsj.com/portuguese">Brasil <span class="diffLbl">(Portuguese)</span></a></li>
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+                        <li class="lnLi"><a class="ln" href="http://indo.wsj.com/home-page?_wsjregion=asia,indo&_homepage=/home/indo">Indonesia <span class="diffLbl">(Bahasa)</span></a></li>
+                        <li class="lnLi"><a class="ln" href="http://india.wsj.com/home-page?_wsjregion=asia,india&_homepage=/home/india">India <span class="diffLbl">(English)</span></a></li>
+                        <li class="lnLi"><a class="ln" href="http://www.wallstreetjournal.de/">Deutschland <span class="diffLbl">(German)</span></a></li>
+                        <li class="lnLi"><a class="ln ln_rs" href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/russia.html"><span class="mnLbl">Russian</span> <span class="diffLbl">(Russian)</span></a></li>
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+          <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/category/salesmarketingsocial-media/">Sales/Marketing</a>        </h2>
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+          Jessica Livingston: Why Startups Need to Focus on Sales, Not Marketing        </h1>
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+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="width: 167px;">
+<dt class="wp-caption-dt"><img class="size-full wp-image-5" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/BN-CJ583_Living_C_20140415115638.jpg" alt="" width="167" height="94" /></dt>
+</dl>
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+<p><a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/jessica-livingston-2/">JESSICA LIVINGSTON</a>: The most important thing an early-stage startup should know about marketing is rather counterintuitive: that you probably shouldn&#8217;t be doing anything you&#8217;d use the term &#8220;marketing&#8221; to describe. Sales and marketing are two ends of a continuum. At the sales end your outreach is narrow and deep. At the marketing end it is broad and shallow. And for an early stage startup, narrow and deep is what you want &#8212; not just in the way you appeal to users, but in the type of product you build. Which means the kind of marketing you should be doing should be indistinguishable from sales: you should be talking to a small number of users who are seriously interested in what you&#8217;re making, not a broad audience who are on the whole indifferent.</p>
+<p>Successful startups almost always start narrow and deep. Apple started with a computer Steve Wozniak made to impress his friends at the Homebrew Computer Club. There weren&#8217;t a lot of them, but they were really interested.  Facebook started out just for Harvard University students. Again, not a lot of potential users, but they really wanted it. Successful startups start narrow and deep partly because they don&#8217;t have the power to reach a big audience, so they have to choose a very interested one. But also because the product is still being defined.  The conversation with initial users is also market research.</p>
+<table width="110" border="3" cellpadding="5" align="RIGHT">
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div style="text-align: left;">
+<dl style="width: 76px;">
+<dt class="wp-caption-dt"><img src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-VI631_accelg_A_20121113171114.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" /></dt>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<h4><a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/tag/marketing/">See what other startup mentors have to say about marketing tactics.</a></h4>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+<p>At  Y Combinator, we advise most startups to begin by seeking out some core group of early adopters and then engaging with individual users to convince them to sign up.</p>
+<p>For example, the early adopters of Airbnb were hosts and guests in New York City (Y Combinator funded Airbnb in Winter of 2009).  To grow, Airbnb needed to get more hosts and also help existing hosts convert better. So Brian Chesky and Joe Gebbia flew to New York every week to meet with hosts &#8212; teaching them how to price their listings, take better photos, and so on. They also asked hosts for introductions to potential new hosts, who they then met in person.</p>
+<p>Stripe (YC S09) was particularly aggressive about signing up users manually at first. The YC alumni network are a good source of early adopters for a service like Stripe. Co-founders Patrick and John Collison worked their way methodically through it, and when someone agreed to try Stripe, the brothers would install it for them on the spot rather than email a link. We now call their technique &#8220;Collison installation.&#8221;</p>
+<p>Many guest speakers at Y Combinator offer stories about how manual the initial process of getting users was. Pinterest is a mass consumer product, but Ben Silbermann said even he began by recruiting users manually. Ben would literally walk into cafes in Palo Alto and ask random people to try out Pinterest while he gathered feedback over their shoulders.</p>
+<p>The danger of the term &#8220;marketing&#8221; is that it implies the opposite end of the sales/marketing spectrum from the one startups should be focusing on. And just as focusing on the right end has a double benefit &#8212; you acquire users and define the product &#8212; focusing on the wrong end is doubly dangerous, because you not only fail to grow, but you can remain in denial about your product&#8217;s lameness.</p>
+<p>All too often, I’ve seen founders build some initially mediocre product, announce it to the world, find that users never show up, and not know what to do next. As well as not getting any users, the startup never gets the feedback it needs to improve the product.</p>
+<p>So why wouldn’t all founders start by engaging with users individually? Because it’s hard and demoralizing. Sales gives you a kind of harsh feedback that &#8220;marketing&#8221; doesn&#8217;t.  You try to convince someone to use what you&#8217;ve built, and they won&#8217;t. These conversations are painful, but necessary. I suspect from my experience that founders who want to remain in denial about the inadequacy of their product and/or the difficulty of starting a startup subconsciously prefer the broad and shallow &#8220;marketing&#8221; approach precisely because they can&#8217;t face the work and unpleasant truths they&#8217;ll find if they talk to users.</p>
+<p>How should you measure if your manual efforts are effective?  Focus on growth rate rather than absolute numbers. Then you won&#8217;t be dismayed if the absolute numbers are small at first. If you have 20 users, you only need two more this week to grow 10%. And while two users is a small number for most products, 10% a week is a great growth rate. If you keep growing at 10% a week, the absolute numbers will eventually become impressive.</p>
+<p>Our advice at Y Combinator is always to make a really good product and go out and get users manually. The two work hand-in-hand: you need to talk individually to early adopters to make a really good product.  So focusing on the narrow and deep end of the sales/marketing continuum is not just the most effective way to get users. Your startup will die if you don&#8217;t.</p>
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+</div>        </li>      </ul>    </li>    <li class="commententry   "  >    <a name="comment-3084991"></a>      <ul class="unitList unitType-thread">        <li class="unit first">          <ul class="cMetadata metadataType-postInfo">             <li class="postStamp">2:29 pm June 15, 2014</li>            <li class="posterName">                <cite>SPai</cite> wrote:            </li>          </ul>          <div class="commentContent"><p>This article and the associated comments pretty much sums up the primary problem with "marketing", that people have varying definitions. Product management concepts (4P's), outbound campaign concepts (for brand, benefits, offers, promotions, positioning, etc.), inbound (market research, iterative development, etc.), and marketing communications (internal and external, PR). All of these discrete concepts are valid and essential in running a business, and have different focus/priority depending on the stage of the company.</p>
+<p>That said, having been involved in successful and unsuccessful startup, the point of the article is valid, that good analysis of product adoption by early users is essential to the success of a product and more important than activities that drive broad, mass awareness. This feedback loop is an extension of the iterative feedback loop found in most agile development activities, the users are just providing another feedback point, namely the willingness to spend their dollars.</p>
+<p>While I've encountered entrepreneurs that hesitate to engage early users, these are typically the same folks that don't respond well when you tell them certain aspects of the product need to be changed during the development process. It's just their belief that they know best. Unlike Steve Jobs et al, they haven't done their time with users.</p>
+<p>One proposal for future "marketing" articles is to clearly identify the aspect of "marketing" to be discussed. Much like Operations and Product Development, Marketing encompasses many disciplines. Unfortunately, a few of the disciplines call themselves Marketing in various organizations.</p>
+<p>Cheers.</p>
+</div>        </li>      </ul>    </li>    <li class="commententry   "  >    <a name="comment-3081502"></a>      <ul class="unitList unitType-thread">        <li class="unit first">          <ul class="cMetadata metadataType-postInfo">             <li class="postStamp">9:22 pm June 11, 2014</li>            <li class="posterName">                <cite>Tony Pezza American Standard Businesses</cite> wrote:            </li>          </ul>          <div class="commentContent"><p>It appears times have changed and not for the better for the small business owners and start-up entrepreneurs. Sales cannot be generated without marketing and the small owner, not the larger business owner has no consumption of free offers to enhance their business. I had a teaching school for 31 years with business education and trained some 250,000 business owners at a 90% success rating. Coming back from a 10 years retiring stay I have tried to re-start the same program with additional educational program and new concepts, It's been some 10 months and not a nibble on one of the best educational program ever offered into the small business world. The marketing has not gathered one cent in sales and after offering more than $500.00 per person in free services, and materials, and much more. More than 6000 contacts 150 programs  and within those contacts more than 2000 personal face to face presentations, and reviewed materials. It seems I cannot reach the small business owner to make them a better owner and a more profitable and saleable business. I have created new programs, insurance guarantees, seminars guarantees, free promotional advertising, on air free promotions, and so many other business programs.</p>
+<p>I don't know to agree, or disagree but the fact remains that the marketing is not the same as it was going back to when, in 1985 when I started.  When you offer sound and sounder business program for free and no one asked for the program I am at the end of my rope and some 50 years of experience and $35 million in sales in 1989, WHO CAN OFFER THE CORRECT ANSWER TO REACH THE SMALL BUSINESS OWNER.. Thanks  Tony Pezza</p>
+</div>        </li>      </ul>    </li>    <li class="commententry   "  >    <a name="comment-3080065"></a>      <ul class="unitList unitType-thread">        <li class="unit first">          <ul class="cMetadata metadataType-postInfo">             <li class="postStamp">9:56 am June 10, 2014</li>            <li class="posterName">                <cite>Andrew Shea</cite> wrote:            </li>          </ul>          <div class="commentContent"><p>It doesn't appear you understand or appreciate the definition of marketing. There are at least four essential components of marketing (some argue there are as many as six), each with considerable depth and no more important than the other components: The product itself, the place/distribution channel through which you will sell the product, the price of the product and the way in which you'll position/promote the product to drive sales.</p>
+<p>Andrew Shea<br />
+Senior Marketing Executive<br />
+St. Louis, Missouri</p>
+</div>        </li>      </ul>    </li>    <li class="commententry   "  >    <a name="comment-3079492"></a>      <ul class="unitList unitType-thread">        <li class="unit first">          <ul class="cMetadata metadataType-postInfo">             <li class="postStamp">8:53 pm June 9, 2014</li>            <li class="posterName">                <cite>Francis Piscal Jr.</cite> wrote:            </li>          </ul>          <div class="commentContent"><p>I'm not a marketing/sales person, so I won't go there. But, having founded my consulting firm three years ago, one of the most important lessons I've learned is investors and lenders are most impressed by revenue. And, one generates revenue by making sales.  If your company can demonstrate that it can create yield on a small budget investors and lenders will be (1) taken with management (a critical threshold) and (2) more inclined to invest or lend funds.</p>
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+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/nora-abousteit/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-VT208_aboust_A_20121219183637.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>Nora<br>Abousteit</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/christina-bechhold/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/BN-BO553_beccho_A_20140218114412.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>Christina<br>Bechhold</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="width: 95px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/neil-blumenthal/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-VQ902_Blumen_A_20121212145312.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>Neil<br>Blumenthal</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/david-cohen/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-VR374_cohen_A_20121213141404.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>David<br>Cohen</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/kevin-colleran/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-XG834_Coller_A_20130429170026.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>Kevin<br>Colleran</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="width: 100px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/john-greathouse/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-YW751_Greath_A_20130912130613.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>John<br>Greathouse</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/ryan-holmes/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-ZD786_Holmes_A_20131003163543.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>Ryan<br>Holmes</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/jennifer-hyman/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-ZE651_Hyman_A_20131007122006.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>Jennifer<br>Hyman</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/jessica-jackley/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-ZD829_Jackle_A_20131003181517.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>Jessica<br>Jackley</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/brad-keywell/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-XK493_BradKe_A_20130509114151.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>Brad<br>Keywell</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/liz-lange/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-VM588_Lange_A_20121128131126.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>Liz<br>Lange</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/matt-maloney/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-VM594_Malone_A_20121128132500.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>Matt<br>Maloney</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/kate-mitchell/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-VM595_Mitche_A_20121128132617.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>Kate<br>Mitchell</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/jason-nazar/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/BN-CS086_Nazar_A_20140508094522.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>Jason<br>Nazar</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/naval-ravikant/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-VM599_Ravika_A_20121128133029.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>Naval<br>Ravikant</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/brian-sharples/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-ZD774_Sharpl_A_20131003160456.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>Brian<br>Sharples</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/wayne-sutton-2/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-VM600_Sutton_A_20121128133116.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>Wayne<br>Sutton</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/david-tisch/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-VM602_Tisch_A_20121128133231.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>David<br>Tisch</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/vivek-wadhwa/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-VO002_Wadhwa_A_20121203164946.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>Vivek<br>Wadhwa</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/mike-walsh/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/BN-CR707_Walsh_A_20140507133632.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>Mike<br>Walsh</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/maynard-webb/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-XP427_Maynar_A_20130524124620.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>Maynard<br>Webb</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/elaine-wherry/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/BN-AA216_wherry_A_20131016095749.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>Elaine<br>Wherry</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/joanne-wilson/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-VM604_Wilson_A_20121128133350.jpg  " alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>Joanne<br>Wilson</b></span></a>
+</dl>
+</div>
+
+<div style="width: 85px; float: left; font-size: 1.2em; line-height: 1.4em;">
+<dl class="wp-caption alignleft caption-alignleft " style="height: 120px;">
+  <a href="http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/ed-zimmerman/"><img class="  alignleft" style="border: 1px solid black; float: left; margin-right: 4px;" src="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-VM605_Zimmer_A_20121128133425.jpg" alt="" width="76" height="76" />
+  <span style="padding-left:10px;display:inline-block;"><b>Ed<br>Zimmerman</b></span></a>
+</dl>
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+        <ul class="clearFix">
+          <li class="subscribe"><a href="https://www.subscribe.wsj.com/hpfooterlink" rel="nofollow">Subscribe</a></li>
+          <li class="login loginClass"><span>/</span><a href="https://id.wsj.com/auth/log-in" class="loginClass">Login</a></li> <!--- https://id.wsj.com/auth/log-in for scrim use: loginClass--->
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+      <li class="backToTop"><a href="#top">Back to Top<span class="rotate">&laquo;</span></a></li>
+    </ul>
+    <!--MIDDLE COLUMN LINKS-->
+    <ul class="contentLinks clearFix">
+      <li class="linksCol">
+        <h4>Customer Service</h4>
+        <ul>
+          <li><a href="http://help.wsj.com/customer-service/?mod=WSJ_footer">Customer Center</a></li>
+<li><a class="custChatLink" href="#"><span class="lcHighlight">New!</span> Live Help</a></li>
+          <!--<li><a href="http://help.wsj.com/global/?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Asia/Europe Support</a></li>-->
+          <li><a href="https://customercenter.wsj.com/view/contactus.html?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow" id="contactUs">Contact Us</a></li>
+<li><a href="http://www.subscribe.wsj.com/getweekendnow?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">WSJ Weekend</a></li>
+<li><a href="https://customercenter.wsj.com/view/ctdir/contactdirectory.html?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Contact Directory</a></li>
+          <li><a href="http://online.wsj.com/news/column/Corrections?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Corrections</a></li>
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+      <li class="linksCol">
+        <h4>Policy</h4>
+        <ul>
+          <li><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/privacy-policy.html?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Privacy Policy</a></li>
+<li> <a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/cookie-policy.html?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Cookie Policy</a></li>
+          <li><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/data-policy.html?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Data Policy</a></li>
+          <li><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/copyright_policy.html?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Copyright Policy</a></li>
+          <li><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/subscriber_agreement.html?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Subscriber Agreement<br>&amp; Terms of Use</a></li>
+           <li><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/cookie-policy.html?mod=WSJ_footer#cookies_advertising" rel="nofollow">Your Ad Choices</a></li>
+     </ul>
+      </li>
+      <li class="linksCol">
+        <h4>Advertise</h4>
+        <ul>          
+          <li><a href="http://www.wsjdigital.com?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Advertise</a></li>
+      <li><a href="http://classifieds.wsj.com?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Place a Classified Ad</a></li>
+      <li><a href="https://classifieds.wsj.com/ad/Residential-Real-Estate-Ads?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Sell Your Home</a></li>
+      <li><a href="https://classifieds.wsj.com/ad/Business-For-Sale-Ads?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Sell Your Business</a></li>
+      <li><a href="https://classifieds.wsj.com/ad/Commercial-Real-Estate-Ads?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Commercial Real Estate Ads</a></li> 
+      <li><a href="https://classifieds.wsj.com/ad/Job-Ads?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Recruitment & Career Ads</a></li> 
+      <li><a href="https://classifieds.wsj.com/ad/Franchise-For-Sale-Ads?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Franchising</a></li>
+          <li><a href="http://www.wsjlocal.com?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Advertise Locally</a></li>          
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+      <li class="linksCol">
+        <h4>Tools &amp; Features</h4>
+        <ul>
+          <li><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/designtech-wsjModuleHome.html?mod=WSJ_footer">Apps</a></li>
+          <li><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/email-setup.html?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Emails &amp; Alerts</a></li>
+          <!--<li><a href="http://online.wsj.com/ksemail?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Alerts</a></li>-->
+          <li><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-interactive-features-trends.html?mod=WSJ_footer">Graphics</a></li>
+          <li><a href="http://online.wsj.com/page/columnists.html?mod=WSJ_footer">Columns</a></li>
+          <li><a href="http://topics.wsj.com/?mod=WSJ_footer">Topics</a></li>
+          <li><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/guides.html?mod=WSJ_footer">Guides</a></li>
+          <li><a href="http://portfolio.wsj.com?mod=wsj_port_foot">Portfolio</a></li>
+          <li><a href="http://ds.wsj.com/wsjportfolio/portfolio?cmd=mainwindow&mod=wsj_portold_foot">Old Portfolio</a></li>
+        </ul>
+      </li>
+      <li class="linksCol">
+        <h4>More</h4>
+        <ul>
+          <li><a href="http://subscription.wsj.com/"  rel="nofollow">Why Subscribe</a></li>
+          <li><a href="https://id.wsj.com/access/509b1a086458232f6e000002/latest/register_standalone.html" class="registerUserClass" rel="nofollow">Register for Free</a></li>
+          <li><a href="http://www.djreprints.com/?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Reprints</a></li>
+         <!--  <li><a href="http://wsj.iamplify.com">E-books</a></li> online.wsj.com/public/page/2_1150.html -->
+          <li><a href="http://wsj.com/partner/?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Content Partnerships</a></li>
+          <li><a href="http://online.wsj.com/conferences?mod=WSJ_footer">Conferences</a></li>
+          <!--<li><a href="https://www.wsjsafehouse.com/">SafeHouse</a></li>-->
+          
+<li class="subOnly"><a href="http://setup1.wsj.com/pznsetup/sub/pvemail/setup.html?mod=WSJ_footer">Price & Volume</a></li>
+ <li class="subOnly"><a href="http://setup1.wsj.com/pznsetup/sub/ksemail/setup.html?mod=WSJ_footer">Keyword & Symbol</a></li>
+<li><a href="/public/page/archive.html">News Archive</a></li>
+       <li><a href="http://www.dowjones.com/careers.asp?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Jobs at WSJ</a></li>
+       </ul>
+      </li>
+    </ul>
+    <!--FOOTNOTE LINKS-->
+    <ul class="footnoteLinks clearFix">
+       <!--<li><a href="http://help.wsj.com/?mod=WSJ_footer" target="_blank">Help</a></li>-->
+       <!--<li class=""><a href="http://help.wsj.com/contact-us/?mod=WSJ_footer" rel="nofollow">Contact Directory</a></li>-->
+       <li class="copyright">Copyright &copy;2014 <a href="">Dow Jones &amp; Company</a>, Inc. All Rights Reserved.</li>
+    </ul>
+  </div>
+  <!-- end module newGlobalFooter2012 -->
+</div>
+<div id="cX-root" style="display:none"><!--PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE--></div>
+<div id='SI_73f3k49S18cgGAR'><!--DO NOT REMOVE-CONTENTS PLACED HERE--></div> 
+</div>   
+
+
+
+<div class="scrimWSJ">
+
+<div class="scrimWSJ_overlay" style="display:none">
+    <div class="scrimWSJ_wrapper">
+        <div class="scrimWSJ_inner">
+            <div class="scrimWSJ_module gmDevicesScrim">
+            <a href="#" class="gmDeviceScrimCloseBtn">Schlie&szlig;en</a>
+                <a href="#" class="gmDeviceScrimBtn">Subscribe Now</a>
+                <a href="#" class="gmDeviceScrimReadMore"></a>
+            </div>
+        </div>
+    </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<!-- fastdynapage - secj2kentwap07 - Mon 12/29/14 - 00:11:32 EST -->
+        <!-- end footer -->
+    </div>
+    <div id="fb-root"></div>
+    <div id="emailThisScrim" class="scrimWSJ_overlay hidden">
+    <div class="scrimWSJ_wrapper">
+        <div class="scrimWSJ_inner">
+            <div class="scrim_email_this scrimWSJ_module loginModule">
+                <div class="headerStrap">
+                    <a  href="#" class="closeBtn emailScrimCloseBtn">close</a>
+                </div>
+                <h3>Email This</h3>
+                <div id="emailScrimTopAd" class="scrim-sponsor-bug">                    
+                </div>
+                <form id="emailForm" name="emailForm">
+                    <fieldset>
+                        <div class="login_row">
+                            <span id="emailThisAddressToError" class="emailError hidden"></span>
+                            <label class="login_id">
+                                Recipient's Email Address <span class="smallNote">(Separate multiple address with commas)</span>
+                            </label>
+                            <input name="email" id="emailThisAddressTo" value="" type="text" class="login_id" tabindex="1">
+                        </div>
+                        <div class="login_row">
+                            <span id="emailThisAddressFromError" class="emailError hidden"></span>
+                            <label class="login_pw">
+                                Your Email Address
+                            </label>
+                            <input value="" name="email" id="emailThisAddressFrom" class="login_pw" type="text" tabindex="2">
+                        </div>
+                        <div class="login_row">
+                            <label class="login_pw">
+                                Message <span>(Optional)</span>
+                            </label>
+                            <textarea id="emailThisMsg" class="message" maxlength="500" tabindex="3" ></textarea>
+                        </div>
+                        <div class="login_row">
+                            <input id="ccMeChkBox" type="checkbox" checked="checked" class="login_checkbox selected" tabindex="4">
+                            <label class="login_checkbox">
+                                Send me a copy
+                            </label>
+                        </div>  
+                        <span id="recaptchaError" class="emailError hidden"></span>                     
+                        <div id="recaptcha_div" class="captcha_row">
+                        
+                        </div>
+                        <div class="login_row">
+                            <input type="submit" class="login_submit emailScrimSubmit" value="Send" tabindex="5" id="emailScrimSubmit" tabindex="4">
+                            <div class="cancelLink">or <a href="#" class="emailScrimCloseBtn" tabindex="6">Cancel</a></div>
+                        </div>
+                    </fieldset>             
+                 </form>                            
+            </div>
+            
+            
+        </div>
+    </div>
+</div>
+<div id="emailConfScrim" class="scrimWSJ_overlay hidden">
+    <div class="scrimWSJ_wrapper">
+        <div class="scrimWSJ_inner">
+            <div class="scrim_thank_you scrimWSJ_module loginModule">
+                <div class="headerStrap">
+                    <a id="emailConfScrimCloseBtn" href="#" class="closeBtn">close</a>
+                </div>
+                <h3>Thank You</h3>
+                <p>Your email has been sent.</p>
+            </div>
+        </div>
+    </div>
+</div>
+<div id="emailErrorScrim" class="scrimWSJ_overlay hidden">
+    <div class="scrimWSJ_wrapper">
+        <div class="scrimWSJ_inner">
+            <div class="scrim_thank_you scrimWSJ_module loginModule scrim_error">
+                <div class="headerStrap">
+                    <a id="emailErrorScrimCloseBtn" href="#" class="closeBtn">close</a>
+                </div>
+                <h3>Error.</h3>
+                <p>An error has occured and your email has not been sent. <br />
+                Please <a id="reopenEmailScrimFromError" href="#">try again</a>.
+                </p>
+            </div>
+        </div>
+    </div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="hidden">
+<div id="invalidEmailAddress" class="hidden">&bull; Invalid email address.</div>
+<div id="tooManyEmailAddresses" class="hidden">&bull; You can't enter more than 20 emails.</div>
+<div id="invalidDelimiter" class="hidden">&bull; Seperate multiple addresses with Commas.</div>
+<div id="blankEmailAddress" class="hidden">&bull; Must enter an email address.</div>
+<div id="emptyRecaptchaCd" class="hidden">&bull; You must enter the verification code below to send.</div>
+<div id="invalidRecaptchaCd" class="hidden">&bull; Invalid entry: Please type the verification code again.</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<!-- fastdynapage - secj2kentwap09 - Mon 12/29/14 - 02:26:15 EST -->
+
+<script type="text/javascript">if(!NREUMQ.f){NREUMQ.f=function(){NREUMQ.push(["load",new Date().getTime()]);var e=document.createElement("script");e.type="text/javascript";e.src=(("http:"===document.location.protocol)?"http:":"https:")+"//"+"js-agent.newrelic.com/nr-100.js";document.body.appendChild(e);if(NREUMQ.a)NREUMQ.a();};NREUMQ.a=window.onload;window.onload=NREUMQ.f;};NREUMQ.push(["nrfj","beacon-3.newrelic.com","d20006d06b","1229860","ZQQDMREHWRcFBREPWFxONBcKSV4KAAMdSEdaEQ==",0,1,new Date().getTime(),"","","","",""]);</script>
+</body>
+
+<!-- global and local js include, clickability button -->
+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://sj.wsj.net/blogs/js/wsj_blogs_omniture.js"></script>
+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://sj.wsj.net/djscript/require/js_header_nonreno,bluekai,j_blogs,articleTicker,acHeaderSearch,wsjAutocomplete,vltArticleTools,emailThis_js,hsbTrendingNow,onVisibleLoader,outbrain,popoutWidgetize/provided/j_global_slim/version/b17.js"></script><script type="text/javascript" src="http://tealium.hs.llnwd.net/o43/utag/wsjdn/blogs/prod/utag.js"></script> <script data-exclude="ttt" type="text/javascript" src="http://sj.wsj.net/public/page/0_0_W0_1300_BLOGS.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="http://sj.wsj.net/blogs/js/wsj_blogs1.js"></script> <script> function adrefresher() { document.getElementsByClassName( "postList-liveBlog" )[0].addEventListener( "DOMNodeInserted", function ( event ) { if( event.target.id == "postList-liveBlog") { var id = document.querySelector('[id^="ad_"]').children[0].id ; document.getElementById(id).contentWindow.location.reload() ; } }, false ); } </script> <script type="text/javascript" src="http://sj.wsj.net/djscript/bucket/NA_WSJ/page/0_0_WP_Dont_Miss/provided/j_global_slim/version/20120417130456.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript"> if (dojo.getObject("dj.util.onVisibleWidget", true).scan) {dj.util.onVisibleWidget.scan();} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> if (typeof current_path == "undefined") { var current_path = "/"; } dj.blogs.util.renderHeaderDate(); var wsj_section = document.location.toString().split( "/", 4 )[3]; var _sf_async_config={uid:8900,domain:"online.wsj.com",path:current_path, sections:wsj_section}; (function(){ function loadChartbeat() { window._sf_endpt=(new Date()).getTime(); var e = document.createElement("script"); e.setAttribute("language", "javascript"); e.setAttribute("type", "text/javascript"); e.setAttribute("src", (("https:" == document.location.protocol) ? "https://s3.amazonaws.com/" : "http://") + "static.chartbeat.com/js/chartbeat.js"); document.body.appendChild(e); } var oldonload = window.onload; window.onload = (typeof window.onload != "function") ? loadChartbeat : function() { oldonload(); loadChartbeat(); }; })(); </script> <script>!function(d,s,id){var js,fjs=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0];if(!d.getElementById(id)){js=d.createElement(s);js.id=id;js.src="//platform.twitter.com/widgets.js";fjs.parentNode.insertBefore(js,fjs);}}(document,"script","twitter-wjs");</script> <script> // enable "live help" popup in footer var custChatWin=null; dojo.forEach( dojo.query("a.custChatLink"), function(tag) { tag.className = tag.className.replace( /(?:^|\s)custChatLink(?!\S)/g , '' ); // hack: remove class custChatLink so that we don't try to set another popup handler later (base wsj template does, for instance). this class is not targeted by any CSS or any other JS right now dojo.connect(tag,"onclick", function(event) { dojo.stopEvent(event); if(custChatWin==undefined||custChatWin==null||custChatWin.closed) { custChatWin=window.open("https://customercenter.wsj.com/livechat/chat?product=WSJ","DowJones_Live_Chat","width=510,height=420,location=no,menubar=no,status=no,toolbar=no,scrollbars=no,resizable=no"); } else { custChatWin.focus(); } }); }); </script> <script type="text/javascript" src="http://sj.wsj.net/blogs/js/FCF-module.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript"> var FCF = new dj.blogs.FirstClickFree({}); FCF.checkFCF(); </script> <script type="text/javascript" data-exclude="ttt"> // https://jira.dowjones.net/browse/PSSBSCEN-1515 dj.module.sitewidget.popoutWidgetize.init(); dojo.setObject("dj.context.sitewidgets.popupurl", "http://online.wsj.com/page/0_0_WGT_INVESTORCENTER_MST.html"); dj.util.User.isLoggedIn(function(loggedIn) { if (loggedIn) { dj.module.sitewidget.popoutWidgetize.init(); dojo.setObject("dj.context.sitewidgets.popupurl", "http://online.wsj.com/page/0_0_WGT_INVESTORCENTER_MST.html"); } }); <script src="http://mw1.wsj.net/MW5/content/analytics/hooks.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
+
+<!-- end global and local js include, clickability button -->
+
+<!-- begin $GLOBALS[ 'wsj_footer_js' ] -->
+<script type="text/javascript">
+
+       // so that you can click anywhere and close the dropdown:
+       dojo.connect(document, "onclick", function() {
+         dojo.query(".sp-ddown").removeClass("expanded").addClass("collapsed");
+       }, false);
+     
+
+       dojo.query(".sp-ddown .title a").connect("onclick", function(event) {
+         if ( dojo.hasClass(event.target.parentNode.parentNode, "collapsed") || dojo.hasClass(event.target.parentNode.parentNode.parentNode, "collapsed") ) {
+           event.preventDefault(); // only go to link if dropdown is opened
+         }
+         else {
+           event.stopPropagation();
+         }
+       });
+     
+
+var short_url  = "http://on.wsj.com/SqFZ5V" ; 
+var url  = "http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/2014/06/03/jessica-livingston-why-startups-need-to-focus-on-sales-not-marketing/" ; 
+var twitter_handle = "WSJ" ; 
+$( ".email" ).click(function() {
+var topemailButton = new dj.widget.vlttools.Button('att.at.emailthis', function(){
+        var topEmail = new dj.widget.email.EmailThis('att.at.emailthis', {mod:"wsj_valettop_email"});
+        topEmail.init();
+      }, false);
+      topemailButton.init();
+
+    topemailButton.clickHandler()
+      
+});
+
+
+function count_display (social,count) {
+    
+    if(  count !== 0 && count <= 99 ){
+         $('.' + social).children()[1].style.display = 'inline-block' ; 
+       
+       }else if(count > 99 && count <= 999 ) {
+           $('.' + social).children()[1].style.display = 'inline-block' ; 
+           $('.' + social).css("width","37px");
+        }       
+      
+        else if(count > 999 ) {
+           $('.' + social).children()[1].style.display = 'inline-block' ; 
+           $('.' + social).css("width","43px");
+        }
+
+     }
+
+
+$( ".mixi" ).click(function() {
+   
+   mixi_url = 'http://mixi.jp/share.pl?u='+url+'&k=cb06210f9fbb7d10ad9d37664e4973a84ccf524f';
+   window.open(mixi_url,' share ', [ 'width = 632', 'height = 456','location = yes','resizable = yes','toolbar = no', 'menubar = no', 'scrollbars = no', 'status = no']. join (','));
+
+});
+
+
+
+
+var twitt = $('#twitter') ; 
+
+
+//mini wsj_pro hack
+if (typeof twitt.sharrre !== 'function') {
+      
+    sharrre_exec(jQuery, window , document );
+}
+   
+$('#twitter').sharrre({
+  share: {
+    twitter: true
+  },
+  template: '<a class="tw" href="#"><img class="icon" src="http://s.wsj.net/blogs/img/tweet1.png"><div class="social_count">{total}</div></a>',
+  enableHover: false,
+  enableTracking: true,
+  buttons: { twitter: { via: twitter_handle, url : short_url }},
+  render: function(api, options){
+    
+    window.tw_count = api.options.count.twitter  ; 
+    count_display('tw', tw_count );
+    
+  },
+
+click: function(api, options){
+    
+    api.simulateClick();
+    var tw_count2 =  $('.tw').children()[1].innerHTML ;
+    count_display('tw', tw_count2 );
+    api.openPopup('twitter');
+  }
+});
+$('#facebook').sharrre({
+  share: {
+    facebook: true
+  },
+  template: '<a class="fb"  href="#"><img class="icon" src="http://s.wsj.net/blogs/img/facebook1.png"></img><div class="social_count">{total}</div></a>',
+  enableHover: false,
+  
+  render: function(api, options){
+    
+    window.fb_count = api.options.count.facebook  ; 
+    count_display('fb', fb_count );
+
+  },
+  
+  click: function(api, options){
+   
+    api.simulateClick();
+    var fb_count2 =  $('.fb').children()[1].innerHTML ;
+    count_display('fb', fb_count2 );
+    api.openPopup('facebook');
+  
+  }
+});
+$('#googleplus').sharrre({
+  
+  share: {
+    googlePlus: true
+  },
+  template: '<a class="gp" href="#"><img class="icon" src="http://s.wsj.net/blogs/img/google1.png"><div class="social_count">{total}</div></a>',
+  enableHover: false,
+  render: function(api, options){
+    
+    window.gp_count = api.options.count.googlePlus  ; 
+    count_display('gp', gp_count );
+
+  },
+  click: function(api, options){
+    
+    api.simulateClick();
+    var gp_count2 =  $('.gp').children()[1].innerHTML ;
+    count_display('gp', gp_count2 );
+    api.openPopup('googlePlus');
+
+  }
+});
+
+$('#linkedin').sharrre({
+    url: "",
+    share: {
+      linkedin: true
+    },
+    template: '<a class="li" href="#"><img class="icon" src="http://s.wsj.net/blogs/img/linkedin1.png"><div class="social_count">{total}</div></a>',
+    enableHover: false,
+    render: function(api, options){
+    
+        window.li_count = api.options.count.linkedin ; 
+        count_display('li', li_count );
+   },
+    click: function(api, options){
+        api.simulateClick();
+        var li_count2 =  $('.li').children()[1].innerHTML ;
+        count_display('li', li_count2 );
+        api.openPopup('linkedin');
+    }
+  });
+
+   //clone the tool from the top and add it to the bottom 
+   setTimeout(function () {
+
+     if($(".post-bottom-row").length > 0) {
+
+        $(".post-bottom-row").after($(".wrapper").clone(true)) ; 
+        $(".wrapper")[1].style.marginTop = '10px' ; 
+        $(".wrapper")[1].style.marginTop = '10px' ; 
+
+     }else {
+
+      $(".bottomRow").after($(".wrapper").clone(true)) ; 
+
+     }   
+  
+    }, 2000);
+ 
+new dj.blogs.CommentForm(); 
+dj.blogs.AdManager.createAd(
+                                    'standard_top',
+                                    'ad_87222',
+                                    'js',
+                                    { width: 300,
+                                      height: 250,
+                                      size:'300x250,336x280,300x600,336x850,300x1050',
+                                      site:'interactive.wsj.com',
+                                      zone:'blog_accelerators',
+                                      adClass:'A',
+                                      title: 87222,
+                                      meta:'',
+                                      category:'',
+                                      frequency:'',
+                                      cacheId:'',
+                                      classEnabled:'true',
+                                      classValue:'adSummary advertisement',
+                                      styleValue:'',
+                                      conditionType:'',
+                                      conditionValue:'',
+                                      conditionalString:''});
+whenElementVisibleDo(document.getElementById('ad_11231'), function(){ dj.blogs.AdManager.createAd(
+                                    'standard_bottom',
+                                    'ad_11231',
+                                    'js',
+                                    { width: 300,
+                                      height: 250,
+                                      size:'300x250,336x280,300x250',
+                                      site:'bottom.interactive.wsj.com',
+                                      zone:'blog_accelerators',
+                                      adClass:'A',
+                                      title: 11231,
+                                      meta:'',
+                                      category:'',
+                                      frequency:'',
+                                      cacheId:'',
+                                      classEnabled:'true',
+                                      classValue:'adSummary advertisement',
+                                      styleValue:'',
+                                      conditionType:'',
+                                      conditionValue:'',
+                                      conditionalString:''}); });
+
+/*
+ * example invocation:
+ * whenElementVisibleDo(document.getElementById('some_id'), function(){ console.log('visible now!'); });
+ */
+
+// performs callback when element becomes visible, then removes listeners
+function whenElementVisibleDo(el, cb) {
+  var handler = function() {
+    if (isElementInViewportAtAll(el)) {
+      cb();
+      removeListeners(handler);
+    }
+  }
+  attachListeners(handler);
+}
+
+// similar to http://stackoverflow.com/a/7557433/458614 but returns true if any part of the element is in the viewport, not just the whole thing
+// should work on: Chrome, Firefox, Safari, IE8+, iOS Safari, Android2+, Blackberry, Opera Mobile, IE Mobile
+// doesn't handle z-index, being outside of viewable area of parent element, and possibly other edge cases
+// we check if either the top OR the bottom of the element is within the viewport, while either the left right or the element is also in the viewport
+function isElementInViewportAtAll (el) {
+    var rect = el.getBoundingClientRect();
+    var height = window.innerHeight || document.documentElement.clientHeight;
+    var width = window.innerWidth || document.documentElement.clientWidth;
+    return (
+      (
+        (rect.top <= height && rect.top >= 0) ||
+        (rect.bottom <= height && rect.bottom >= 0)
+      ) &&
+      (
+        (rect.left <= width && rect.left >= 0) ||
+        (rect.right <= width && rect.right >= 0)
+      ) 
+    );
+}
+
+function attachListeners(fn) {
+  if (window.addEventListener) {
+    window.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', fn, false);
+    window.addEventListener('load', fn, false);
+    window.addEventListener('scroll', fn, false);
+    window.addEventListener('resize', fn, false);
+  } else if (window.attachEvent) { // IE fallback
+    window.attachEvent('DOMContentLoaded', fn);
+    window.attachEvent('load', fn);
+    window.attachEvent('onscroll', fn);
+    window.attachEvent('onresize', fn);
+  }
+}
+function removeListeners(fn) {
+  if (window.removeEventListener) {
+    window.removeEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', fn, false);
+    window.removeEventListener('load', fn, false);
+    window.removeEventListener('scroll', fn, false);
+    window.removeEventListener('resize', fn, false);
+  } else if (window.attachEvent) { // IE fallback
+    window.detachEvent('DOMContentLoaded', fn);
+    window.detachEvent('load', fn);
+    window.detachEvent('onscroll', fn);
+    window.detachEvent('onresize', fn);
+  }
+}
+        
+var test; addClassWhenOffTop(document.getElementById('ad_11231'), 'sticky-ad');
+
+// adds a class when top of element is off screen, removes class again when scrolling back up to that point
+function addClassWhenOffTop(el, classname) {
+  var scrollTopWhenAdded;
+  attachListeners(function() {
+    if (scrollTopWhenAdded === undefined) {
+      // class has not been added
+      if (el.getBoundingClientRect().top < 0) {
+        // it's off the top of the screen
+        el.className += ' ' + classname;
+        scrollTopWhenAdded = document.documentElement.scrollTop || document.body.scrollTop;
+      }
+    }
+    else {
+      if ((document.documentElement.scrollTop || document.body.scrollTop) <= scrollTopWhenAdded) {
+        // we've gone back up past it
+        el.className = el.className.replace(new RegExp('\\b'+classname+'\\b'), ''); // remove class. in PHP double-quoted string have to do 4 backslashes to get 2
+        scrollTopWhenAdded = undefined;
+      }
+    }
+  });
+}
+
+// okay fine we might have a duplicate declaration
+function attachListeners(fn) {
+  if (window.addEventListener) {
+    window.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded', fn, false);
+    window.addEventListener('load', fn, false);
+    window.addEventListener('scroll', fn, false);
+    window.addEventListener('resize', fn, false);
+  } else if (window.attachEvent) { // IE fallback
+    window.attachEvent('DOMContentLoaded', fn);
+    window.attachEvent('load', fn);
+    window.attachEvent('onscroll', fn);
+    window.attachEvent('onresize', fn);
+  }
+}
+        
+</script>
+<!-- end $GLOBALS[ 'wsj_footer_js' ] -->
+
+<!-- fix for PSSBSCEN-2197 -->
+<script>
+  // module.exports is breaking linkedin js, remove it for now
+  window.tempOldModule = window.module;
+  window.module = undefined;
+</script>
+<script src='http://platform.linkedin.com/in.js'></script>
+<script>
+  // give time for linkedin js do it its thing, then put it back
+  window.setTimeout(function() {
+    window.module = window.tempOldModule;
+  }, 3000);
+</script>
+<!-- end fix for PSSBSCEN-2197 -->
+
+
+<script type="text/javascript">
+     dj.module.header2012.lifp.init();
+
+    var tracking;
+  var proomni = new dj.blogs.util.omni(function(){ 
+      tracking = new dj.blogs.Tracking(this);
+      tracking.title       = 'Jessica Livingston Why Startups Need to Focus on Sales Not Marketing_article';
+      tracking.section     = 'Small Business';
+      tracking.subsection  = 'StartUpJournal';
+      tracking.publishTime = '2014-06-03 13:26';
+      tracking.pageType    = 'article';
+      tracking.articleAuthor = 'Marina Garcia Vasquez';
+      tracking.articleID = '2715';
+      tracking.blogLanguage = 'english';
+      tracking.originalBlog =  '';
+
+
+                tracking.blogName    = 'Theacceleratorsblog';
+            tracking.ad_zone     = 'blog_accelerators';         
+        tracking.articlePrivilege = 'free_Blogs';
+        tracking.articlePrivilegeOrLoggedIn = 'free';
+        tracking.isSubscriberBlog    = 'free';
+
+            tracking.firePixel();      
+   });
+
+</script> 
+
+<!-- variables for populating global header -->
+<script>
+  window.slimHeaderSection = "Business";
+  window.slimHeaderSectionURL = "http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-business-us.html";
+  window.headerVersion = "blg68";
+
+</script>
+
+<!-- ttt_footer_js -->
+<script>
+  var section = window.slimHeaderSection;
+  if (section == "Managemement") section = "Management";
+  var sectionUrl = window.slimHeaderSectionURL;
+
+  var headerWrapperNode = dojo.byId("headerWrapper"); if ((typeof dj.module.header === "object") && headerWrapperNode) {
+     dj.context.djHeaderEnabled = true;
+  }
+  dj.context.core.quotesUrlPrefix = "http://quotes.wsj.com"; if (headerWrapperNode) {
+     var overrideEnv = 'NA_WSJ_PUB_SS';
+     dj.util.User.isLoggedIn(function (isLoggedIn) {
+       if (isLoggedIn) {
+         overrideEnv = 'NA_WSJ_SUB_SS';
+       }
+     });
+     dj.module.header.nonreno.init({
+       version: window.headerVersion,
+       domNodeId: "headerWrapper",
+       isLoadCss: false,
+       headerPageId: "0_0_WG_HeaderOne_WSJSS",
+       overrideUserEnvStr: overrideEnv,
+       onJsExec: function () {
+         var _secpage = section.toUpperCase();
+         var _secUrl = sectionUrl;
+         if (section) {
+           dojo.byId("currentSectionBlk").href = _secUrl;
+           dojo.byId("currentSectionBlk").innerHTML = _secpage;
+           dojo.removeClass(dojo.byId("currentSectionBlk"), "hidden");
+
+           //Changes to update the logo, if section is Tech
+           if(section == "Tech"){
+            dojo.query("header div.slimH_c").addClass("slimH_tech");
+            dojo.query(".slimHeader h1 a").removeClass("mainLogo").addClass("mainLogo-tech");
+
+            // also change link:
+            dojo.query(".slimHeader h1 a")[0].href = "http://online.wsj.com/news/technology";
+          }
+         }
+         dojo.style('headerWrapper', 'color', '#000000');
+
+         // https://jira.dowjones.net/browse/PSSBSCEN-2017
+         if (dj.util.Cookie && dj.util.Cookie.getCookie("wsjregion") == "asia,india") {
+           dojo.query(".slimHeader h1 a")[0].href = "http://india.wsj.com";
+         }
+
+         // https://jira.dowjones.net/browse/ID-1105
+         dj.util.User.renderFirstName("userName"); var uNamePlaceholder = dojo.byId("userName").innerHTML; if (uNamePlaceholder && uNamePlaceholder!=='' && uNamePlaceholder!=='undefined') { uNamePlaceholder += "'s Journal"; } else { dj.util.User.renderCallsign("userName"); var uNamePlaceholder = dojo.byId("userName").innerHTML; uNamePlaceholder += "'s Journal"; } dojo.byId("userName").innerHTML = uNamePlaceholder;
+
+         // https://jira.dowjones.net/browse/PSSBSCEN-1515
+         dj.util.User.isLoggedIn(function(loggedIn) {
+          if (loggedIn) {
+           dj.module.sitewidget.popoutWidgetize.init();
+           dojo.setObject("dj.context.sitewidgets.popupurl", "http://online.wsj.com/page/0_0_WGT_INVESTORCENTER_MST.html");
+          }
+         });
+       }
+     });
+  }
+</script><!-- end ttt_footer_js -->
+
+<!-- end of footer.php -->
+</html>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue115.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue115.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..8f87a9bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue115.json
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://blogs.wsj.com/accelerators/2014/06/03/jessica-livingston-why-startups-need-to-focus-on-sales-not-marketing/",
+    "expected": {
+        "cleaned_text": "JESSICA LIVINGSTON: The most important thing an early-stage startup should know about marketing is rather counterintuitive: that you probably shouldn’t be doing anything you’d use the term"
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue129.html b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue129.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..9f523cbc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue129.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1460 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+<html class='v2' dir='ltr'>
+<head>
+<meta content='width=1100' name='viewport'/>
+<meta content='text/html; charset=UTF-8' http-equiv='Content-Type'/>
+<script type="text/javascript">(function() { var b=window,f="chrome",g="tick",k="jstiming";(function(){function d(a){this.t={};this.tick=function(a,d,c){var e=void 0!=c?c:(new Date).getTime();this.t[a]=[e,d];if(void 0==c)try{b.console.timeStamp("CSI/"+a)}catch(h){}};this[g]("start",null,a)}var a;b.performance&&(a=b.performance.timing);var n=a?new d(a.responseStart):new d;b.jstiming={Timer:d,load:n};if(a){var c=a.navigationStart,h=a.responseStart;0<c&&h>=c&&(b[k].srt=h-c)}if(a){var e=b[k].load;0<c&&h>=c&&(e[g]("_wtsrt",void 0,c),e[g]("wtsrt_","_wtsrt",h),e[g]("tbsd_","wtsrt_"))}try{a=null,
+b[f]&&b[f].csi&&(a=Math.floor(b[f].csi().pageT),e&&0<c&&(e[g]("_tbnd",void 0,b[f].csi().startE),e[g]("tbnd_","_tbnd",c))),null==a&&b.gtbExternal&&(a=b.gtbExternal.pageT()),null==a&&b.external&&(a=b.external.pageT,e&&0<c&&(e[g]("_tbnd",void 0,b.external.startE),e[g]("tbnd_","_tbnd",c))),a&&(b[k].pt=a)}catch(p){}})();b.tickAboveFold=function(d){var a=0;if(d.offsetParent){do a+=d.offsetTop;while(d=d.offsetParent)}d=a;750>=d&&b[k].load[g]("aft")};var l=!1;function m(){l||(l=!0,b[k].load[g]("firstScrollTime"))}b.addEventListener?b.addEventListener("scroll",m,!1):b.attachEvent("onscroll",m);
+ })();</script>
+<meta content='blogger' name='generator'/>
+<link href='http://lostinjit.blogspot.fr/favicon.ico' rel='icon' type='image/x-icon'/>
+<link href='http://lostinjit.blogspot.com/2011/10/pypy-and-road-towards-scipy.html' rel='canonical'/>
+<link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Lost in JIT - Atom" href="http://lostinjit.blogspot.com/feeds/posts/default" />
+<link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="Lost in JIT - RSS" href="http://lostinjit.blogspot.com/feeds/posts/default?alt=rss" />
+<link rel="service.post" type="application/atom+xml" title="Lost in JIT - Atom" href="http://www.blogger.com/feeds/5761095693213568868/posts/default" />
+
+<link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Lost in JIT - Atom" href="http://lostinjit.blogspot.com/feeds/4365261822998854267/comments/default" />
+<!--[if IE]><script type="text/javascript" src="https://www.blogger.com/static/v1/jsbin/2704825972-ieretrofit.js"></script>
+<![endif]-->
+<!--[if IE]> <script> (function() { var html5 = ("abbr,article,aside,audio,canvas,datalist,details," + "figure,footer,header,hgroup,mark,menu,meter,nav,output," + "progress,section,time,video").split(','); for (var i = 0; i < html5.length; i++) { document.createElement(html5[i]); } try { document.execCommand('BackgroundImageCache', false, true); } catch(e) {} })(); </script> <![endif]-->
+<title>Lost in JIT: PyPy and the road towards SciPy</title>
+<link type='text/css' rel='stylesheet' href='https://www.blogger.com/static/v1/widgets/1109018805-widget_css_2_bundle.css' />
+<link type='text/css' rel='stylesheet' href='https://www.blogger.com/dyn-css/authorization.css?targetBlogID=5761095693213568868&zx=aef1a7fc-ed33-4f45-8eaf-bdc65d99ff82' />
+<style id='page-skin-1' type='text/css'><!--
+/*
+-----------------------------------------------
+Blogger Template Style
+Name:     Simple
+Designer: Josh Peterson
+URL:      www.noaesthetic.com
+----------------------------------------------- */
+/* Variable definitions
+====================
+<Variable name="keycolor" description="Main Color" type="color" default="#66bbdd"/>
+<Group description="Page Text" selector="body">
+<Variable name="body.font" description="Font" type="font"
+default="normal normal 12px Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif"/>
+<Variable name="body.text.color" description="Text Color" type="color" default="#222222"/>
+</Group>
+<Group description="Backgrounds" selector=".body-fauxcolumns-outer">
+<Variable name="body.background.color" description="Outer Background" type="color" default="#66bbdd"/>
+<Variable name="content.background.color" description="Main Background" type="color" default="#ffffff"/>
+<Variable name="header.background.color" description="Header Background" type="color" default="transparent"/>
+</Group>
+<Group description="Links" selector=".main-outer">
+<Variable name="link.color" description="Link Color" type="color" default="#2288bb"/>
+<Variable name="link.visited.color" description="Visited Color" type="color" default="#888888"/>
+<Variable name="link.hover.color" description="Hover Color" type="color" default="#33aaff"/>
+</Group>
+<Group description="Blog Title" selector=".header h1">
+<Variable name="header.font" description="Font" type="font"
+default="normal normal 60px Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif"/>
+<Variable name="header.text.color" description="Title Color" type="color" default="#3399bb" />
+</Group>
+<Group description="Blog Description" selector=".header .description">
+<Variable name="description.text.color" description="Description Color" type="color"
+default="#777777" />
+</Group>
+<Group description="Tabs Text" selector=".tabs-inner .widget li a">
+<Variable name="tabs.font" description="Font" type="font"
+default="normal normal 14px Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif"/>
+<Variable name="tabs.text.color" description="Text Color" type="color" default="#999999"/>
+<Variable name="tabs.selected.text.color" description="Selected Color" type="color" default="#000000"/>
+</Group>
+<Group description="Tabs Background" selector=".tabs-outer .PageList">
+<Variable name="tabs.background.color" description="Background Color" type="color" default="#f5f5f5"/>
+<Variable name="tabs.selected.background.color" description="Selected Color" type="color" default="#eeeeee"/>
+</Group>
+<Group description="Post Title" selector="h3.post-title, .comments h4">
+<Variable name="post.title.font" description="Font" type="font"
+default="normal normal 22px Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif"/>
+</Group>
+<Group description="Date Header" selector=".date-header">
+<Variable name="date.header.color" description="Text Color" type="color"
+default="#222222"/>
+<Variable name="date.header.background.color" description="Background Color" type="color"
+default="transparent"/>
+</Group>
+<Group description="Post Footer" selector=".post-footer">
+<Variable name="post.footer.text.color" description="Text Color" type="color" default="#666666"/>
+<Variable name="post.footer.background.color" description="Background Color" type="color"
+default="#f9f9f9"/>
+<Variable name="post.footer.border.color" description="Shadow Color" type="color" default="#eeeeee"/>
+</Group>
+<Group description="Gadgets" selector="h2">
+<Variable name="widget.title.font" description="Title Font" type="font"
+default="normal bold 11px Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif"/>
+<Variable name="widget.title.text.color" description="Title Color" type="color" default="#000000"/>
+<Variable name="widget.alternate.text.color" description="Alternate Color" type="color" default="#999999"/>
+</Group>
+<Group description="Images" selector=".main-inner">
+<Variable name="image.background.color" description="Background Color" type="color" default="#ffffff"/>
+<Variable name="image.border.color" description="Border Color" type="color" default="#eeeeee"/>
+<Variable name="image.text.color" description="Caption Text Color" type="color" default="#222222"/>
+</Group>
+<Group description="Accents" selector=".content-inner">
+<Variable name="body.rule.color" description="Separator Line Color" type="color" default="#eeeeee"/>
+<Variable name="tabs.border.color" description="Tabs Border Color" type="color" default="#eeeeee"/>
+</Group>
+<Variable name="body.background" description="Body Background" type="background"
+color="#66bbdd" default="$(color) none repeat scroll top left"/>
+<Variable name="body.background.override" description="Body Background Override" type="string" default=""/>
+<Variable name="body.background.gradient.cap" description="Body Gradient Cap" type="url"
+default="url(//www.blogblog.com/1kt/simple/gradients_light.png)"/>
+<Variable name="body.background.gradient.tile" description="Body Gradient Tile" type="url"
+default="url(//www.blogblog.com/1kt/simple/body_gradient_tile_light.png)"/>
+<Variable name="content.background.color.selector" description="Content Background Color Selector" type="string" default=".content-inner"/>
+<Variable name="content.padding" description="Content Padding" type="length" default="10px"/>
+<Variable name="content.padding.horizontal" description="Content Horizontal Padding" type="length" default="10px"/>
+<Variable name="content.shadow.spread" description="Content Shadow Spread" type="length" default="40px"/>
+<Variable name="content.shadow.spread.webkit" description="Content Shadow Spread (WebKit)" type="length" default="5px"/>
+<Variable name="content.shadow.spread.ie" description="Content Shadow Spread (IE)" type="length" default="10px"/>
+<Variable name="main.border.width" description="Main Border Width" type="length" default="0"/>
+<Variable name="header.background.gradient" description="Header Gradient" type="url" default="none"/>
+<Variable name="header.shadow.offset.left" description="Header Shadow Offset Left" type="length" default="-1px"/>
+<Variable name="header.shadow.offset.top" description="Header Shadow Offset Top" type="length" default="-1px"/>
+<Variable name="header.shadow.spread" description="Header Shadow Spread" type="length" default="1px"/>
+<Variable name="header.padding" description="Header Padding" type="length" default="30px"/>
+<Variable name="header.border.size" description="Header Border Size" type="length" default="1px"/>
+<Variable name="header.bottom.border.size" description="Header Bottom Border Size" type="length" default="1px"/>
+<Variable name="header.border.horizontalsize" description="Header Horizontal Border Size" type="length" default="0"/>
+<Variable name="description.text.size" description="Description Text Size" type="string" default="140%"/>
+<Variable name="tabs.margin.top" description="Tabs Margin Top" type="length" default="0" />
+<Variable name="tabs.margin.side" description="Tabs Side Margin" type="length" default="30px" />
+<Variable name="tabs.background.gradient" description="Tabs Background Gradient" type="url"
+default="url(//www.blogblog.com/1kt/simple/gradients_light.png)"/>
+<Variable name="tabs.border.width" description="Tabs Border Width" type="length" default="1px"/>
+<Variable name="tabs.bevel.border.width" description="Tabs Bevel Border Width" type="length" default="1px"/>
+<Variable name="date.header.padding" description="Date Header Padding" type="string" default="inherit"/>
+<Variable name="date.header.letterspacing" description="Date Header Letter Spacing" type="string" default="inherit"/>
+<Variable name="date.header.margin" description="Date Header Margin" type="string" default="inherit"/>
+<Variable name="post.margin.bottom" description="Post Bottom Margin" type="length" default="25px"/>
+<Variable name="image.border.small.size" description="Image Border Small Size" type="length" default="2px"/>
+<Variable name="image.border.large.size" description="Image Border Large Size" type="length" default="5px"/>
+<Variable name="page.width.selector" description="Page Width Selector" type="string" default=".region-inner"/>
+<Variable name="page.width" description="Page Width" type="string" default="auto"/>
+<Variable name="main.section.margin" description="Main Section Margin" type="length" default="15px"/>
+<Variable name="main.padding" description="Main Padding" type="length" default="15px"/>
+<Variable name="main.padding.top" description="Main Padding Top" type="length" default="30px"/>
+<Variable name="main.padding.bottom" description="Main Padding Bottom" type="length" default="30px"/>
+<Variable name="paging.background"
+color="#ffffff"
+description="Background of blog paging area" type="background"
+default="transparent none no-repeat scroll top center"/>
+<Variable name="footer.bevel" description="Bevel border length of footer" type="length" default="0"/>
+<Variable name="mobile.background.overlay" description="Mobile Background Overlay" type="string"
+default="transparent none repeat scroll top left"/>
+<Variable name="mobile.background.size" description="Mobile Background Size" type="string" default="auto"/>
+<Variable name="mobile.button.color" description="Mobile Button Color" type="color" default="#ffffff" />
+<Variable name="startSide" description="Side where text starts in blog language" type="automatic" default="left"/>
+<Variable name="endSide" description="Side where text ends in blog language" type="automatic" default="right"/>
+*/
+/* Content
+----------------------------------------------- */
+body {
+font: normal normal 12px Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif;
+color: #222222;
+background: #66bbdd none repeat scroll top left;
+padding: 0 40px 40px 40px;
+}
+html body .region-inner {
+min-width: 0;
+max-width: 100%;
+width: auto;
+}
+a:link {
+text-decoration:none;
+color: #2288bb;
+}
+a:visited {
+text-decoration:none;
+color: #888888;
+}
+a:hover {
+text-decoration:underline;
+color: #33aaff;
+}
+.body-fauxcolumn-outer .fauxcolumn-inner {
+background: transparent url(//www.blogblog.com/1kt/simple/body_gradient_tile_light.png) repeat scroll top left;
+_background-image: none;
+}
+.body-fauxcolumn-outer .cap-top {
+position: absolute;
+z-index: 1;
+height: 400px;
+width: 100%;
+background: #66bbdd none repeat scroll top left;
+}
+.body-fauxcolumn-outer .cap-top .cap-left {
+width: 100%;
+background: transparent url(//www.blogblog.com/1kt/simple/gradients_light.png) repeat-x scroll top left;
+_background-image: none;
+}
+.content-outer {
+-moz-box-shadow: 0 0 40px rgba(0, 0, 0, .15);
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+<h2 class='date-header'><span>Thursday, October 27, 2011</span></h2>
+
+          <div class="date-posts">
+        
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+<a name='4365261822998854267'></a>
+<h3 class='post-title entry-title' itemprop='name'>
+PyPy and the road towards SciPy
+</h3>
+<div class='post-header'>
+<div class='post-header-line-1'></div>
+</div>
+<div class='post-body entry-content' id='post-body-4365261822998854267' itemprop='description articleBody'>
+<p>Hello</p><br /><p>Recent PyPys effort to bring NumPy and the associated <a class="reference external" href="http://pypy.org/numpydonate.html">fundraiser</a><br />caused a lot of discussion in the SciPy community regarding PyPy, NumPy,<br />SciPy and the future of numeric computing in Python.</p><br /><p>There were <a class="reference external" href="http://mail.python.org/pipermail/pypy-dev/2011-October/008601.html">discussions</a> on the topic as well as <a class="reference external" href="http://technicaldiscovery.blogspot.com/2011/10/thoughts-on-porting-numpy-to-pypy.html">various</a> <a class="reference external" href="http://blog.streamitive.com/2011/10/17/numpy-isnt-about-fast-arrays/">blog</a> <a class="reference external" href="http://blog.streamitive.com/2011/10/19/more-thoughts-on-arrays-in-pypy/">posts</a><br />from the SciPy community who addressed few issues. It seems there was a lot<br />of talking past each other and I would like to clarify on a few points here,<br />although this should be taken as my personal opinion on the subject.</p><br /><p>So, let's start from the beginning. There are <strong>no plans</strong> for PyPy to<br />reimplement everything that's out there in RPython. That has been pointed<br />out from the beginning as a fallacy of our approach -- we simply don't plan<br />to do that. We agree that Python is a great glue language and we would like<br />to keep it that way. PyPy can nicely interface with C using ctypes with<br />a slightly worse story for C++ (even though there were <a class="reference external" href="http://morepypy.blogspot.com/2011/08/wrapping-c-libraries-with-reflection.html">experiments</a>).<br />What we know by now is that CPython C API is not a very good glue for PyPy,<br />it's too tied to CPython and it prevents a lot of interesting optimizations<br />from happening. The contenders are a few with Cython being a favorite<br />for now, however for Cython to be usable we need to have a story for C++<br />(I know Cython does have a story but it's unclear how that would work with<br />the PyPy backend).</p><br /><p>Which brings me to second point that while a lot of code in packages like<br />SciPy or matplotlib should be reusable in PyPy, it's probably not in<br />the current form. Either a lot of it has to move to Cython or some other<br />way of interfacing with C will come across. This should make it clear that<br />we <strong>want</strong> to interface with SciPy and reuse as much as possible.</p><br /><p>Another recurring topic that seems to pop up is why we just don't reuse Cython<br />for NumPy instead of reimplementing everything. The problem is that we need<br />a robust array type with all the interface <strong>before</strong> we can start using Cython<br />for anything. Since we're going to implement it anyway, why not go all the way<br />and implement the full NumPy module? And that is the topic of the current<br />funding proposal is exactly that -- to provide <strong>full</strong> NumPy module. That<br />would be a very good start for integrating the full stack of SciPy and<br />matplotlib and all other libraries out there.</p><br /><p>But also the trick is that a robust array module can go a long way alone.<br />It allows you to prototype a lot of algorithms on it's own and generally has<br />it's uses, without having to worry &quot;but if I read all the elements from the<br />array it's going to be dog slow&quot;.</p><br /><p>The last accusation is that we're trying to split the community. The answer is<br />simply no. We have a relatively good roadmap how to get to support what's out<br />there in scientific community and ideally support all people out there. This<br />will however take some time and the group of people that can run their<br />stuff on top of PyPy will be growing over time. This is indeed precisely what<br />is happening in other areas of python world -- more and more stuff run on PyPy<br />and people find it more and more interesting to try and to adapt their<br />own stuff to run.</p><br /><p>To summarize, I don't really think there is that much of a gap between us<br />and SciPy people. We'll start small (by providing <strong>full</strong> NumPy implementation)<br />and then gradually move forward reusing as much as possible from the entire<br />stack.</p><br /><p>Cheers,<br />fijal</p>
+<div style='clear: both;'></div>
+</div>
+<div class='post-footer'>
+<div class='post-footer-line post-footer-line-1'>
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+Posted by
+<span class='fn' itemprop='author' itemscope='itemscope' itemtype='http://schema.org/Person'>
+<meta content='http://www.blogger.com/profile/11410841070239382771' itemprop='url'/>
+<a class='g-profile' href='http://www.blogger.com/profile/11410841070239382771' rel='author' title='author profile'>
+<span itemprop='name'>Maciej Fijalkowski</span>
+</a>
+</span>
+</span>
+<span class='post-timestamp'>
+at
+<meta content='http://lostinjit.blogspot.com/2011/10/pypy-and-road-towards-scipy.html' itemprop='url'/>
+<a class='timestamp-link' href='http://lostinjit.blogspot.fr/2011/10/pypy-and-road-towards-scipy.html' rel='bookmark' title='permanent link'><abbr class='published' itemprop='datePublished' title='2011-10-27T05:06:00-07:00'>5:06 AM</abbr></a>
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+<h4>7 comments:</h4>
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+      var items = [{'id': '5038916005497812552', 'body': 'I\46#39;m going to play devil\46#39;s advocate and ask the question of why PyPy should care one bit about the existing Numpy implementation or supporting C++ right now.   I think it would be cool if the PyPy folks simply built the array type that *they* want.   Make it fast.  Do every kind of crazy optimization you can think of with it.  Sure, call it something other than numpy to start, but make it something that programmers who want to live on the bleeding edge can play around it and try out (I know I\46#39;d be interested in messing around with something like that).   Providing full numpy compatibility and all of that can come later on after more experience has been gained.', 'timestamp': '1319719182528', 'permalink': 'http://lostinjit.blogspot.com/2011/10/pypy-and-road-towards-scipy.html?showComment\0751319719182528#c5038916005497812552', 'author': {'name': 'Dave Beazley', 'avatarUrl': 'http://img2.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif', 'profileUrl': 'http://www.blogger.com/profile/02802905126181462140'}, 'displayTime': 'October 27, 2011 at 5:39 AM', 'deleteclass': 'item-control blog-admin pid-1194191824'}, {'id': '6305406649190702282', 'body': 'Hi Dave.\74br /\76\74br /\76If you download PyPy nightly, you can play with numpy.array that does exactly this. We\46#39;re working on adding features (like multi dimensional arrays) and simply numpy API is kind of good.', 'timestamp': '1319719445409', 'permalink': 'http://lostinjit.blogspot.com/2011/10/pypy-and-road-towards-scipy.html?showComment\0751319719445409#c6305406649190702282', 'author': {'name': 'Maciej Fijalkowski', 'avatarUrl': 'http://img2.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif', 'profileUrl': 'http://www.blogger.com/profile/11410841070239382771'}, 'displayTime': 'October 27, 2011 at 5:44 AM', 'deleteclass': 'item-control blog-admin pid-1531970785'}, {'id': '8828707821233613724', 'body': 'The numpy interface is battle-tested over many years of use, and is pretty flexible.  I am usually pleasantly surprised when applying it to new problems.\74br /\76\74br /\76Given the effort required to integrate a multidimensional array type into PyPy, I don\46#39;t think it makes sense to try to reinvent the wheel by designing a completely new API.  I could see someone experimenting with the API after a numpy-derived core is in place.', 'timestamp': '1319730939249', 'permalink': 'http://lostinjit.blogspot.com/2011/10/pypy-and-road-towards-scipy.html?showComment\0751319730939249#c8828707821233613724', 'author': {'name': 'stan', 'avatarUrl': 'http://img2.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif', 'profileUrl': 'http://www.blogger.com/profile/08688052715877131030'}, 'displayTime': 'October 27, 2011 at 8:55 AM', 'deleteclass': 'item-control blog-admin pid-900817052'}, {'id': '1102855255106800373', 'body': 'You can write \46quot;full\46quot; in bold, but that doesn\46#39;t make it so.  It should be clear to you by now that by claiming to provide a full numpy implementation you are at the very least confusing the issue for many users.  To spell it out once more, here is what numpy provides and what you plan to implement:\74br /\76\74br /\76  - Python API; ndarray, dtypes  (yes)\74br /\76  - C API; ndarray, dtypes       (no)\74br /\76  - Fourier transforms           (no - I think)\74br /\76  - Linear algebra               (no - I think)\74br /\76  - Random number generators     (yes - I think)\74br /\76\74br /\76Furthermore, several people (Travis, David, Ian, Dave Beazley above) mentioned you shouldn\46#39;t call your implementation numpy.  Before you were using micronumpy, that makes a lot more sense.', 'timestamp': '1319878931591', 'permalink': 'http://lostinjit.blogspot.com/2011/10/pypy-and-road-towards-scipy.html?showComment\0751319878931591#c1102855255106800373', 'author': {'name': 'Ralf Gommers', 'avatarUrl': 'http://img2.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif', 'profileUrl': 'http://www.blogger.com/profile/10189904547449375563'}, 'displayTime': 'October 29, 2011 at 2:02 AM', 'deleteclass': 'item-control blog-admin pid-138535197'}, {'id': '5119755470051336461', 'body': 'When I mean full, I mean full. It\46#39;s all yes in your table except the C API. The way to call C using those arrays will be provided, but not using the CPython C API.\74br /\76\74br /\76We\46#39;ll rename it to numpypy for time being (at least until it\46#39;s reasonably complete).', 'timestamp': '1319881189267', 'permalink': 'http://lostinjit.blogspot.com/2011/10/pypy-and-road-towards-scipy.html?showComment\0751319881189267#c5119755470051336461', 'author': {'name': 'Maciej Fijalkowski', 'avatarUrl': 'http://img2.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif', 'profileUrl': 'http://www.blogger.com/profile/11410841070239382771'}, 'displayTime': 'October 29, 2011 at 2:39 AM', 'deleteclass': 'item-control blog-admin pid-1531970785'}, {'id': '3173950294581147309', 'body': 'I\46#39;m not quite sure why people are getting so fussed about it. Most of the work in SciPy is in the C code, and it will still be easy to point some algorithm written in C at the memory held by the new PyPy arrays as it is in the current numpy.\74br /\76\74br /\76Why would people use PyPy for science if it\46#39;s implementation of numpy was slower than CPythons one? They wouldn\46#39;t, so that\46#39;s why PyPy can\46#39;t expose the existing CPython C API, as simply the act of exposing that API would make it much slower, due to the overhead of simulating ref-counting etc. There\46#39;s no point PyPy trying to make a numpy implementation that exposes the CPython C API.', 'timestamp': '1320066807242', 'permalink': 'http://lostinjit.blogspot.com/2011/10/pypy-and-road-towards-scipy.html?showComment\0751320066807242#c3173950294581147309', 'author': {'name': 'Ben Young', 'avatarUrl': 'http://img2.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif', 'profileUrl': 'http://www.blogger.com/profile/05200062269405992736'}, 'displayTime': 'October 31, 2011 at 6:13 AM', 'deleteclass': 'item-control blog-admin pid-574566042'}, {'id': '2099125541336803566', 'body': 'I think that linear algebra and Fourier transforms are frequently needed.\74br /\76Come on guys, lets donate:\74br /\76http://pypy.org/numpydonate.html', 'timestamp': '1344279423153', 'permalink': 'http://lostinjit.blogspot.com/2011/10/pypy-and-road-towards-scipy.html?showComment\0751344279423153#c2099125541336803566', 'author': {'name': 'Raul Durand', 'avatarUrl': 'http://img2.blogblog.com/img/b16-rounded.gif', 'profileUrl': 'http://www.blogger.com/profile/03417426673915503070'}, 'displayTime': 'August 6, 2012 at 11:57 AM', 'deleteclass': 'item-control blog-admin pid-2006058685'}];
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+<div id='bc_0_8C' kind='c'><div id='bc_0_8CT'><div id='bc_0_7T' class='comment-thread' kind='r'  t='0' u='0'><ol id='bc_0_7TB'><li id='bc_0_0B' class='comment' kind='b'><div class='avatar-image-container'><img src='http://img2.blogblog.com/img/b36-rounded.png'></img></div><div id='c5038916005497812552' class='comment-block'><div id='bc_0_0M' class='comment-header' kind='m'><cite class='user'><a rel='nofollow' href='http://www.blogger.com/profile/02802905126181462140'>Dave Beazley</a></cite><span class='icon user'></span><span class='datetime secondary-text'><a rel='nofollow' href='http://lostinjit.blogspot.com/2011/10/pypy-and-road-towards-scipy.html?showComment=1319719182528#c5038916005497812552'>October 27, 2011 at 5:39 AM</a></span></div><p id='bc_0_0MC' class='comment-content'>I&#39;m going to play devil&#39;s advocate and ask the question of why PyPy should care one bit about the existing Numpy implementation or supporting C++ right now.   I think it would be cool if the PyPy folks simply built the array type that *they* want.   Make it fast.  Do every kind of crazy optimization you can think of with it.  Sure, call it something other than numpy to start, but make it something that programmers who want to live on the bleeding edge can play around it and try out (I know I&#39;d be interested in messing around with something like that).   Providing full numpy compatibility and all of that can come later on after more experience has been gained.</p><span id='bc_0_0MN' class='comment-actions secondary-text' kind='m'><a kind='i' href='javascript:;' target='_self' o='r'>Reply</a><span class='item-control blog-admin pid-1194191824'><a o='d' target='_self' href='http://www.blogger.com/delete-comment.g?blogID=5761095693213568868&amp;postID=5038916005497812552'>Delete</a></span></span></div><div id='bc_0_0BR' class='comment-replies'></div><div id='bc_0_0B_box' class='comment-replybox-single'></div></li><li id='bc_0_1B' class='comment' kind='b'><div class='avatar-image-container'><img src='http://img2.blogblog.com/img/b36-rounded.png'></img></div><div id='c6305406649190702282' class='comment-block'><div id='bc_0_1M' class='comment-header' kind='m'><cite class='user blog-author'><a rel='nofollow' href='http://www.blogger.com/profile/11410841070239382771'>Maciej Fijalkowski</a></cite><span class='icon user blog-author'></span><span class='datetime secondary-text'><a rel='nofollow' href='http://lostinjit.blogspot.com/2011/10/pypy-and-road-towards-scipy.html?showComment=1319719445409#c6305406649190702282'>October 27, 2011 at 5:44 AM</a></span></div><p id='bc_0_1MC' class='comment-content'>Hi Dave.<br /><br />If you download PyPy nightly, you can play with numpy.array that does exactly this. We&#39;re working on adding features (like multi dimensional arrays) and simply numpy API is kind of good.</p><span id='bc_0_1MN' class='comment-actions secondary-text' kind='m'><a kind='i' href='javascript:;' target='_self' o='r'>Reply</a><span class='item-control blog-admin pid-1531970785'><a o='d' target='_self' href='http://www.blogger.com/delete-comment.g?blogID=5761095693213568868&amp;postID=6305406649190702282'>Delete</a></span></span></div><div id='bc_0_1BR' class='comment-replies'></div><div id='bc_0_1B_box' class='comment-replybox-single'></div></li><li id='bc_0_2B' class='comment' kind='b'><div class='avatar-image-container'><img src='http://img2.blogblog.com/img/b36-rounded.png'></img></div><div id='c8828707821233613724' class='comment-block'><div id='bc_0_2M' class='comment-header' kind='m'><cite class='user'><a rel='nofollow' href='http://www.blogger.com/profile/08688052715877131030'>stan</a></cite><span class='icon user'></span><span class='datetime secondary-text'><a rel='nofollow' href='http://lostinjit.blogspot.com/2011/10/pypy-and-road-towards-scipy.html?showComment=1319730939249#c8828707821233613724'>October 27, 2011 at 8:55 AM</a></span></div><p id='bc_0_2MC' class='comment-content'>The numpy interface is battle-tested over many years of use, and is pretty flexible.  I am usually pleasantly surprised when applying it to new problems.<br /><br />Given the effort required to integrate a multidimensional array type into PyPy, I don&#39;t think it makes sense to try to reinvent the wheel by designing a completely new API.  I could see someone experimenting with the API after a numpy-derived core is in place.</p><span id='bc_0_2MN' class='comment-actions secondary-text' kind='m'><a kind='i' href='javascript:;' target='_self' o='r'>Reply</a><span class='item-control blog-admin pid-900817052'><a o='d' target='_self' href='http://www.blogger.com/delete-comment.g?blogID=5761095693213568868&amp;postID=8828707821233613724'>Delete</a></span></span></div><div id='bc_0_2BR' class='comment-replies'></div><div id='bc_0_2B_box' class='comment-replybox-single'></div></li><li id='bc_0_3B' class='comment' kind='b'><div class='avatar-image-container'><img src='http://img2.blogblog.com/img/b36-rounded.png'></img></div><div id='c1102855255106800373' class='comment-block'><div id='bc_0_3M' class='comment-header' kind='m'><cite class='user'><a rel='nofollow' href='http://www.blogger.com/profile/10189904547449375563'>Ralf Gommers</a></cite><span class='icon user'></span><span class='datetime secondary-text'><a rel='nofollow' href='http://lostinjit.blogspot.com/2011/10/pypy-and-road-towards-scipy.html?showComment=1319878931591#c1102855255106800373'>October 29, 2011 at 2:02 AM</a></span></div><p id='bc_0_3MC' class='comment-content'>You can write &quot;full&quot; in bold, but that doesn&#39;t make it so.  It should be clear to you by now that by claiming to provide a full numpy implementation you are at the very least confusing the issue for many users.  To spell it out once more, here is what numpy provides and what you plan to implement:<br /><br />  - Python API; ndarray, dtypes  (yes)<br />  - C API; ndarray, dtypes       (no)<br />  - Fourier transforms           (no - I think)<br />  - Linear algebra               (no - I think)<br />  - Random number generators     (yes - I think)<br /><br />Furthermore, several people (Travis, David, Ian, Dave Beazley above) mentioned you shouldn&#39;t call your implementation numpy.  Before you were using micronumpy, that makes a lot more sense.</p><span id='bc_0_3MN' class='comment-actions secondary-text' kind='m'><a kind='i' href='javascript:;' target='_self' o='r'>Reply</a><span class='item-control blog-admin pid-138535197'><a o='d' target='_self' href='http://www.blogger.com/delete-comment.g?blogID=5761095693213568868&amp;postID=1102855255106800373'>Delete</a></span></span></div><div id='bc_0_3BR' class='comment-replies'></div><div id='bc_0_3B_box' class='comment-replybox-single'></div></li><li id='bc_0_4B' class='comment' kind='b'><div class='avatar-image-container'><img src='http://img2.blogblog.com/img/b36-rounded.png'></img></div><div id='c5119755470051336461' class='comment-block'><div id='bc_0_4M' class='comment-header' kind='m'><cite class='user blog-author'><a rel='nofollow' href='http://www.blogger.com/profile/11410841070239382771'>Maciej Fijalkowski</a></cite><span class='icon user blog-author'></span><span class='datetime secondary-text'><a rel='nofollow' href='http://lostinjit.blogspot.com/2011/10/pypy-and-road-towards-scipy.html?showComment=1319881189267#c5119755470051336461'>October 29, 2011 at 2:39 AM</a></span></div><p id='bc_0_4MC' class='comment-content'>When I mean full, I mean full. It&#39;s all yes in your table except the C API. The way to call C using those arrays will be provided, but not using the CPython C API.<br /><br />We&#39;ll rename it to numpypy for time being (at least until it&#39;s reasonably complete).</p><span id='bc_0_4MN' class='comment-actions secondary-text' kind='m'><a kind='i' href='javascript:;' target='_self' o='r'>Reply</a><span class='item-control blog-admin pid-1531970785'><a o='d' target='_self' href='http://www.blogger.com/delete-comment.g?blogID=5761095693213568868&amp;postID=5119755470051336461'>Delete</a></span></span></div><div id='bc_0_4BR' class='comment-replies'></div><div id='bc_0_4B_box' class='comment-replybox-single'></div></li><li id='bc_0_5B' class='comment' kind='b'><div class='avatar-image-container'><img src='http://img2.blogblog.com/img/b36-rounded.png'></img></div><div id='c3173950294581147309' class='comment-block'><div id='bc_0_5M' class='comment-header' kind='m'><cite class='user'><a rel='nofollow' href='http://www.blogger.com/profile/05200062269405992736'>Ben Young</a></cite><span class='icon user'></span><span class='datetime secondary-text'><a rel='nofollow' href='http://lostinjit.blogspot.com/2011/10/pypy-and-road-towards-scipy.html?showComment=1320066807242#c3173950294581147309'>October 31, 2011 at 6:13 AM</a></span></div><p id='bc_0_5MC' class='comment-content'>I&#39;m not quite sure why people are getting so fussed about it. Most of the work in SciPy is in the C code, and it will still be easy to point some algorithm written in C at the memory held by the new PyPy arrays as it is in the current numpy.<br /><br />Why would people use PyPy for science if it&#39;s implementation of numpy was slower than CPythons one? They wouldn&#39;t, so that&#39;s why PyPy can&#39;t expose the existing CPython C API, as simply the act of exposing that API would make it much slower, due to the overhead of simulating ref-counting etc. There&#39;s no point PyPy trying to make a numpy implementation that exposes the CPython C API.</p><span id='bc_0_5MN' class='comment-actions secondary-text' kind='m'><a kind='i' href='javascript:;' target='_self' o='r'>Reply</a><span class='item-control blog-admin pid-574566042'><a o='d' target='_self' href='http://www.blogger.com/delete-comment.g?blogID=5761095693213568868&amp;postID=3173950294581147309'>Delete</a></span></span></div><div id='bc_0_5BR' class='comment-replies'></div><div id='bc_0_5B_box' class='comment-replybox-single'></div></li><li id='bc_0_6B' class='comment' kind='b'><div class='avatar-image-container'><img src='http://img2.blogblog.com/img/b36-rounded.png'></img></div><div id='c2099125541336803566' class='comment-block'><div id='bc_0_6M' class='comment-header' kind='m'><cite class='user'><a rel='nofollow' href='http://www.blogger.com/profile/03417426673915503070'>Raul Durand</a></cite><span class='icon user'></span><span class='datetime secondary-text'><a rel='nofollow' href='http://lostinjit.blogspot.com/2011/10/pypy-and-road-towards-scipy.html?showComment=1344279423153#c2099125541336803566'>August 6, 2012 at 11:57 AM</a></span></div><p id='bc_0_6MC' class='comment-content'>I think that linear algebra and Fourier transforms are frequently needed.<br />Come on guys, lets donate:<br />http://pypy.org/numpydonate.html</p><span id='bc_0_6MN' class='comment-actions secondary-text' kind='m'><a kind='i' href='javascript:;' target='_self' o='r'>Reply</a><span class='item-control blog-admin pid-2006058685'><a o='d' target='_self' href='http://www.blogger.com/delete-comment.g?blogID=5761095693213568868&amp;postID=2099125541336803566'>Delete</a></span></span></div><div id='bc_0_6BR' class='comment-replies'></div><div id='bc_0_6B_box' class='comment-replybox-single'></div></li></ol><div id='bc_0_7I' class='continue' kind='ci'><a href='javascript:;' target='_self'>Add comment</a></div><div id='bc_0_7T_box' class='comment-replybox-thread'></div><div id='bc_0_7L' class='loadmore loaded' kind='rb'><a href='javascript:;' target='_self'>Load more...</a></div></div></div></div>
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diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue129.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue129.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..ddf6cbc8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue129.json
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://lostinjit.blogspot.fr/2011/10/pypy-and-road-towards-scipy.html", 
+    "expected": {
+        "cleaned_text": "Recent PyPys effort to bring NumPy and the associated fundraiser"
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue24.html b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue24.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..80ae7b93
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue24.html
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"><html>
+<html>
+    <head>
+        <title>Paragraph Order Test</title>
+    </head>
+
+    <body>
+        <div>
+            TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+
+ Most of our team is using Eclipse as the main IDE, its incrimental compilation in Java with its tight JUnit integration are great for fast TDD programming. Unfortunately the Eclipse Scala plugin is not there yet, it may hangs the IDE and messes up Java compilation - especially in large (more then 1000 source files) Java/Scala projects. Though the plugin is getting better over time some developers would find the plugin as a majore drag on their productivity.
+ For developers who do not write Scala at all or rather edit Scala with other editors, you can use this alternate path which lets them work on their Java or Scala code without messing with the plugin.
+            <p>Paragraph 1 - The Following script is using the Fast Scala Compiler (fsc). The fsc is a compilation server which always run in the background, as in a warm scalac always ready to receive new work. Is will reduce compilation time dramatically.
+ The classpath for compilation is taken from the Eclipse project .classpath file. You may take the source directory from there as well if you wish (exercise to the reader).
+ The params are not passed to the fsc in the command line since in my project's case the line is too long for the OS to handle. The alternative is to put it into a file and let fsc handle it for you.</p>
+
+            TextNode 2 - As you may know, kaChing is an test driven engineering organization. Test driven is not an option, its a must. We move fast and push code to production few dozens of times a day in a five minutes release cycle, so we must have high confidence in our code.
+ In complex systems there is no end to testings, each test system is an another line of defense which eventually gets broken but the more you have, the less chances bugs will reach production. We do not have QA team and do not want to have one, the reasoning is that if a human is involved in testing then there is a higher chance of missing things and you simply can't test all the site dozens of times a day.
+            <p>Paragraph 2 - In the next few weeks we are adding a new rule from the "not critical" list every few days. The goal is to have all the rules we think are important without the common "its to noisy, lets ignore it" approche. Only after we're done with that we're going to add the next static analysis tool to build. The good thing about these tools and hudson is that you can run them in parallel to the unit/integration tests, on another machine, so they won't slow down the overall release cycle.</p>
+        </div>
+    </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue24.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue24.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..64a7e0d4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue24.json
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://danielspicar.github.com/goose-bug.html", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "", 
+        "domain": "danielspicar.github.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://danielspicar.github.com/goose-bug.html", 
+        "meta_keywords": "", 
+        "cleaned_text": "TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies. Most of our team is using Eclipse as the main IDE, its incrimental compilation in Java with its tight JUnit integration are great for fast TDD programming. Unfortunately the Eclipse Scala plugin is not there yet, it may hangs the IDE and messes up Java compilation - especially in large (more then 1000 source files) Java/Scala projects. Though the plugin is getting better over time some developers would find the plugin as a majore drag on their productivity. For developers who do not write Scala at all or rather edit Scala with other editors, you can use this alternate path which lets them work on their Java or Scala code without messing with the plugin.\n\nParagraph 1 - The Following script is using the Fast Scala Compiler (fsc). The fsc is a compilation server which always run in the background, as in a warm scalac always ready to receive new work. Is will reduce compilation time dramatically. The classpath for compilation is taken from the Eclipse project .classpath file. You may take the source directory from there as well if you wish (exercise to the reader). The params are not passed to the fsc in the command line since in my project's case the line is too long for the OS to handle. The alternative is to put it into a file and let fsc handle it for you.\n\nTextNode 2 - As you may know, kaChing is an test driven engineering organization. Test driven is not an option, its a must. We move fast and push code to production few dozens of times a day in a five minutes release cycle, so we must have high confidence in our code. In complex systems there is no end to testings, each test system is an another line of defense which eventually gets broken but the more you have, the less chances bugs will reach production. We do not have QA team and do not want to have one, the reasoning is that if a human is involved in testing then there is a higher chance of missing things and you simply can't test all the site dozens of times a day.\n\nParagraph 2 - In the next few weeks we are adding a new rule from the \"not critical\" list every few days. The goal is to have all the rules we think are important without the common \"its to noisy, lets ignore it\" approche. Only after we're done with that we're going to add the next static analysis tool to build. The good thing about these tools and hudson is that you can run them in parallel to the unit/integration tests, on another machine, so they won't slow down the overall release cycle.", 
+        "meta_favicon": "", 
+        "meta_lang": null
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/issue_25.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue25.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/issue_25.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue25.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue25.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue25.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..d488ed3b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue25.json
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.accountancyage.com/aa/analysis/2111729/institutes-ifrs-bang", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "UK institutes are all for rapid IFRS adoption in the US\n,  Institutes,Accounting standards,  ACCA,ICAEW,IFRS", 
+        "domain": "www.accountancyage.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.accountancyage.com/aa/analysis/2111729/institutes-ifrs-bang", 
+        "meta_keywords": "", 
+        "cleaned_text": "UK INSTITUTES have thrown their weight behind rapid adoption of international financial reporting standards in the US.", 
+        "tags": [
+            "Legal Privilege", 
+            "Investigations", 
+            "ICAEW", 
+            "ACCA", 
+            "Audit Reform Special.", 
+            "Vantis", 
+            "Celebrities", 
+            "Football Finance", 
+            "Tax Amnesty", 
+            "Convergence", 
+            "IFRS"
+        ], 
+        "meta_favicon": "http://www.accountancyage.com/images/AccountancyAge.png", 
+        "meta_lang": "en"
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/issue_28.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue28.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/issue_28.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue28.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue28.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue28.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..a02a10f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue28.json
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/foodanddrinknews/8808120/Worlds-hottest-chilli-contest-leaves-two-in-hospital.html", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "A 'world's hottest chilli' competition at a curry restaurant left two people\n  in hospital.", 
+        "domain": "www.telegraph.co.uk", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/foodanddrinknews/8808120/Worlds-hottest-chilli-contest-leaves-two-in-hospital.html", 
+        "meta_keywords": "Curry-competition, Food and Drink News,Food and Drink", 
+        "cleaned_text": "Emergency services were called to Kismot Restaurant's curry-eating challenge,", 
+        "meta_favicon": "", 
+        "meta_lang": "en"
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/issue_32.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue32.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/issue_32.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue32.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue32.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue32.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..efbb325f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue32.json
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.tulsaworld.com/site/articlepath.aspx?articleid=20111118_61_A16_Opposi344152&rss_lnk=7", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "", 
+        "domain": "www.tulsaworld.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.tulsaworld.com/site/articlepath.aspx?articleid=20111118_61_A16_Opposi344152&rss_lnk=7", 
+        "meta_keywords": "COURT RULE INFORMATION RECORDS DISTRICT OKLAHOMA PERSONAL PROPOSAL PROPOSED REASONS", 
+        "cleaned_text": "Opposition to a proposal to remove certain personal data", 
+        "meta_favicon": "/favicon.ico", 
+        "meta_lang": null
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/issue_4.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue4.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/issue_4.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue4.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue4.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue4.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..2c39fc14
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_issue4.json
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.slate.fr/story/64063/tapie-mougeotte-la-provence", 
+    "target_language": "fr",
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "L'ex-pr\u00e9sident de l'OM et l'ancien PDG de TF1 s'int\u00e9resseraient au rachat du quotidien r\u00e9gional. Nous vous proposons, comme au lyc\u00e9e, un exercice pour en d\u00e9gager la signification.", 
+        "domain": "www.slate.fr", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.slate.fr/story/64063/tapie-mougeotte-la-provence", 
+        "meta_keywords": "FRANCE,Bernard Tapie,Etienne Mougeotte,presse,Qatar,Cr\u00e9dit Lyonnaus,La Provence,aides de l'Etat,politique,marseille,m\u00e9dias fran\u00e7ais,", 
+        "cleaned_text": "Exercice: apr\u00e8s avoir attentivement lu cette br\u00e8ve parue dans L'Express, vous expliquerez en quoi elle r\u00e9sume une certaine id\u00e9e de la France.\n\n\u00abBernar", 
+        "meta_favicon": "", 
+        "meta_lang": "fr"
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_lefigaro.html b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_lefigaro.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..d2b2ead8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_lefigaro.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1351 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE HTML>
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xmlns:og="http://opengraphprotocol.org/schema/" xmlns:dc="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xmlns:fp="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/fp/elements/1.0/" version="XHTML+RDFa 1.0">
+<head>
+    <title>Montebourg envisage des privatisations partielles</title>
+    <meta charset="UTF-8">
+    <meta name="title" content="Montebourg envisage des privatisations partielles" />
+<meta name="description" content="Selon le ministre du Redressement productif interviewé par le Wall Street Journal, le gouvernement réfléchit à des changements dans les participations détenues par l'État." />
+<meta name="keywords" content="Actualité économique, entreprises, économie, bourse, emploi, impôts, cac 40, creation d'entreprise, chef d'entreprise, grands patrons, consommation, multinationales, privatisation, délocalisations, concurrence, monopole, crise, bourse, licenciements, union européenne, etats-unis, chine, pmi, pme, tpe, salaires, relance, pib, pnb, aides sociales, japon, récession, économie verte, fmi, reprise, croissance, news, actu">
+<meta name="news_keywords" content="EDF, Arnaud Montebourg, AREVA, Privatisation, Participations de l'Etat, Entreprises publiques, Conjoncture" />
+<meta name="author" content="lefigaro.fr" />
+<meta name="copyright" content="lefigaro.fr" />
+<meta name="robots" content="index,follow,noarchive" /><meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1, minimum-scale=1, maximum-scale=1,user-scalable=no" /><!-- NOTE : rwd love -->
+<meta http-equiv="Cache-Control" content="no-cache" />
+<meta http-equiv="Pragma" content="no-cache" />
+<meta http-equiv="Expires" content="0" />
+<meta property="og:site_name" content="Le Figaro" />
+<meta property="og:type" content="article" />
+<meta property="og:title" content="Montebourg envisage des privatisations partielles" />
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+            <h1 itemprop="headline">Montebourg envisage des privatisations partielles</h1>
+        </div>
+        <ul class="fig-metas">
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+        <a href="/" class="fig-breadcrumb-home">Home</a>
+        <a href="/economie" class="fig-breadcrumb-univers">ECONOMIE</a>
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+            <li class="fig-auteur">Par <span itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/Person" itemprop="author"><a itemprop="name" href="#auteur" class="fig-anchor fig-picto-journaliste-haut">Bertille Bayart</a></span>, <span itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/Person" itemprop="author"><a itemprop="name" href="#auteur" class="fig-anchor fig-picto-journaliste-haut">Marie Visot</a></span></li><li class="fig-date-maj fig-date-mobile">Mis à jour <time itemprop="dateModified" datetime="2013-04-06T10:37:32+02:00">le 06/04/2013 à 10:37</time></li>            <li class="fig-date-pub">Publié <time   itemprop="datePublished"  datetime="2013-04-05T17:08:23+02:00">le 05/04/2013 à 17:08</time></li>
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+                                <img src="http://www.lefigaro.fr/medias/2013/04/05/PHOdadfc238-9dff-11e2-8503-c41494ecb8b1-805x453.jpg" alt="Arnaud Montebourg, ministre du Redressement productif" itemprop="contentURL"/><figcaption itemprop="description" class="fig-media-legende"><p>Arnaud Montebourg, ministre du Redressement productif<span class="fig-media-credits">
+                                            Crédits photo : Jean-Christophe MARMARA/Le Figaro</span></p></figcaption>
+                            </figure></div><p itemprop="about" class="fig-chapo">Selon le ministre du Redressement productif interviewé par le <i>Wall Street Journal</i>, le gouvernement réfléchit à des changements dans les participations détenues par l'État.</p>                <div class="fig-adgps">
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+                    <p>«Dans le cadre de l'effort de restructuration budgétaire (&#8230;), nous réfléchissons à des changements dans les participations de l'État.» Cette petite phrase d'<a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/tag/arnaud-montebourg" target="">Arnaud Montebourg</a>, au <strong> <i> </i></strong><i>Wall Street Journal</i><strong><i></i> </strong>, augure-t-elle d'une vague de cessions dans le vaste portefeuille de l'État, à la recherche de nouvelles ressources budgétaires? L'entourage du ministre du Redressement productif comme celui de <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/tag/pierre-moscovici" target="">Pierre Moscovici</a>, le ministre de l'Économie, s'en défend. «Le ministre a simplement rappelé la doc­trine, constante, de l'État actionnaire, qui est de ne pas s'interdire de céder certaines participations, dès lors que la puissance publique reste au-dessus des seuils parfois fixés par la loi (comme chez EDF ou GDF par exemple, NDLR) et que cela ne remet pas en cause sa présence, ni son influence sur les entreprises stratégiques», précise un proche du ministre. «Il n'y a pas de sujet, nous n'avons pas de dossier précis. Et pour rappel, la cession de participations relève du ministre de l'Économie», ajoute un ­proche de Pierre Moscovici.</p><p>À Bercy, chacun s'accorde à dire qu'il n'y a «aucun tabou». Des cessions pourront ainsi financer des réinvestissements. L'État vient de vendre 3,12 % de Safran pour 448 millions d'euros. Et la refonte de la ­gouvernance d'EADS lui laisse l'opportunité d'en vendre 3 %. Ces deux entreprises, portées par le boom de l'aéronautique, sont d'ailleurs celles qui sont le mieux valorisées en Bourse. Tandis que vendre du EDF ou du GDF serait aujourd'hui une mauvaise affaire. Ce ne serait pas forcément non plus une bonne nouvelle pour le budget: le portefeuille de l'État rapporte 4,5 milliards d'euros par an en dividendes.</p>                 </div>
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+                                        <p class="fig-article-chapo">Selon le ministre du Redressement productif interviewé par le <i>Wall Street Journal</i>, le gouvernement réfléchit à des changements dans les participations détenues par l'État.</p>                                    </div>
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+                                                            <p style="margin:0;font-size:11px;line-height:14px;font-family:PTSansRegular, Verdana, sans-serif;color:#888">Selon le ministre du Redressement productif interviewé par le <i>Wall Street Journal</i>, le gouvernement réfléchit à des changements dans les participations détenues par l'État.</p>                                                        </td>
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+                        <a itemprop="name url" href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/bertille-bayart" rel="author" class="fig-auteur-nom">Bertille Bayart</a>
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+                                    <p class="fig-list-title">Ses derniers articles</p>
+                                    <ul><li><a href="http://www.lefigaro.fr/societes/2013/05/15/20005-20130515ARTFIG00534-hsbc-continue-de-tailler-dans-ses-effectifs.php">HSBC continue de tailler dans ses effectifs</a></li><li><a href="http://www.lefigaro.fr/mon-figaro/2013/05/13/10001-20130513ARTFIG00526-segolene-royal-met-la-banque-publique-d-investissement-a-l-epreuve.php">Ségolène Royal met la banque publique d'investissement à l'épreuve</a></li><li><a href="http://www.lefigaro.fr/mon-figaro/2013/05/01/10001-20130501ARTFIG00153-michel-edouard-leclerc-ne-touchons-pas-au-pouvoir-d-achat.php">Michel-Édouard Leclerc : «Ne touchons pas au pouvoir d'achat !»</a></li>  </ul>
+                                </div></div><div class="fig-auteur-wrapper">
+                    <div itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/Person" itemprop="author" class="fig-auteur">
+                        <a itemprop="image url" href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/marie-visot" rel="author" class="fig-auteur-avatar"><img src="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/sites/default/files/imagecache/Petite/pictures/picture-261691-612jcrf0.jpg" /></a>
+                        <a itemprop="name url" href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/marie-visot" rel="author" class="fig-auteur-nom">Marie Visot</a>
+                        <ul class="fig-auteur-metas">
+                            <li><span itemprop="jobTitle" class="fig-auteur-titre">journaliste</span></li>
+                            <li><span class="fig-auteur-followers">23 abonnés</span></li>
+                            <li><div class="fpApp-suivre-container" data-type="suivre" data-appId="81325031242245596367369127435013" data-uid="261691" ></div></li>
+                        </ul>
+                        <div itemprop="description" class="fig-auteur-description">
+                            <p><p>Journaliste, en charge de la politique &eacute;conomique</p></p>
+                        </div>
+                    </div>
+                                <div class="fig-list">
+                                    <p class="fig-list-title">Ses derniers articles</p>
+                                    <ul><li><a href="http://www.lefigaro.fr/conjoncture/2013/05/16/20002-20130516ARTFIG00765-francois-hollande-mise-sur-le-retour-de-la-confiance.php">François Hollande mise sur le retour de la confiance</a></li><li><a href="http://www.lefigaro.fr/mon-figaro/2013/05/15/10001-20130515ARTFIG00637-de-la-necessite-de-persuader-que-le-plus-difficile-est-passe.php">De la nécessité de persuader que «le plus difficile est passé»</a></li><li><a href="http://www.lefigaro.fr/mon-figaro/2013/05/15/10001-20130515ARTFIG00604-louis-gallois-le-principal-ressort-de-la-croissance-c-est-le-retour-de-la-confiance.php">Louis Gallois : «Le retour de la confiance est indispensable»</a></li>  </ul>
+                                </div></div></aside>
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+            <div id="surlememesujet" class="fig-colsAA fig-article-related">
+                
+    <div class="fig-col">
+        <div class="fig-mod">
+            <div class="fig-mod-header">
+                <p class="fig-mod-title">Sur le même sujet</p>
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-mod-line fig-tabs-mod">
+                <div class="fig-tabs-nav-list">
+                    <ul class="fig-tabs-nav">
+                        <li class="current"><a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/tag/edf" data-k="#edf"><span>EDF</span></a></li><li><a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/tag/arnaud-montebourg" data-k="#arnaud-montebourg"><span>Arnaud Montebourg</span></a></li><li><a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/tag/areva" data-k="#areva"><span>AREVA</span></a></li><li><a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/tag/privatisation" data-k="#privatisation"><span>Privatisation</span></a></li><li><a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/tag/participations-de-letat" data-k="#participations-de-letat"><span>Participations de l'Etat</span></a></li><li><a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/tag/entreprises-publiques" data-k="#entreprises-publiques"><span>Entreprises publiques</span></a></li>
+                    </ul>
+                </div>
+                <div class="fig-tabs-content">
+        <div id="edf" class="fig-tab-pane current">
+            <div class="fig-list">
+                <ul><li><a class="fig-feature" href="http://bourse.lefigaro.fr/indices-actions/actu-conseils/gdf-suez-redemarre-le-nucleaire-en-belgique-423336"><span class="fig-img"><img src="http://api.fidji.lefigaro.fr/media/ext/101x67_crop/bourse.lefigaro.fr/sites/default/files/medias/fa1288fc-bf06-11e2-b619-10dd51ec5622-493x178.jpg"></span><b></b>GDF Suez redémarre le nucléaire en Belgique</a></li><li><a class="" href="http://blog.lefigaro.fr/sport-business/2013/05/latp-fait-sa-green-week-a-nice.html">L’ATP fait sa « Green Week » à Nice</a></li><li><a class="" href="http://www.lefigaro.fr/actualite-france/2013/05/13/01016-20130513ARTFIG00340-des-grandes-entreprises-participent-a-l-amelioration-de-la-vie-dans-les-prisons.php">De grandes entreprises participent à l'amélioration de la vie dans les prisons</a></li><li><a class=" fig-type-payant" href="http://bourse.lefigaro.fr/indices-actions/actu-conseils/retour-en-force-des-valeurs-cycliques-en-bourse-418763">Retour en force des valeurs cycliques en Bourse</a></li>
+                </ul>
+            </div><div class="fig-tabs-footer">
+              <ul>
+                <li>Thématique : <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/tag/edf">EDF</a></li>
+                <li><div class="fpApp-suivretag-container" data-type="suivre" data-entite="tag" data-term="EDF" ></div></li>
+              </ul>
+            </div>
+        </div></div>
+            </div>
+        </div>
+    </div><div class="fig-col">
+    <div class="fig-mod">
+        <div class="fig-mod-header">
+            <p class="fig-mod-title">Conjoncture</p>
+        </div>
+        <div class="fig-mod-line fig-tabs-mod">
+            <ul class="fig-tabs-nav fig-3tabs-nav">
+                <li class="current"><a data-k="#plusrecents"><span>+ récents</span></a></li>
+                <li><a data-k="#pluscommentes"><span>+ commentés</span></a></li>
+                <li><a data-k="#pluspartages"><span>+ partagés</span></a></li>
+            </ul>
+            <div class="fig-tabs-content">
+                
+        <div id="plusrecents" class="fig-tab-pane current">
+            <div class="fig-list">
+                <ul><li><a class="fig-feature" href="http://www.lefigaro.fr/conjoncture/2013/05/17/20002-20130517ARTFIG00661-chine-les-salaires-du-prive-en-hausse-de-17.php"><span class="fig-img"><img src="http://api.fidji.lefigaro.fr/media/ext/101x67_crop/www.lefigaro.fr/medias/2013/05/17/PHO5a02e984-bf0f-11e2-b619-10dd51ec5622-493x178.jpg"></span><b></b>Chine : les salaires du privé en hausse de 17 %</a></li><li><a class="" href="http://www.lefigaro.fr/conjoncture/2013/05/17/20002-20130517ARTFIG00637-italie-le-gouvernement-suspend-l-impot-foncier-tant-decrie.php">Italie : le gouvernement suspend l'impôt foncier tant décrié</a></li><li><a class=" fig-type-payant" href="http://www.lefigaro.fr/conjoncture/2013/05/17/20002-20130517ARTFIG00578-hollande-deterre-la-communaute-europeenne-de-l-energie.php">Hollande déterre la Communauté européenne de l'énergie</a></li><li><a class="" href="http://www.lefigaro.fr/conjoncture/2013/05/17/20002-20130517ARTFIG00382-il-y-a-peu-de-chances-que-les-impots-des-menages-baissent-en-2014.php">Il y a peu de chances pour que les impôts des ménages baissent en 2014</a></li>
+                </ul>
+            </div>
+        </div>            </div>
+            <div class="fig-tabs-footer">
+                <ul>
+                    <li><a class="fig-button arrow-right fig-secondary-background" href="/conjoncture/index.php">Plus d'articles Conjoncture <b></b></a></li>
+                </ul>
+            </div>
+        </div>
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+                <div id="nbcomments" class="fig-mod-line">
+                    <p class="fig-mod-title fig-nb-comments"><span class="fig-hl">160</span> commentaires</p>
+                </div>
+                <div class="fig-mod-line">
+                    <ul class="fig-comments"><li class="fig-comment 16060957">
+        <article class="fig-comment-content fig-comment-abonne">
+            <div class="fig-comment-avatar-wrapper">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/democrate10" class="fig-comment-avatar" title="">
+                    <img src="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/sites/default/files/imagecache/Petite/avatar_selection/avatar-11.jpg" alt="Avatar" title="avatar de democrate10" width="50" height="50" />
+                    <b class="arrow"></b>
+                </a><span class="fig-comment-type">Abonné</span>
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-header">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/democrate10" title="La page de democrate10" class="fig-comment-user">democrate10</a>        </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-msg">
+                <p>Bonne chose mais réaction paradoxale de la part de socialiste ( le sont-ils vraiments ?).Le gouvernement est à l&#039;agonie économiquement et nous avec.</p>
+
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-footer">
+                <span class="fig-comment-timestamp">Le 21/04/2013 à 02:20</span>
+                <div class="fig-comment-tools">       <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/figaro_workflow/comment/16060957/alerter" class="fig-comment-alerter">Alerter</a>
+                    <!--<a href="<p>Bonne chose mais réaction paradoxale de la part de socialiste ( le sont-ils vraiments ?).Le gouvernement est à l&#039;agonie économiquement et nous avec.</p>
+" class="fig-comment-recommander">(38)</a>-->
+                    <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/article/montebourg-envisage-de-ceder-des-participations-de-letat-20130405-2006639/commentaires/16060957" class="fig-comment-repondre">Répondre</a>
+                    <div class="selectionner-container button" data-cid="16060957"></div>
+
+                </div>
+            </div>
+        </article></li><li class="fig-comment 15770315">
+        <article class="fig-comment-content">
+            <div class="fig-comment-avatar-wrapper">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/louisettelancelot" class="fig-comment-avatar" title="">
+                    <img src="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/sites/default/files/imagecache/Petite/pictures/picture-1590039-61gqi8qq.png" alt="Avatar" title="avatar de louisette.lot" width="50" height="50" />
+                    <b class="arrow"></b>
+                </a>
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-header">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/louisettelancelot" title="La page de louisette.lot" class="fig-comment-user">louisette.lot</a>        </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-msg">
+                <p>Nouveau ça vient de sortir ,il fait parti des 27% d’encore confiant à Hollande , malgré les gifles qu’il a reçu de la gauche  au pouvoir , ce  syndicaliste-sidérurgiste  qui fait le parallèle ( ? ) entre son enfance d&#039;immigré espagnol et son combat pour la survie de ... son futur “ Livre “ ( écrit par un intellectuel de gauche ) et encore  plus fort....il veut se lancer dans la politique (encouragé et  parrainer par Montebourg  ) c’est le comble !<br />
+Le vrai des vrai  ,il se sert de ses “ camarades grévistes “ comme tremplin pour se faire une “ petite carrière “ dans la politique ! on aura tout vue !</p>
+
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-footer">
+                <span class="fig-comment-timestamp">Le 07/04/2013 à 17:29</span>
+                <div class="fig-comment-tools">       <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/figaro_workflow/comment/15770315/alerter" class="fig-comment-alerter">Alerter</a>
+                    <!--<a href="<p>Nouveau ça vient de sortir ,il fait parti des 27% d’encore confiant à Hollande , malgré les gifles qu’il a reçu de la gauche  au pouvoir , ce  syndicaliste-sidérurgiste  qui fait le parallèle ( ? ) entre son enfance d&#039;immigré espagnol et son combat pour la survie de ... son futur “ Livre “ ( écrit par un intellectuel de gauche ) et encore  plus fort....il veut se lancer dans la politique (encouragé et  parrainer par Montebourg  ) c’est le comble !<br />
+Le vrai des vrai  ,il se sert de ses “ camarades grévistes “ comme tremplin pour se faire une “ petite carrière “ dans la politique ! on aura tout vue !</p>
+" class="fig-comment-recommander">(38)</a>-->
+                    <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/article/montebourg-envisage-de-ceder-des-participations-de-letat-20130405-2006639/commentaires/15770315" class="fig-comment-repondre">Répondre</a>
+                    <div class="selectionner-container button" data-cid="15770315"></div>
+
+                </div>
+            </div>
+        </article></li><li class="fig-comment 15767397">
+        <article class="fig-comment-content">
+            <div class="fig-comment-avatar-wrapper">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/laurent-tanvez" class="fig-comment-avatar" title="">
+                    <img src="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/sites/default/files/imagecache/Petite/avatar_selection/avatar-01.jpg" alt="Avatar" title="avatar de dijonnais" width="50" height="50" />
+                    <b class="arrow"></b>
+                </a>
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-header">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/laurent-tanvez" title="La page de dijonnais" class="fig-comment-user">dijonnais</a>        </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-msg">
+                <p>à part SAFRAN et EADS, je ne vois rien de vendable.. demandez aux actionnaires de FranceTelecom ou EDF...</p>
+
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-footer">
+                <span class="fig-comment-timestamp">Le 07/04/2013 à 14:17</span>
+                <div class="fig-comment-tools">       <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/figaro_workflow/comment/15767397/alerter" class="fig-comment-alerter">Alerter</a>
+                    <!--<a href="<p>à part SAFRAN et EADS, je ne vois rien de vendable.. demandez aux actionnaires de FranceTelecom ou EDF...</p>
+" class="fig-comment-recommander">(38)</a>-->
+                    <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/article/montebourg-envisage-de-ceder-des-participations-de-letat-20130405-2006639/commentaires/15767397" class="fig-comment-repondre">Répondre</a>
+                    <div class="selectionner-container button" data-cid="15767397"></div>
+
+                </div>
+            </div>
+        </article></li><li class="fig-comment 15757251">
+        <article class="fig-comment-content">
+            <div class="fig-comment-avatar-wrapper">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/defghi" class="fig-comment-avatar" title="">
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+                    <b class="arrow"></b>
+                </a>
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-header">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/defghi" title="La page de defghi" class="fig-comment-user">defghi</a>        </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-msg">
+                <p>En mettant un peu la morale de côté, il y aurait des pistes intéressantes et différentes pour la croissance...<br />
+http://www.actudupouvoir.fr/de-wilson-a-cahuzac-une-idee-pour-montebourg/</p>
+
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-footer">
+                <span class="fig-comment-timestamp">Le 06/04/2013 à 19:47</span>
+                <div class="fig-comment-tools">       <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/figaro_workflow/comment/15757251/alerter" class="fig-comment-alerter">Alerter</a>
+                    <!--<a href="<p>En mettant un peu la morale de côté, il y aurait des pistes intéressantes et différentes pour la croissance...<br />
+http://www.actudupouvoir.fr/de-wilson-a-cahuzac-une-idee-pour-montebourg/</p>
+" class="fig-comment-recommander">(38)</a>-->
+                    <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/article/montebourg-envisage-de-ceder-des-participations-de-letat-20130405-2006639/commentaires/15757251" class="fig-comment-repondre">Répondre</a>
+                    <div class="selectionner-container button" data-cid="15757251"></div>
+
+                </div>
+            </div>
+        </article></li><li class="fig-comment 15754913">
+        <article class="fig-comment-content">
+            <div class="fig-comment-avatar-wrapper">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/phil-annic" class="fig-comment-avatar" title="">
+                    <img src="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/sites/default/files/imagecache/Petite/images/nophoto.jpg" alt="Avatar" title="avatar de autran" width="50" height="50" />
+                    <b class="arrow"></b>
+                </a>
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-header">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/phil-annic" title="La page de autran" class="fig-comment-user">autran</a>        </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-msg">
+                <p>Vendons à nos grands amis du Qatar qui sont déjà exonérés d’impôts locaux en France.</p>
+
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-footer">
+                <span class="fig-comment-timestamp">Le 06/04/2013 à 17:32</span>
+                <div class="fig-comment-tools">       <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/figaro_workflow/comment/15754913/alerter" class="fig-comment-alerter">Alerter</a>
+                    <!--<a href="<p>Vendons à nos grands amis du Qatar qui sont déjà exonérés d’impôts locaux en France.</p>
+" class="fig-comment-recommander">(38)</a>-->
+                    <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/article/montebourg-envisage-de-ceder-des-participations-de-letat-20130405-2006639/commentaires/15754913" class="fig-comment-repondre">Répondre</a>
+                    <div class="selectionner-container button" data-cid="15754913"></div>
+
+                </div>
+            </div>
+        </article></li><li class="fig-comment 15748995">
+        <article class="fig-comment-content">
+            <div class="fig-comment-avatar-wrapper">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/pascalsalaun" class="fig-comment-avatar" title="">
+                    <img src="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/sites/default/files/imagecache/Petite/avatar_selection/avatar-01.jpg" alt="Avatar" title="avatar de optimhomme" width="50" height="50" />
+                    <b class="arrow"></b>
+                </a>
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-header">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/pascalsalaun" title="La page de optimhomme" class="fig-comment-user">optimhomme</a>        </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-msg">
+                <p>Cela s&#039;appelle une dénationalisation: ça va déplaire à l&#039;électorat de gauche!</p>
+
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-footer">
+                <span class="fig-comment-timestamp">Le 06/04/2013 à 12:20</span>
+                <div class="fig-comment-tools">       <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/figaro_workflow/comment/15748995/alerter" class="fig-comment-alerter">Alerter</a>
+                    <!--<a href="<p>Cela s&#039;appelle une dénationalisation: ça va déplaire à l&#039;électorat de gauche!</p>
+" class="fig-comment-recommander">(38)</a>-->
+                    <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/article/montebourg-envisage-de-ceder-des-participations-de-letat-20130405-2006639/commentaires/15748995" class="fig-comment-repondre">Répondre</a>
+                    <div class="selectionner-container button" data-cid="15748995"></div>
+
+                </div>
+            </div>
+        </article></li><li class="fig-comment 15748915">
+        <article class="fig-comment-content">
+            <div class="fig-comment-avatar-wrapper">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/mamiekackac-89523" class="fig-comment-avatar" title="">
+                    <img src="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/sites/default/files/imagecache/Petite/images/89523.jpg" alt="Avatar" title="avatar de mamiekéké" width="50" height="50" />
+                    <b class="arrow"></b>
+                </a>
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-header">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/mamiekackac-89523" title="La page de mamiekéké" class="fig-comment-user">mamiekéké</a>        </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-msg">
+                <p>Quel fifre ce type.</p>
+
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-footer">
+                <span class="fig-comment-timestamp">Le 06/04/2013 à 12:16</span>
+                <div class="fig-comment-tools">       <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/figaro_workflow/comment/15748915/alerter" class="fig-comment-alerter">Alerter</a>
+                    <!--<a href="<p>Quel fifre ce type.</p>
+" class="fig-comment-recommander">(38)</a>-->
+                    <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/article/montebourg-envisage-de-ceder-des-participations-de-letat-20130405-2006639/commentaires/15748915" class="fig-comment-repondre">Répondre</a>
+                    <div class="selectionner-container button" data-cid="15748915"></div>
+
+                </div>
+            </div>
+        </article></li><li class="fig-comment 15747845">
+        <article class="fig-comment-content">
+            <div class="fig-comment-avatar-wrapper">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/lehouchu-jean" class="fig-comment-avatar" title="">
+                    <img src="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/sites/default/files/imagecache/Petite/avatar_selection/avatar-17.jpg" alt="Avatar" title="avatar de papi744" width="50" height="50" />
+                    <b class="arrow"></b>
+                </a>
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-header">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/lehouchu-jean" title="La page de papi744" class="fig-comment-user">papi744</a>        </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-msg">
+                <p>donc on commence à penser à vendre des &quot;bijoux de famille&quot;: l&#039;état n&#039;est plus loin du &quot;mont de piété&quot;</p>
+
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-footer">
+                <span class="fig-comment-timestamp">Le 06/04/2013 à 11:36</span>
+                <div class="fig-comment-tools"><a href="#" class="btn-show-cmt" id="btn-15747845" data-val="Masquer la réponse à ce commentaire" onclick="return false;"><span class="btn-show-cmt-txt">Lire la <span class="fig-hl">réponse</span> à ce commentaire</span><b></b></a>       <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/figaro_workflow/comment/15747845/alerter" class="fig-comment-alerter">Alerter</a>
+                    <!--<a href="<p>donc on commence à penser à vendre des &quot;bijoux de famille&quot;: l&#039;état n&#039;est plus loin du &quot;mont de piété&quot;</p>
+" class="fig-comment-recommander">(38)</a>-->
+                    <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/article/montebourg-envisage-de-ceder-des-participations-de-letat-20130405-2006639/commentaires/15747845" class="fig-comment-repondre">Répondre</a>
+                    <div class="selectionner-container button" data-cid="15747845"></div>
+
+                </div>
+            </div>
+        </article><ul id="child-15747845" class="fig-comment-child"><li><li class="fig-comment 16040937">
+        <article class="fig-comment-content">
+            <div class="fig-comment-avatar-wrapper">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/pauvre-france15-284909" class="fig-comment-avatar" title="">
+                    <img src="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/sites/default/files/imagecache/Petite/avatar_selection/avatar-36.jpg" alt="Avatar" title="avatar de Pauvre France15" width="50" height="50" />
+                    <b class="arrow"></b>
+                </a>
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-header">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/pauvre-france15-284909" title="La page de Pauvre France15" class="fig-comment-user">Pauvre France15</a>        </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-msg">
+                <p>il arrive chez sa tante</p>
+
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-footer">
+                <span class="fig-comment-timestamp">Le 19/04/2013 à 22:54</span>
+                <div class="fig-comment-tools">       <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/figaro_workflow/comment/16040937/alerter" class="fig-comment-alerter">Alerter</a>
+                    <!--<a href="<p>il arrive chez sa tante</p>
+" class="fig-comment-recommander">(38)</a>-->
+                    <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/article/montebourg-envisage-de-ceder-des-participations-de-letat-20130405-2006639/commentaires/16040937" class="fig-comment-repondre">Répondre</a>
+                    <div class="selectionner-container button" data-cid="16040937"></div>
+
+                </div>
+            </div>
+        </article></ul></li><li class="fig-comment 15743951">
+        <article class="fig-comment-content">
+            <div class="fig-comment-avatar-wrapper">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/tavara-211661" class="fig-comment-avatar" title="">
+                    <img src="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/sites/default/files/imagecache/Petite/avatar_selection/avatar-13.jpg" alt="Avatar" title="avatar de Glaius" width="50" height="50" />
+                    <b class="arrow"></b>
+                </a>
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-header">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/tavara-211661" title="La page de Glaius" class="fig-comment-user">Glaius</a>        </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-msg">
+                <p>Ce gouvernement,  à bout de souffle, gratte les fonds de tirroir. Pauvre de lui....</p>
+
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-footer">
+                <span class="fig-comment-timestamp">Le 06/04/2013 à 07:24</span>
+                <div class="fig-comment-tools">       <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/figaro_workflow/comment/15743951/alerter" class="fig-comment-alerter">Alerter</a>
+                    <!--<a href="<p>Ce gouvernement,  à bout de souffle, gratte les fonds de tirroir. Pauvre de lui....</p>
+" class="fig-comment-recommander">(38)</a>-->
+                    <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/article/montebourg-envisage-de-ceder-des-participations-de-letat-20130405-2006639/commentaires/15743951" class="fig-comment-repondre">Répondre</a>
+                    <div class="selectionner-container button" data-cid="15743951"></div>
+
+                </div>
+            </div>
+        </article></li><li class="fig-comment 15742751">
+        <article class="fig-comment-content">
+            <div class="fig-comment-avatar-wrapper">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/lili-malidenet" class="fig-comment-avatar" title="">
+                    <img src="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/sites/default/files/imagecache/Petite/pictures/picture-443698-5eqzw5d.jpg" alt="Avatar" title="avatar de Lili Malidenet" width="50" height="50" />
+                    <b class="arrow"></b>
+                </a>
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-header">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/lili-malidenet" title="La page de Lili Malidenet" class="fig-comment-user">Lili Malidenet</a>        </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-msg">
+                <p>Et bien enfin une nouvelle réjouissante pour le CAC 40 ! La gauche privatise, une belle aubaine pour les chacals !</p>
+
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-footer">
+                <span class="fig-comment-timestamp">Le 06/04/2013 à 00:09</span>
+                <div class="fig-comment-tools"><a href="#" class="btn-show-cmt" id="btn-15742751" data-val="Masquer la réponse à ce commentaire" onclick="return false;"><span class="btn-show-cmt-txt">Lire la <span class="fig-hl">réponse</span> à ce commentaire</span><b></b></a>       <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/figaro_workflow/comment/15742751/alerter" class="fig-comment-alerter">Alerter</a>
+                    <!--<a href="<p>Et bien enfin une nouvelle réjouissante pour le CAC 40 ! La gauche privatise, une belle aubaine pour les chacals !</p>
+" class="fig-comment-recommander">(38)</a>-->
+                    <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/article/montebourg-envisage-de-ceder-des-participations-de-letat-20130405-2006639/commentaires/15742751" class="fig-comment-repondre">Répondre</a>
+                    <div class="selectionner-container button" data-cid="15742751"></div>
+
+                </div>
+            </div>
+        </article><ul id="child-15742751" class="fig-comment-child"><li><li class="fig-comment 15743197">
+        <article class="fig-comment-content">
+            <div class="fig-comment-avatar-wrapper">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/lamidesanimaux-403926" class="fig-comment-avatar" title="">
+                    <img src="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/sites/default/files/imagecache/Petite/avatar_selection/avatar-27.jpg" alt="Avatar" title="avatar de LamiDesAnimaux" width="50" height="50" />
+                    <b class="arrow"></b>
+                </a>
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-header">
+                <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/page/lamidesanimaux-403926" title="La page de LamiDesAnimaux" class="fig-comment-user">LamiDesAnimaux</a>        </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-msg">
+                <p>On n&#039;a jamais autant privatisé que sous Mitterand et sous Jospin. Brader les entreprises publiques pour pouvoir continuer à financer leur politique calamiteuse, c&#039;est une spécialité &quot;socialiste&quot;. Après on s&#039;étonne qu&#039;ils aient des comptes secrets à droite à gauche, faut bien les rémunérer pour leurs bons et loyaux services... (bon les politiciens de l&#039;UMP qui ont gouverné en ont au moins autant... UMPS oblige quoi)</p>
+
+            </div>
+            <div class="fig-comment-footer">
+                <span class="fig-comment-timestamp">Le 06/04/2013 à 01:27</span>
+                <div class="fig-comment-tools">       <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/figaro_workflow/comment/15743197/alerter" class="fig-comment-alerter">Alerter</a>
+                    <!--<a href="<p>On n&#039;a jamais autant privatisé que sous Mitterand et sous Jospin. Brader les entreprises publiques pour pouvoir continuer à financer leur politique calamiteuse, c&#039;est une spécialité &quot;socialiste&quot;. Après on s&#039;étonne qu&#039;ils aient des comptes secrets à droite à gauche, faut bien les rémunérer pour leurs bons et loyaux services... (bon les politiciens de l&#039;UMP qui ont gouverné en ont au moins autant... UMPS oblige quoi)</p>
+" class="fig-comment-recommander">(38)</a>-->
+                    <a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/article/montebourg-envisage-de-ceder-des-participations-de-letat-20130405-2006639/commentaires/15743197" class="fig-comment-repondre">Répondre</a>
+                    <div class="selectionner-container button" data-cid="15743197"></div>
+
+                </div>
+            </div>
+        </article></li></ul>
+                </div>                </div>
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+                                <img src="http://assets6.lefigaro.fr/assets-img/footer-carrousel/Newsletters.jpg?c0088829d97b91f0b808b30aaa4078a31dc18bd6">
+                                <div>
+                                    <p>Plus de 15 newsletters thématiques</p>
+                                    <span class="fig-button">S'inscrire</span>
+                                </div>
+                            </a>
+                        </li>
+                        <li>
+                            <a target="_blank" href="https://www.epresse.fr/kiosque">
+                                <img src="http://assets6.lefigaro.fr/assets-img/footer-carrousel/epresse.jpg?c0088829d97b91f0b808b30aaa4078a31dc18bd6">
+                                <div>
+                                    <p>Le meilleur de la presse quotidienne et magazine</p>
+                                    <span class="fig-button">S'inscrire</span>
+                                </div>
+                            </a>
+                        </li>            </ul>
+        </div>
+    </div>
+</div><footer class="fig-footer"><ul>
+<li><a href="http://www.lefigaro.fr/plusdefigaro/" >Plan du site</a></li><li><a href="http://www.lefigaro.fr/charte_moderation/charte_moderation.html" >Charte</a></li><li><a href="http://plus.lefigaro.fr/aide" >FAQ</a></li><li><a href="http://www.lefigaro.fr/contact/contact.php" >Contact</a></li><li><a href="http://boutique.lefigaro.fr/rayon/4-abonnement" >Abonnements</a></li><li><a href="http://www.lefigaro.fr/services/" >Services</a></li><li><a href="http://www.lefigaro.fr/divers/2007/10/29/06-20071029ARTWWW00234-mentions-legales-et-droits.php" >Mentions l&eacute;gales</a></li><li><a href="http://www.figaromedias.fr/" target="_blank">Publicit&eacute;</a></li><li><a href="http://articles.lefigaro.fr/" >Sitemap</a></li>
+</ul></footer>        
+    </div>
+</div>
+<script>
+$(document).ready(function(){
+     if($('.pub-carrousel-mini').length > 0){
+         $('.pub-carrousel-mini').each(function(key, el){
+             $(this).attr('id', 'Carrousel-' + key);
+         });
+     }
+});
+</script>
+    <script type="text/javascript">
+        if(LEFIG && LEFIG.CWidth && LEFIG.CWidth < 1000){
+            xtsite = "526948";
+            sts="4";
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+        if (!window.xtcustom) window.xtcustom={};
+        xtcustom.s2 = "2";
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+        xtcustom.xtac = "";
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+        xtcustom.tags = "edf|arnaud montebourg|areva|privatisation|participations de l'etat|entreprises publiques";
+        
+    </script>
+<script src="http://assets5.lefigaro.fr/assets-js/xtcoreSimpleTag.min.js?c0088829d97b91f0b808b30aaa4078a31dc18bd6"></script>
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+</noscript><script type="text/javascript">
+    var _gaq = _gaq || [];
+    _gaq.push(['_setAccount', 'UA-716671-1']);
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+        var ga = document.createElement('script');
+        ga.src = ('https:' == document.location.protocol ?
+                'https://ssl' : 'http://www') +
+                '.google-analytics.com/ga.js';
+        ga.setAttribute('async', 'true');
+        document.documentElement.firstChild.appendChild(ga);
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+<!-- figaro-web11.sdv.fr --><!-- NOTE : contient les css/js communs à placer en pied de page -->
+</body>
+</html>
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diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_lefigaro.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_lefigaro.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..19f655ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_lefigaro.json
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.lefigaro.fr/conjoncture/2013/04/05/20002-20130405ARTFIG00473-montebourg-envisage-des-privatisations-partielles.php", 
+    "target_language": "fr",
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "Selon le ministre du Redressement productif interview\u00e9 par le Wall Street Journal, le gouvernement r\u00e9fl\u00e9chit \u00e0 des changements dans les participations d\u00e9tenues par l'\u00c9tat.", 
+        "domain": "www.lefigaro.fr", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.lefigaro.fr/conjoncture/2013/04/05/20002-20130405ARTFIG00473-montebourg-envisage-des-privatisations-partielles.php", 
+        "meta_keywords": "Actualit\u00e9 \u00e9conomique, entreprises, \u00e9conomie, bourse, emploi, imp\u00f4ts, cac 40, creation d'entreprise, chef d'entreprise, grands patrons, consommation, multinationales, privatisation, d\u00e9localisations, concurrence, monopole, crise, bourse, licenciements, union europ\u00e9enne, etats-unis, chine, pmi, pme, tpe, salaires, relance, pib, pnb, aides sociales, japon, r\u00e9cession, \u00e9conomie verte, fmi, reprise, croissance, news, actu", 
+        "cleaned_text": "«Dans le cadre de l'effort de restructuration budgétaire", 
+        "tags": [
+            "EDF", 
+            "Privatisation", 
+            "Arnaud Montebourg", 
+            "Pierre Moscovici", 
+            "Participations de l'Etat", 
+            "Entreprises publiques", 
+            "AREVA"
+        ], 
+        "meta_favicon": "http://www.lefigaro.fr/icones/favicon.ico", 
+        "meta_lang": null
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/liberation.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_liberation.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/liberation.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_liberation.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_liberation.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_liberation.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..c922fb41
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_liberation.json
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2012/10/27/ayrault-assume-et-revendique-sa-methode_856451", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "Apr\u00e8s une semaine agit\u00e9e, le Premier ministre s'est offert un succ\u00e8s d'estrade \u00e0 bon compte lors du congr\u00e8s du Parti socialiste \u00e0 Toulouse.", 
+        "domain": "www.liberation.fr", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2012/10/27/ayrault-assume-et-revendique-sa-methode_856451", 
+        "meta_keywords": "actualit\u00e9s, news", 
+        "cleaned_text": "A Toulouse, Jean-Marc Ayrault aura fait deux rappels sur", 
+        "meta_favicon": "", 
+        "meta_lang": "fr"
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_marketplace.html b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_marketplace.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..7fdddc38
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_marketplace.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1478 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML+RDFa 1.0//EN"
+  "http://www.w3.org/MarkUp/DTD/xhtml-rdfa-1.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" version="XHTML+RDFa 1.0" dir="ltr"
+  xmlns:content="http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/"
+  xmlns:dc="http://purl.org/dc/terms/"
+  xmlns:foaf="http://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/"
+  xmlns:og="http://ogp.me/ns#"
+  xmlns:rdfs="http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#"
+  xmlns:sioc="http://rdfs.org/sioc/ns#"
+  xmlns:sioct="http://rdfs.org/sioc/types#"
+  xmlns:skos="http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core#"
+  xmlns:xsd="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#">
+
+<head profile="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml/vocab">
+  <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+<meta property="og:description" content="Gun control advocates are looking for new options, including some tech strategies. On Wednesday, seven measures failed in the U.S. Senate, including an amendment that would have expanded background checks. Some gun control advocates are now looking in new directions. So-called &#039;smart guns&#039; are firearms that only authorized users can fire. But so far, there&#039;s not a single one on the market in the U.S." />
+<meta property="og:image" content="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/styles/story-block-image-140x94/public/gun1.JPG" />
+<meta property="og:type" content="article" />
+<meta property="og:title" content="Marketplace Tech for Friday, April 19, 2013" />
+<link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/themes/sitetheme/favicon.ico" type="image/vnd.microsoft.icon" />
+<meta property="og:url" content="http://www.marketplace.org/shows/marketplace-tech-report/marketplace-tech-friday-april-19-2013" />
+<meta property="og:site_name" content="Marketplace.org" />
+<meta name="description" content="Gun control advocates are looking for new options, including some tech strategies. On Wednesday, seven measures failed in the U.S. Senate, including an amendment that would have expanded background checks. Some gun control advocates are now looking in new directions. So-called &#039;smart guns&#039; are firearms that only authorized users can fire. But so far, there&#039;s not a single one on the market in the U.S." />
+<meta name="Show" content="Marketplace Tech Report" />
+<link rel="canonical" href="/shows/marketplace-tech-report/marketplace-tech-friday-april-19-2013" />
+<meta name="generator" content="Drupal 7 (http://drupal.org)" />
+<link rel="shortlink" href="/node/88116" />
+<meta content="Marketplace Tech for Friday, April 19, 2013" about="/shows/marketplace-tech-report/marketplace-tech-friday-april-19-2013" property="dc:title" />
+<meta name="Show" content="Marketplace Tech Report" />
+<meta about="/shows/marketplace-tech-report/marketplace-tech-friday-april-19-2013" property="sioc:num_replies" content="0" datatype="xsd:integer" />
+<meta name="type" content="Episode" />
+  <title>Marketplace Tech for Friday, April 19, 2013 | Marketplace.org</title>
+  <link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" href="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/css/css_fDJvnR78P5lIyNdsVD9HuNFeL_90WLDcVOATKe4yoSQ.css" media="all" />
+<link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" href="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/css/css_jbIXjr8dSVCuK8z4xfugzE1YnEPug3rn88EOthgcfDg.css" media="all" />
+<style type="text/css" media="all">
+<!--/*--><![CDATA[/*><!--*/
+#page #header .section{background:url("http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/mkp_TechReport_4.png") no-repeat left bottom;}
+
+/*]]>*/-->
+</style>
+<link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" href="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/css/css_wTdZhBi4eOAp2BJi8BcfhBx_WxfBXY9DA430-nF8PCs.css" media="all" />
+<link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" href="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/css/css_of7FTTFMmddZFVS6IjUGYlitrvVDOGEVGEOYvsPVBGg.css" media="all" />
+
+<!--[if IE]>
+<link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" href="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/css/css_QRUgpJq0bo8-r5tS0t73JkfsnYq2jylkUc0I05wust8.css" media="all" />
+<![endif]-->
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+<!--[if lte IE 8]>
+<link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" href="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/css/css_6j392h5OxaC2CHb1MLp03lNyM5lWrPuPSR8zuD6M-tI.css" media="all" />
+<![endif]-->
+
+<!--[if lte IE 7]>
+<link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" href="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/css/css_ZivhO9kFYfz_UWKIzE0u478RYYUn5VRUU1IMYt0fYNo.css" media="all" />
+<![endif]-->
+
+<!--[if lte IE 6]>
+<link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" href="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/css/css_30Txa7KLyQHdXH9EN_FxEjA2eiN0o_9wGH9GFBL4uBc.css" media="all" />
+<![endif]-->
+  <script type="text/javascript" src="http://www.marketplace.org/misc/jquery.js?v=1.4.4"></script>
+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://www.marketplace.org/misc/jquery.once.js?v=1.2"></script>
+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://www.marketplace.org/misc/ui/jquery.ui.core.min.js?v=1.8.7"></script>
+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://www.marketplace.org/misc/ui/jquery.ui.widget.min.js?v=1.8.7"></script>
+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://www.marketplace.org/misc/drupal.js?mlok0l"></script>
+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://www.marketplace.org/misc/ui/jquery.ui.tabs.min.js?v=1.8.7"></script>
+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://www.marketplace.org/misc/jquery.cookie.js?v=1.0"></script>
+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://www.marketplace.org/misc/jquery.form.js?v=2.52"></script>
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+//--><!]]>
+</script>
+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/themes/sitetheme/js/modernizr.custom.js?mlok0l"></script>
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+                  <h1 property="dc:title" datatype="" class="node-title">Marketplace Tech for Friday, April 19, 2013</h1>
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+      <div class="field field-name-field-image field-type-image field-label-above multi-value-field"><div class="field-label">Episode Teaser Image:&nbsp;</div><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item first even"><img typeof="foaf:Image" src="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/styles/200x200/public/gun1.JPG" width="200" height="200" /></div></div></div>      <div class="field field-name-field-lede field-type-text-long field-label-above multi-value-field"><div class="field-label">Episode Description:&nbsp;</div><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item first even">Gun control advocates are looking for new options, including some tech strategies. On Wednesday, seven measures failed in the U.S. Senate, including an amendment that would have expanded background checks. Some gun control advocates are now looking in new directions. So-called 'smart guns' are firearms that only authorized users can fire. But so far, there's not a single one on the market in the U.S.</div></div></div>  </div>
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+      <div class="field field-name-field-image field-type-image field-label-hidden multi-value-field"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item first even"><a href="/topics/tech/guns-and-dollars/are-smart-guns-ready-market"><img typeof="foaf:Image" src="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/styles/112x112/public/gun1.JPG" width="112" height="112" /></a></div></div></div>    </div>
+    <div class='comment-count'>
+    <span>0</span>
+  </div>
+  <h3><a href="/topics/tech/guns-and-dollars/are-smart-guns-ready-market">Are &#039;smart guns&#039; ready for market?</a></h3>
+  <div class="byline">
+  <div class="field field-name-field-byline-description field-type-list-text field-label-hidden multi-value-field"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item first even">by</div></div></div> <a href= http://www.marketplace.org/people/david-gura>David Gura</a><div class="field field-name-field-ref-bio-multi field-type-node-reference field-label-hidden"><div class="field-items"></div></div> | <div class="field field-name-field-date field-type-datetime field-label-hidden multi-value-field"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item first even"><span class="date-display-single" property="dc:date" datatype="xsd:dateTime" content="2013-04-19T06:53:03-05:00">Apr 19, 2013</span></div></div></div>  </div>
+  <div class="field field-name-field-lede field-type-text-long field-label-hidden multi-value-field"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item first even">Technology exists where only electronically recognized users can fire a gun, but are gun buyers interested?</div></div></div>      <em class='tags'>
+      <span class='label'>Posted In: </span>
+      <a href="/tags/guns">guns</a>, <a href="/tags/tech">Tech</a>, <a href="/tags/sensors">sensors</a>    </em>
+  </div>
+  </div>
+  <div class="views-row views-row-2 views-row-even views-row-last row">
+    <div class="node node-has-image-left">
+      <div class='image-left'>
+      <div class="field field-name-field-image field-type-image field-label-hidden multi-value-field"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item first even"><a href="/topics/tech/everything-you-need-know-about-cispa"><img typeof="foaf:Image" src="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/styles/112x112/public/153660497.jpg" width="112" height="112" /></a></div></div></div>    </div>
+    <div class='comment-count'>
+    <span>0</span>
+  </div>
+  <h3><a href="/topics/tech/everything-you-need-know-about-cispa">Everything you need to know about CISPA</a></h3>
+  <div class="byline">
+  <div class="field field-name-field-byline-description field-type-list-text field-label-hidden multi-value-field"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item first even">Story By</div></div></div> <a href= http://www.marketplace.org/people/david-brancaccio>David Brancaccio</a><div class="field field-name-field-ref-bio-multi field-type-node-reference field-label-hidden"><div class="field-items"></div></div> | <div class="field field-name-field-date field-type-datetime field-label-hidden multi-value-field"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item first even"><span class="date-display-single" property="dc:date" datatype="xsd:dateTime" content="2013-04-19T06:11:13-05:00">Apr 19, 2013</span></div></div></div>  </div>
+  <div class="field field-name-field-lede field-type-text-long field-label-hidden multi-value-field"><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item first even">CISPA passed in the House of Representatives. But what is the bill and what will it do for privacy and data?</div></div></div>      <em class='tags'>
+      <span class='label'>Posted In: </span>
+      <a href="/tags/sopa">SOPA</a>, <a href="/tags/pipa">PIPA</a>, <a href="/tags/cispa">CISPA</a>, <a href="/tags/online-privacy">online privacy</a>    </em>
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+  <div class="comment-count">        <span>2</span>  </div></span></li>
+          <li class="views-row views-row-2 views-row-even"><span class="inner">   
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+  <div class="comment-count">        <span>21</span>  </div></span></li>
+          <li class="views-row views-row-3 views-row-odd"><span class="inner">   
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+  <div class="comment-count">        <span>12</span>  </div></span></li>
+          <li class="views-row views-row-4 views-row-even"><span class="inner">   
+          <h4><a href="/topics/business/shopping-mall-vacancies-slowly-declining">Shopping mall vacancies slowly declining</a></h4>     
+  <div class="comment-count">        <span>1</span>  </div></span></li>
+          <li class="views-row views-row-5 views-row-odd views-row-last"><span class="inner">   
+          <h4><a href="/topics/life/hello-lover-women-and-their-shoes">Hello lover: Women and their shoes</a></h4>     
+  <div class="comment-count">        <span>5</span>  </div></span></li>
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+            <div class="month mini-day-off"> 26 </div><div class="calendar-empty">&nbsp;</div>
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+       
+  <div class="views-field views-field-picture">        <div class="field-content">  <div class="user-picture">
+    <img typeof="foaf:Image" src="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/styles/author-bio-image-45x45/public/pictures/picture-424461-1366641421.jpg" width="45" height="45" alt="Bittersweet&#039;s picture" title="Bittersweet&#039;s picture" />  </div>
+</div>  </div>   
+          <h4 class="field-content"><a href="/topics/life/education/law-school-worth-price">Is law school worth the price?</a></h4>     
+          <p>You have GOT to be kidding.</p>
+<p>First, to expect an unbiased answer from someone who is going to become a spokeperson for the school is just...</p>     
+  <em class="byline">        <strong>Bittersweet</strong> | Apr 22, 2013  </em>  </div>
+  <div class="views-row views-row-2 views-row-even">
+       
+  <div class="views-field views-field-picture">        <div class="field-content">  <div class="user-picture">
+    <img typeof="foaf:Image" src="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/styles/author-bio-image-45x45/public/pictures/picture-405046-1366205510.jpg" width="45" height="45" alt="jputtgen&#039;s picture" title="jputtgen&#039;s picture" />  </div>
+</div>  </div>   
+          <h4 class="field-content"><a href="/topics/world/chinas-toxic-harvest-growing-tainted-food-cancer-villages">China&#039;s toxic harvest: Growing tainted food in &quot;cancer villages&quot;</a></h4>     
+          <p>Thank you.  I read this story as a little window into a huge landscape of suffering:<br />
+delusion of a stuff-needing self leads to demand for...</p>     
+  <em class="byline">        <strong>jputtgen</strong> | Apr 17, 2013  </em>  </div>
+  <div class="views-row views-row-3 views-row-odd">
+       
+  <div class="views-field views-field-picture">        <div class="field-content">  <div class="user-picture">
+    <img typeof="foaf:Image" src="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/anonymous.jpg" alt="sparky81884&#039;s picture" title="sparky81884&#039;s picture" />  </div>
+</div>  </div>   
+          <h4 class="field-content"><a href="/topics/life/commentary/just-say-no-joint-tax-filing">Just say no to joint tax filing</a></h4>     
+          <p>I feel like individual filing would make things more complicated for married couples.  I, for instance, would need to split the income from our...</p>     
+  <em class="byline">        <strong>sparky81884</strong> | Apr 12, 2013  </em>  </div>
+  <div class="views-row views-row-4 views-row-even views-row-last">
+       
+  <div class="views-field views-field-picture">        <div class="field-content">  <div class="user-picture">
+    <img typeof="foaf:Image" src="http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/files/anonymous.jpg" alt="Javasmom&#039;s picture" title="Javasmom&#039;s picture" />  </div>
+</div>  </div>   
+          <h4 class="field-content"><a href="/topics/tech/health-care/genetics-may-be-next-big-thing-medicine-what-cost">Genetics may be the next big thing in medicine, but at what cost?</a></h4>     
+          <p>One aspect of the cost of genetic testing that is rarely addressed is the effect of genetic testing on the cost/availability of health insurance...</p>     
+  <em class="byline">        <strong>Javasmom</strong> | Apr 12, 2013  </em>  </div>
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+            <li><a href="http://americanpublicmedia.publicradio.org/podcasts/">APM Podcasts/RSS Feeds</a></li>
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+            <li><a href="http://americanpublicmedia.publicradio.org/tools/itunes_u/">iTunes U</a></li>
+            <li><a href="http://www.publicradiotuner.com">Public Radio Tuner</a></li>
+            <li><a href="http://americanpublicmedia.publicradio.org/careers/">APM Careers</a></li>
+            <li><a href="http://americanpublicmedia.publicradio.org/">About APM</a></li>
+  				</ul>
+  			</div>
+  		</div>
+      <!-- END MORE COLUMN -->
+  	</div>
+    <!-- END CONTENT AND COLUMNS BLOCK -->
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+
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+	</noscript>
+	<!-- END OF SmartSource Data Collector TAG -->
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+		var _comscore = _comscore || []; 
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+		s.src = (document.location.protocol == "https:" ? "https://sb" : "http://b"  ) + ".scorecardresearch.com/beacon.js"; 
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+		})(); 
+		</script> 
+		<noscript> 
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+      links[i].href="http://www.marketplace.org/privacy-policy";
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+		</div>
+	</div>
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+</html>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_marketplace.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_marketplace.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..d20b3c1c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_marketplace.json
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.marketplace.org/shows/marketplace-tech-report/marketplace-tech-friday-april-19-2013", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "Gun control advocates are looking for new options, including some tech strategies. On Wednesday, seven measures failed in the U.S. Senate, including an amendment that would have expanded background checks. Some gun control advocates are now looking in new directions. So-called 'smart guns' are firearms that only authorized users can fire. But so far, there's not a single one on the market in the U.S.", 
+        "domain": "www.marketplace.org", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.marketplace.org/shows/marketplace-tech-report/marketplace-tech-friday-april-19-2013", 
+        "meta_keywords": "", 
+        "cleaned_text": "Gun control advocates are looking for new options, including some tech strategies. On Wednesday", 
+        "tags": [
+            "SOPA", 
+            "PIPA", 
+            "online privacy", 
+            "Tech", 
+            "sensors", 
+            "guns", 
+            "CISPA"
+        ], 
+        "meta_favicon": "http://www.marketplace.org/sites/default/themes/sitetheme/favicon.ico", 
+        "meta_lang": null
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_mashable_issue_74.html b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_mashable_issue_74.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..e8138e37
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_mashable_issue_74.html
@@ -0,0 +1,388 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+<!--
+o o     o     +              o
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+<head><script type="text/javascript">var NREUMQ=NREUMQ||[];NREUMQ.push(["mark","firstbyte",new Date().getTime()]);</script>
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+<title>Square Cofounder: Jack Dorsey Is Like Hello Kitty</title>
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+<meta content='no' name='apple-mobile-web-app-capable'>
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+<link data-page-subject="true" href="http://mashable.com/2014/01/26/square-cofounder-jim-mckelvey/" rel="canonical" /><link data-page-subject="true" href="http://rack.3.mshcdn.com/media/ZgkyMDE0LzAxLzI2LzUwL21ja2VsdmV5LmI2NDc0LmpwZwpwCXRodW1iCTEyMDB4NjI3IwplCWpwZw/d18bd20b/a87/mckelvey.jpg" rel="image_src" /><meta content="http://mashable.com/2014/01/26/square-cofounder-jim-mckelvey/" data-page-subject="true" property="og:url" /><meta content="Square Cofounder: Jack Dorsey Is Like Hello Kitty" data-page-subject="true" property="og:title" /><meta content="article" data-page-subject="true" property="og:type" /><meta content="Mashable" data-page-subject="true" property="og:site_name" /><meta content="Square cofounder Jim McKelvey says Jack Dorsey is like &quot;Hello Kitty.&quot;" data-page-subject="true" property="og:description" /><meta content="http://rack.3.mshcdn.com/media/ZgkyMDE0LzAxLzI2LzUwL21ja2VsdmV5LmI2NDc0LmpwZwpwCXRodW1iCTEyMDB4NjI3IwplCWpwZw/d18bd20b/a87/mckelvey.jpg" data-page-subject="true" property="og:image" /><meta content="2014-01-26T21:32:46Z" data-page-subject="true" property="og:article:published_time" /><meta content="2014-01-26T21:49:15Z" data-page-subject="true" property="og:article:modified_time" /><meta content="https://www.facebook.com/mashable" data-page-subject="true" property="og:article:publisher" /><meta content="Square cofounder Jim McKelvey says Jack Dorsey is like &quot;Hello Kitty.&quot;" data-page-subject="true" name="description" /><meta content="jack-dorsey, square, uncategorized, business, startups" data-page-subject="true" name="keywords" /><meta content="Square Cofounder: Jack Dorsey Is Like Hello Kitty" data-page-subject="true" name="twitter:title" /><meta content="Some 2,000 miles away from Square&#x27;s massive new headquarters in San Francisco, Jim McKelvey is standing in work boots and a thick dock coat trying to revive a city. McKelvey founded the mobile payment..." data-page-subject="true" name="twitter:description" /><meta content="http://rack.3.mshcdn.com/media/ZgkyMDE0LzAxLzI2LzUwL21ja2VsdmV5LmI2NDc0LmpwZwpwCXRodW1iCTU2MHg3NTAKZQlqcGc/f452e1a3/a87/mckelvey.jpg" data-page-subject="true" name="twitter:image" /><meta content="@mashable" data-page-subject="true" name="twitter:site" /><meta content="http://mashable.com/2014/01/26/square-cofounder-jim-mckelvey/" data-page-subject="true" name="twitter:url" /><meta content="@mashable" data-page-subject="true" name="twitter:creator" /><meta content="photo" data-page-subject="true" name="twitter:card" /><meta content="560" data-page-subject="true" name="twitter:image:width" /><meta content="750" data-page-subject="true" name="twitter:image:height" /><meta content="2014-01-26 21:32:46 UTC" data-page-subject="true" name="date" /><meta content="Seth Fiegerman" data-page-subject="true" name="sailthru.author" /><meta content="http://rack.2.mshcdn.com/media/ZgkyMDE0LzAxLzI2LzUwL21ja2VsdmV5LmI2NDc0LmpwZwpwCXRodW1iCTExNXgxMTUjCmUJanBn/76c8d45c/a87/mckelvey.jpg" data-page-subject="true" name="sailthru.image.thumb" /><meta content="http://rack.0.mshcdn.com/media/ZgkyMDE0LzAxLzI2LzUwL21ja2VsdmV5LmI2NDc0LmpwZwpwCXRodW1iCTk1MHg1MzQjCmUJanBn/d2536a7e/a87/mckelvey.jpg" data-page-subject="true" name="sailthru.image.full" /><meta content="http://rack.1.mshcdn.com/media/ZgkyMDE0LzAxLzI2LzUwL21ja2VsdmV5LmI2NDc0LmpwZwpwCXRodW1iCTYwMHgzMzgjCmUJanBn/bc095cc5/a87/mckelvey.jpg" data-page-subject="true" name="sailthru.lead_image" /><meta content="http://rack.0.mshcdn.com/media/ZgkyMDE0LzAxLzI2LzUwL21ja2VsdmV5LmI2NDc0LmpwZwpwCXRodW1iCTI4OHgxNjIjCmUJanBn/78376801/a87/mckelvey.jpg" data-page-subject="true" name="sailthru.secondary_image" /><meta content="http://on.mash.to/1aANqQu" data-page-subject="true" name="short_url" /><meta name=parsely-page content='{"title":"Square Cofounder: Jack Dorsey Is Like Hello Kitty","link":"http://mashable.com/2014/01/26/square-cofounder-jim-mckelvey/","image_url":"http://rack.3.mshcdn.com/media/ZgkyMDE0LzAxLzI2LzUwL21ja2VsdmV5LmI2NDc0LmpwZwpwCXRodW1iCTEyMDB4NjI3IwplCWpwZw/d18bd20b/a87/mckelvey.jpg","type":"post","post_id":2384865,"pub_date":"2014-01-26T21:32:46Z","section":"business","author":"Seth Fiegerman","tags":["Internal","Internal - Internal","Topics - Business","Topics - jack dorsey","Topics - Square","Topics - Startups","Topics - Uncategorized"]}' data-page-subject=true >
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+<h1 class='title' href='http://mashable.com/2014/01/26/square-cofounder-jim-mckelvey/'>Square Cofounder: Jack Dorsey Is Like Hello Kitty</h1>
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+<figure class='article-image'><img alt="Mckelvey" class="microcontent" data-fragment="lead-image" data-image="http://rack.0.mshcdn.com/media/ZgkyMDE0LzAxLzI2LzUwL21ja2VsdmV5LmI2NDc0LmpwZwpwCXRodW1iCTk1MHg1MzQjCmUJanBn/d2536a7e/a87/mckelvey.jpg" data-micro="1" data-url="null" src="http://rack.0.mshcdn.com/media/ZgkyMDE0LzAxLzI2LzUwL21ja2VsdmV5LmI2NDc0LmpwZwpwCXRodW1iCTk1MHg1MzQjCmUJanBn/d2536a7e/a87/mckelvey.jpg" /><figcaption class="image-caption">Jim McKelvey, cofounder of Square</figcaption><div class="image-credit">Image:  SixThirty</div></figure>
+
+<div class="article-info"><a class="byline" href="/people/seth-fiegerman/"><img alt="Seth-fiegerman-headshot-cropped" class="author_image" src="http://rack.3.mshcdn.com/media/ZgkyMDEzLzA2LzI1L2QwL1NldGhGaWVnZXJtLmY5NWM5LmpwZwpwCXRodW1iCTkweDkwIwplCWpwZw/75555139/ff9/Seth-Fiegerman-headshot-cropped.jpg" /><div class="author_and_date"><span class="author_name">By Seth Fiegerman</span><time datetime="Sun, 26 Jan 2014 21:32:46 +0000">2014-01-26 21:32:46 UTC</time></div></a></div>
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+
+<p>Some 2,000 miles away from Square's <a href="http://mashable.com/2013/10/11/square-headquarters/" data-crackerjax="#post-slider">massive new headquarters</a> in San Francisco, Jim McKelvey is standing in work boots and a thick dock coat trying to revive a city. </p>
+<p>McKelvey founded the mobile payments company in 2009 with Jack Dorsey, who had previously helped launch Twitter. As the story goes, McKelvey, a serial entrepreneur, was operating a glass-blowing business and lost out on a sale because he was unable to process a credit card payment. Out of that experience came the idea for Square, a company that provides more elegant point-of-sale solutions.</p>
+<p>Square has since gone to attract millions of users and be valued at more than $3 billion, but McKelvey didn't stick around for all that. In the summer of 2010, a little more than a year after Square was founded, McKelvey decided to step back from his day-to-day role at the company.</p>
+<p>"When my son was born, I decided I wasn't really in to working 12 hours a day. That slowed me down a little bit," he told <em>Mashable</em> in a recent interview. "Getting Square off the ground took a huge effort, but right now we have better people in every area than we used to."</p>
+<p>McKelvey still serves on Square's board and is working on "a couple little initiatives," about which he says very little, but the roles he handled as an employee have been filled by others. <span class="microcontent" data-fragment="ive-been-totally-replaced" data-description="&quot;I've been totally replaced by people who are superior." data-micro="1">"I've been totally replaced by people who are superior.</span> I was doing like 15 different things," he says. "It's very gratifying to watch your job done better." </p>
+<div class="see-also"><p>See also: <a href="http://mashable.com/2013/12/16/startups-to-watch-in-2014/" data-crackerjax="#post-slider">10 Startups to Watch in 2014</a></p></div>
+<p>He decided to return to St. Louis, the city where he and Dorsey are from. Over the years, he has used some of his notoriety and know-how to launch a series of programs to boost job opportunities in the city, including <a href="http://www.sixthirty.co/" target="_blank">Six Thirty</a>, a financial technology accelerator, and <a href="http://launchcodestl.com/#home" target="_blank">Launch Code</a>, which helps developers get the experience needed to find work.</p>
+<p>"The biggest challenge [in St. Louis] is the same we face nationwide, which is a talent shortage. It's certainly noticeable here," he says "We have more opportunities for coders, engineers and designers than there are coders, engineers and designers."</p>
+<p>As with Square and the glass-blowing business that inspired it, McKelvey says his main contribution is getting these programs off the ground and letting others run them.</p>
+<p>"I don't run any of my companies. I always partner with somebody who wants to operate," he says. "I'm the guy to get it started and then I get out of the way." He then notes: "The [glass-blowing] studio has actually thrived in my absence, almost embarrassingly." </p>
+<p>We talked with McKelvey about his memory of how Square got started, his bizarre first meeting with Jack Dorsey and how he believes Dorsey is like Hello Kitty. Below are some lightly edited excerpts from that conversation.</p>
+<h2>Q&amp;A With Jim McKelvey, Cofounder of Square</h2>
+<p><strong><em>Mashable</em>: Unlike with Twitter, the founding story for Square seems pretty cut and dry: You lost a sale at your glass-blowing business because you were unable to accept a credit card payment. So you and Jack set out to make it easier for merchants to accept cards. Is that how you remember it?</strong></p>
+<p><strong>McKelvey:</strong> Jack and I got back together. This was after he got pushed out of Twitter. I was trying to build an electric car — this was before Tesla had too much traction. I was working on that as a side project. Jack was basically looking for something to do and he asked me if I would want to start a company with him. He asked what I would want to do and I said, 'I don't know.' I asked him and he said, 'I don't know.' We kicked around some ideas. I called Jack up and said we need to fix the payments world. Jack was into it. </p>
+<p><strong>Was there a moment when you realized Square had succeeded on a greater level than other projects you'd worked on over the years?</strong></p>
+<p><strong>McKelvey:</strong>When I started seeing it in the wild. When I would go to different cities and saw people using it and they had no idea I invented it, and they would explain my technology back to me. <span class="microcontent" data-fragment="i-had-some-people" data-description="I had some people try to talk me into joining Square and I had to repress a laugh. That's when it really hit me." data-micro="1">I had some people try to talk me into joining Square and I had to repress a laugh. That's when it really hit me.</span></p>
+<p><strong>For awhile, Jack was written about as being a tech visionary like Steve Jobs. More recently, a tell-all book about Twitter has cast him as being more underhanded and deliberate in crafting a Jobs-like persona. Do either those portrayals square — no pun intended — with the Jack you know?</strong></p>
+<p><strong>McKelvey:</strong> Here's the thing: I've known Jack for 20 years. I hired him when he was 15. We worked together for almost two decades off and on. My perspective of Jack has changed very little over time. He's a bright, hard-working guy. He's naturally shy and thoughtful. He's been thrown into a limelight that's very intense. It's like Hello Kitty: Hello Kitty has no mouth, people don't realize that. If you look at Hello Kitty, people project whatever emotion they want onto this mouthless thing. Jack doesn't try to project anything; people project onto him and I ignore that. He's just Jack. I still feel comfortable giving him crap. Maybe I'm the only one who does.</p>
+<p><strong>What exactly do you give him "crap" about?</strong></p>
+<p><strong>McKelvey:</strong><span class="microcontent" data-fragment="everyone-needs-someone-to" data-description="Everyone needs someone to tell them not to wear so much Prada. Of course, I give him crap about that." data-micro="1">Everyone needs someone to tell them not to wear so much Prada. Of course, I give him crap about that.</span> He threw out the first pitch at the [St. Louis] Cardinals game wearing Prada shoes. </p>
+<p><strong>And how did Jack respond to you calling him out on that?</strong></p>
+<p><strong>McKelvey:</strong> He didn't say anything to that. He just looked at me funny. </p>
+<p><strong>As long as we're on the subject, do you remember the first time you met Jack?</strong></p>
+<p><strong>McKelvey:</strong> He came into my office. We were supposed to meet and I was in the middle of a huge deadline. He tapped me on the shoulder and said, "I'm jack." And I said, "I'm Jim." I turned back to my computer and I forgot about him. He stood motionless for an hour in the same position. He pulled an all-nighter on his first day at the office... From standing motionless meeting me to getting in trouble with his parents because I sent him home the next day. </p>
+<p><strong>Just this week, we saw yet another payments company, Stripe, raise tens of millions of dollars and top a $1 billion valuation. How do you think about the growing competition in this space?</strong></p>
+<p><strong>McKelvey:</strong> There is a ton of need for innovation in payments. Square is doing a great job. I don't see it as some sort of zero sum game. Square is not going to be the only innovator and I don't think we should be. </p>
+<p><strong>Do you see yourself starting another company in tech, finance or another space anytime soon?</strong></p>
+<p><strong>McKelvey:</strong> I'm super interested in solving the talent gap right now. That's my focus. I'm dabbling in some areas [like] life science, which I think has a lot of promise for betterment. I'll start a company if I have to start a company to solve a problem. I don't start companies except really to solve problems. It turned out Square was an appropriate vehicle to solve a problem with the payment system.</p>
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+<div id='parsely-root' style='display: none'>
+<span data-parsely-site='mashable.com' id='parsely-cfg'></span>
+</div>
+<script>
+  loadScriptAsync("//static.parsely.com/p.js", "parsely")
+</script>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div><div id='fb-root'></div><script>
+  if(window.initPage) { window.initPage() }
+  else { $(function() { window.initPage(); })}
+</script>
+</div><footer id='site-footer-wrapper'>
+<div class='page-container' id='site-footer'><ul class='nav'><li><a href="/about/">About Us</a></li><li><a href="http://findjobs.mashable.com">Jobs</a></li><li><a href="/advertise/">Advertise</a></li><li><a href="/2011/05/09/connect-with-mashable/">Subscribe</a></li><li><a href="/privacy/">Privacy</a></li><li><a href="/terms/">Terms</a></li></ul><ul class='social'><li><a class='facebook' href='http://www.facebook.com/mashable/' target='_social'></a></li>
+<li><a class='twitter' href='https://twitter.com/mashable' target='_social'></a></li>
+<li><a class='gplus' href='https://plus.google.com/+Mashable' target='_social'></a></li>
+<li><a class='rss' href='http://feeds.mashable.com/Mashable' target='_social'></a></li>
+<li><a class='pinterest' href='http://pinterest.com/mashable/' target='_social'></a></li>
+<li><a class='youtube' href='http://www.youtube.com/user/mashable' target='_social'></a></li>
+<li><a class='stumbleupon' href='http://www.stumbleupon.com/channel/Mashable' target='_social'></a></li>
+<li><a class='linkedin' href='http://www.linkedin.com/today/mashable.com' target='_social'></a></li></ul>
+<div class='about'>
+<a class='brand' href='/'>
+Mashable
+</a>
+<span class='blurb'>is the largest independent online news site dedicated to covering digital culture, social media and technology. With more than 20 million unique monthly visitors, Mashable has one of the most engaged online news communities. Founded in 2005, Mashable is headquartered in New York City with an office in San Francisco.</span>
+</div>
+<ul class='copyright-and-legal'>
+<li>
+&copy;2005-2014
+Mashable, Inc.
+</li>
+<li>
+Reproduction without explicit permission is prohibited. All Rights Reserved.
+</li>
+<li>
+Designed in collaboration with <a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.codeandtheory.com">Code &amp; Theory</a>
+</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+</footer>
+
+<noscript>
+<img src='http://b.scorecardresearch.com/p?c1=2&amp;c2=8750086&amp;cv=2.0&amp;cj=1'>
+</noscript></div>
+</div>
+<script type="text/javascript">if (!NREUMQ.f) { NREUMQ.f=function() {
+NREUMQ.push(["load",new Date().getTime()]);
+var e=document.createElement("script");
+e.type="text/javascript";
+e.src=(("http:"===document.location.protocol)?"http:":"https:") + "//" +
+  "js-agent.newrelic.com/nr-100.js";
+document.body.appendChild(e);
+if(NREUMQ.a)NREUMQ.a();
+};
+NREUMQ.a=window.onload;window.onload=NREUMQ.f;
+};
+NREUMQ.push(["nrfj","beacon-1.newrelic.com","faaaef6476","1135420","cAkNR0ENXQpXF0tJDUASEBxACl4R",0,102,new Date().getTime(),"","","","",""]);</script></body>
+</html>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_mashable_issue_74.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_mashable_issue_74.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..9d3ee874
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_mashable_issue_74.json
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://mashable.com/2014/01/26/square-cofounder-jim-mckelvey/", 
+    "expected": {
+        "cleaned_text": "Some 2,000 miles away from Square's massive new headquarters in San Francisco, Jim McKelvey is standing in work boots and a thick dock coat trying to revive a city.\n\nMcKelvey founded the mobile payments company in 2009 with Jack Dorsey, who had previously helped launch Twitter."
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/msn1.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_msn1.html
similarity index 96%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/msn1.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_msn1.html
index 34ea507a..8fd132f9 100644
--- a/tests/data/statichtml/msn1.txt
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_msn1.html
@@ -28,25 +28,25 @@
 
 </script>
 <script type="text/javascript">
-	var scp_UserRating=-1;
-	down_arrow_hover= new Image();
-	down_arrow_hover.src = 'http://blu.stc.s-msn.com/br/scp/css/15/decoration/toolbar/rating/down_hover.gif';
-	down_arrow_normal= new Image();
-	down_arrow_normal.src = 'http://blu.stc.s-msn.com/br/scp/css/15/decoration/toolbar/rating/down_normal.gif';
-	up_arrow_hover= new Image();
-	up_arrow_hover.src = 'http://blu.stc.s-msn.com/br/scp/css/15/decoration/toolbar/rating/up_hover.gif';
-	up_arrow_normal= new Image();
-	up_arrow_normal.src = 'http://blu.stc.s-msn.com/br/scp/css/15/decoration/toolbar/rating/up_normal.gif';
-	var scp_thankyoutext = 'Recommendation added';
-	var scp_thankyoualttext = 'You have voted on this';
-	var scp_votestext = '{0} votes';
-	var scp_votescount = 0;
-	var scp_errmsg = 'Errors occured while saving your rating. Please try again later.';
-	var scp_yesvotes = 0;
-	var scp_jsurl='MSNRRV2.aspx';
-	var scp_jsargs='rrct\x3doE0QuuCFWRgt\x252fxpt\x252fkHSJlq\x252fUYmae5oK1xCKYvC29BF\x252bVw3Hx9\x252br9Fg8ZPSB65WBzDOei47RCMiyUGgw8Z1grFkVwJ\x252fB5wFkogYVMW6Yq4qN97d5wpKwMHXxqBVT1u88ZjuQtRWg03l0HRZB0hVxZ6p1\x252baWisqTu8RQEtI73N1DkWrG63FQpyucfwEbGJbFk\x26values\x3dshFp7XlTQbexq2I491\x252fdUQ\x253d\x253d\x26rritemId\x3dTZsRd4pyoJ1qQ2wcthY8upl\x252fHmm\x252fgGDZKC5fCoBtR\x252bvBx3INGLkQnZxdmmiOUO1hXGcj9rJcS1xo9pqnXqS5KQ\x253d\x253d\x26rrpurl\x3dhttp\x253a\x252f\x252flifestyle.msn.com\x252fyour-life\x252fyour-money-today\x252farticle.aspx\x253fcp-documentid\x253d31244150';
-	var scp_itemid = 'scp\x3abbcdiscussion\x3a254447ca-6778-4b68-9bb9-0ebaf43a7430';
-	function BinaryRatingToolBar(ratingValue){scpjs.toolbar.handleBinaryRating(ratingValue);}
+    var scp_UserRating=-1;
+    down_arrow_hover= new Image();
+    down_arrow_hover.src = 'http://blu.stc.s-msn.com/br/scp/css/15/decoration/toolbar/rating/down_hover.gif';
+    down_arrow_normal= new Image();
+    down_arrow_normal.src = 'http://blu.stc.s-msn.com/br/scp/css/15/decoration/toolbar/rating/down_normal.gif';
+    up_arrow_hover= new Image();
+    up_arrow_hover.src = 'http://blu.stc.s-msn.com/br/scp/css/15/decoration/toolbar/rating/up_hover.gif';
+    up_arrow_normal= new Image();
+    up_arrow_normal.src = 'http://blu.stc.s-msn.com/br/scp/css/15/decoration/toolbar/rating/up_normal.gif';
+    var scp_thankyoutext = 'Recommendation added';
+    var scp_thankyoualttext = 'You have voted on this';
+    var scp_votestext = '{0} votes';
+    var scp_votescount = 0;
+    var scp_errmsg = 'Errors occured while saving your rating. Please try again later.';
+    var scp_yesvotes = 0;
+    var scp_jsurl='MSNRRV2.aspx';
+    var scp_jsargs='rrct\x3doE0QuuCFWRgt\x252fxpt\x252fkHSJlq\x252fUYmae5oK1xCKYvC29BF\x252bVw3Hx9\x252br9Fg8ZPSB65WBzDOei47RCMiyUGgw8Z1grFkVwJ\x252fB5wFkogYVMW6Yq4qN97d5wpKwMHXxqBVT1u88ZjuQtRWg03l0HRZB0hVxZ6p1\x252baWisqTu8RQEtI73N1DkWrG63FQpyucfwEbGJbFk\x26values\x3dshFp7XlTQbexq2I491\x252fdUQ\x253d\x253d\x26rritemId\x3dTZsRd4pyoJ1qQ2wcthY8upl\x252fHmm\x252fgGDZKC5fCoBtR\x252bvBx3INGLkQnZxdmmiOUO1hXGcj9rJcS1xo9pqnXqS5KQ\x253d\x253d\x26rrpurl\x3dhttp\x253a\x252f\x252flifestyle.msn.com\x252fyour-life\x252fyour-money-today\x252farticle.aspx\x253fcp-documentid\x253d31244150';
+    var scp_itemid = 'scp\x3abbcdiscussion\x3a254447ca-6778-4b68-9bb9-0ebaf43a7430';
+    function BinaryRatingToolBar(ratingValue){scpjs.toolbar.handleBinaryRating(ratingValue);}
 
 </script><div class="rrbmain"><span class="rrbrec">Recommend</span><span id="rrBCount" class="rrbcount">&nbsp;</span><div class="rrbyes rrbcyes" onmouseover="highlight(up_arrow_hover, 'ratCntrlBinaryYesButton');" onmouseout="highlight(up_arrow_normal, 'ratCntrlBinaryYesButton');" id="rrBCYes"><a id="rrBCYesA" onclick="SetBinaryRating(this,'ratCntrlBinary', 'True','1');" href="http://lifestyle.msn.com/your-life/your-money-today/article.aspx?cp-documentid=31244150&amp;rrurt=1&amp;rrcontrolId=ratCntrlBinary" title="You recommend this" rel="nofollow"><img id="ratCntrlBinaryYesButton" class="rrimg" src="http://blu.stc.s-msn.com/br/scp/css/15/decoration/toolbar/rating/up_normal.gif" title="You recommend this" alt="You recommend this" /><span id="rrBCYesPer" class="rrbpercent">0%
               </span><span class="rnrhide">
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_msn1.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_msn1.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..106ab5b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_msn1.json
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://lifestyle.msn.com/your-life/your-money-today/article.aspx?cp-documentid=31244150", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "An anonymous grocery-store manager shares the secrets to lowering your food bill. For more ideas on <a href=\"http://www.realsimple.com/work-life/money/spending/how-to-stop-spending-money-00100000068194/index.html?xid=msn-rs-deck-link-111811\">how to stop spending</a>, check out Real Simple.", 
+        "domain": "lifestyle.msn.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://lifestyle.msn.com/your-life/your-money-today/article.aspx?cp-documentid=31244150", 
+        "meta_keywords": "groceries for less, budget, save money, penny pinching, groceries, food bill", 
+        "cleaned_text": "\"Head to the supermarket an hour before closing time. Some stores mark down prepared foods and bakery items then because they can't sell them the following day. You could get a rotisserie chicken or freshly baked cookies for 50 percent off, or nab two sushi meals for the price of one. If you're planning to host a party or some other gathering, it's worth your time to ask the deli or bakery manager for a 5 to 10 percent discount off your catering order. Also, keep an eye out for online coupons: Some grocery stores accept coupons printed out from sites like TheGroceryGame.com, ShopAtHome.com, and CouponMom.com, even though they rarely publicize the fact. (Find out your store's policy at the customer-service counter.) It also pays to check the market's own website. You could find weekly deals there that it doesn't advertise anywhere else, including its in-store flyers.\n\n\"And even though it's convenient to do all your shopping in one place, avoid going to a grocery store for kitchen supplies, like measuring cups and cookie sheets, or seasonal items, like holiday decorations and gift bags. These products will have inflated prices. Buy them at a big-box chain, like Target or Walmart, instead.\"\n\nMore from Bing and MSN Lifestyle Site Search: Get additional content on saving on your grocery bill", 
+        "meta_favicon": "http://blu.stc.s-msn.com/br/gbl/lg/1/favicon.ico", 
+        "meta_lang": "en"
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_okaymarketing.html b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_okaymarketing.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..3f41b0a5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_okaymarketing.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1064 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+<html class="no-js" lang="en-US" prefix="og: http://ogp.me/ns# fb: http://ogp.me/ns/fb#">
+<head>
+	<meta charset="UTF-8">
+	<!-- Always force latest IE rendering engine (even in intranet) & Chrome Frame -->
+	<!--[if IE ]>
+	<meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge,chrome=1">
+	<![endif]-->
+	<link rel="profile" href="http://gmpg.org/xfn/11" />
+	<title>How to Add Schema Markup to a Page in WordPress</title>
+		<link rel="icon" href="http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/favicon.png" type="image/x-icon" />
+<!--iOS/android/handheld specific -->
+<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/themes/spike/apple-touch-icon.png" />
+<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1, maximum-scale=1">
+<meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-capable" content="yes">
+<meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-status-bar-style" content="black">
+	<link rel="pingback" href="http://okaymarketing.com/xmlrpc.php" />
+	
+<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast WordPress SEO plugin v1.5.3.3 - https://yoast.com/wordpress/plugins/seo/ -->
+<meta name="description" content="Add schema markup for your business to gain that competitive edge in SERPs. Follow our tutorial to see how you can create a simple shortcode in Wordpress."/>
+<link rel="canonical" href="http://okaymarketing.com/add-schema-markup-page-wordpress/" />
+<link rel="author" href="https://plus.google.com/118032823674718072896"/>
+<meta property="og:locale" content="en_US" />
+<meta property="og:type" content="article" />
+<meta property="og:title" content="How to Add Schema Markup to a Page in WordPress" />
+<meta property="og:description" content="Add schema markup for your business to gain that competitive edge in SERPs. Follow our tutorial to see how you can create a simple shortcode in Wordpress." />
+<meta property="og:url" content="http://okaymarketing.com/add-schema-markup-page-wordpress/" />
+<meta property="og:site_name" content="OKay Marketing" />
+<meta property="article:publisher" content="https://www.facebook.com/okaymarketing" />
+<meta property="article:author" content="https://www.facebook.com/brianleejackson" />
+<meta property="article:tag" content="Schema" />
+<meta property="article:tag" content="Schema Markup" />
+<meta property="article:tag" content="Snippets" />
+<meta property="article:tag" content="WordPress" />
+<meta property="article:section" content="WordPress" />
+<meta property="article:published_time" content="2014-06-30T16:54:02+00:00" />
+<meta property="article:modified_time" content="2014-07-01T08:54:35+00:00" />
+<meta property="og:updated_time" content="2014-07-01T08:54:35+00:00" />
+<meta property="fb:admins" content="1098660425" />
+<meta property="og:image" content="http://okaymarketing.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/seo.jpg" />
+<meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"/>
+<meta name="twitter:site" content="@okay_marketing"/>
+<meta name="twitter:domain" content="OKay Marketing"/>
+<meta name="twitter:creator" content="@brianleejackson"/>
+<meta name="twitter:image:src" content="http://okaymarketing.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/seo.jpg"/>
+<!-- / Yoast WordPress SEO plugin. -->
+
+<link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="OKay Marketing &raquo; Feed" href="http://okaymarketing.com/feed/" />
+<link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="OKay Marketing &raquo; Comments Feed" href="http://okaymarketing.com/comments/feed/" />
+<link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="OKay Marketing &raquo; How to Add Schema Markup to a Page in WordPress Comments Feed" href="http://okaymarketing.com/add-schema-markup-page-wordpress/feed/" />
+<link rel='stylesheet' id='fancybox2-css'  href='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/arscode-ninja-popups/fancybox2/jquery.fancybox.css?ver=3.9.1' type='text/css' media='all' />
+<link rel='stylesheet' id='snp_styles_reset-css'  href='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/arscode-ninja-popups/themes/reset.css?ver=3.9.1' type='text/css' media='all' />
+<link rel='stylesheet' id='snp_styles_theme14-css'  href='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/arscode-ninja-popups/themes/theme14/css/theme14.css?ver=3.9.1' type='text/css' media='all' />
+<link rel='stylesheet' id='easy-social-share-buttons-css'  href='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/easy-social-share-buttons/assets/css/metro-retina/easy-social-share-buttons.min.css?ver=1.3.9.5' type='text/css' media='all' />
+<link rel='stylesheet' id='easy-social-share-buttons-mailform-css'  href='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/easy-social-share-buttons/assets/css/essb-mailform.min.css?ver=1.3.9.5' type='text/css' media='all' />
+<link rel='stylesheet' id='tm_clicktotweet-css'  href='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/click-to-tweet-by-todaymade/assets/css/styles.css?ver=3.9.1' type='text/css' media='all' />
+<link rel='stylesheet' id='genericons-css'  href='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/fanciest-author-box/css/genericons/genericons.css?ver=3.9.1' type='text/css' media='all' />
+<link rel='stylesheet' id='ts_fab_css-css'  href='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/fanciest-author-box/css/ts-fab.css?ver=2.0.6' type='text/css' media='all' />
+<link rel='stylesheet' id='googleFont-css'  href='http://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Open+Sans%7COpen+Sans&#038;ver=3.9.1' type='text/css' media='all' />
+<link rel='stylesheet' id='optinforms-stylesheet-css'  href='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/optin-forms/css/optinforms.css?ver=3.9.1' type='text/css' media='all' />
+<link rel='stylesheet' id='socialfans-widget-style-css'  href='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/socialfans-counter/assets/css/socialfans-style.css?ver=2.0.2' type='text/css' media='all' />
+<link rel='stylesheet' id='mts_wpshortcodes-css'  href='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/wp-shortcode/css/wp-shortcode.css?ver=3.9.1' type='text/css' media='all' />
+<link rel='stylesheet' id='fontawesome-css'  href='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/themes/spike/css/font-awesome.min.css?ver=3.9.1' type='text/css' media='all' />
+<link rel='stylesheet' id='stylesheet-css'  href='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/themes/spike/style.css?ver=3.9.1' type='text/css' media='all' />
+<style type='text/css'>
+
+		body {background-color:#ffffff; }
+		body {background-image: url(http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/themes/spike/images/nobg.png);}
+		.main-header { background-color: #FFFFFF; background-image: url(http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/themes/spike/images/pattern1.png);}
+		footer {background-color:#F5F5F5; background-image: url(http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/themes/spike/images/pattern1.png);}
+		#navigation ul .current-menu-item a, #navigation ul li:hover > a, #navigation ul .current-menu-item:before, #navigation ul li:hover:before, #navigation ul li:hover:after, .postauthor h5, .single_post a, .textwidget a, .pnavigation2 a, .sidebar.c-4-12 a:hover, .copyrights a:hover, footer .widget li a:hover, .sidebar.c-4-12 a:hover, .related-posts a:hover, .title a:hover, .post-info a:hover,.comm, #tabber .inside li a:hover, .readMore a:hover, a, a:hover { color:#4293c4; }	
+			.reply a, .flex-control-paging li a.flex-active, .currenttext, .pagination a:hover, .single .pagination a:hover .currenttext, .sbutton, #searchsubmit, #commentform input#submit, .contactform #submit, .mts-subscribe input[type='submit'], #move-to-top:hover, #searchform .icon-search, .tagcloud a, a#pull, .secondary-navigation.mobile, .mobile #navigation, #load-posts > a, .pace .pace-progress, .widget_tabs2 .pagination a, .pagination .nav-previous a:hover, .pagination .nav-next a:hover, .flex-control-paging li a:hover, #featured-thumbnail .review-total-only { background-color:#4293c4; color: #fff!important; }
+		.flex-control-thumbs .flex-active { border-top:3px solid #4293c4;}
+		#navigation ul .current-menu-item a, #navigation > ul > li > a:hover { border-bottom: 1px solid #4293c4; }
+		.tagcloud a .tab_count, .flex-control-paging li a, #logo, #load-posts > a:hover, #searchform .sbutton:hover, .mts-subscribe input[type='submit']:hover { background-color:#a0c3d8; }
+		.pagination a {color:#a0c3d8; }
+		.pagination a, .pagination2 { border: 1px solid #a0c3d8; }
+		.currenttext, .pagination a:hover, .pagination2:hover, .widget_tabs2 .pagination a { border: 1px solid #4293c4; }
+		#navigation ul ul { border-top: 1px solid #4293c4; }
+		.slidertitle, .slidertext { background: rgba(66,147,196, 0.7) }
+		
+		
+		
+		
+		
+		.single_post_below { float: left; width: 100%; margin-top: 27px; }
+		.single_post_below .related-posts li { margin: 0 2% 0 0; width: 23.5%; } .relatedthumb { float: left; width: 100% }
+		.post-single-content, .single_post_below .rthumb, .relatedthumb img { width: 100% }
+		.post-single-content { max-width: 850px; }
+		.single_post_below .related-posts h3 { font-weight: 700 }
+		.shareit { top: 282px; left: auto; z-index: 0; margin: 0 0 0 -123px; width: 90px; position: fixed; overflow: hidden; padding: 5px; border:none; border-right: 0;}
+		.share-item {margin: 2px;}
+		
+		.bypostauthor .commentmetadata {background: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.02);border: 1px solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.06);}
+		.bypostauthor .commentmetadata:after { font-size: 12px; content: "Author"; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; padding: 1px 10px; background: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2); color: #FFF; }
+		
+		#subscribe-callout {
+    background: none repeat scroll 0 0 #4293c4;
+    color: #FFFFFF;
+    font-size: 15px;
+    line-height: 1.3;
+    margin-top: 11px;
+    padding: 15px;
+    position: relative;
+}
+
+article.widget_subscribe {
+    background: none repeat scroll 0 0 padding-box #333333;
+    border-radius: 2px 2px 2px 2px;
+ padding:15px;
+    color: #FFFFFF;
+width:270px;
+}
+
+#subscribe-callout em {
+    border-left: 10px solid transparent;
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+.us_wrapper .us_button {font-size:20px;}
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+input, textarea, select {font-size:14px;}
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+    background: none repeat scroll 0 0 #eefac8; 
+}
+.post-single-content a {
+    text-decoration:underline;
+    font-weight: bold;
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+.post-content a:hover {
+    background: none repeat scroll 0 0 #eefac8; 
+}
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+.us_wrapper a:hover {background-color:#4192c3;}
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+.post-content a {
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+    font-weight: bold;
+}
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+    padding: 12px 10px;
+    text-shadow: none;
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+}
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+.btn_green:hover {
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+    padding: 12px 10px;
+    text-shadow: none;
+    text-transform: uppercase;
+}
+#optinforms-form5-disclaimer {margin-top:10px;}
+.tm-click-to-tweet {margin-top:0px;}
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+.tm-click-to-tweet .tm-ctt-text a {
+    background: none repeat scroll 0 0 #eefac8; 
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+#optinforms-form5-container {margin-top:0px;}
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+.post-single-content .us_wrapper.tac {background-color: #333333;}
+.us_wrapper .us_share_text {color: #ffffff;}
+
+.essb_links {
+    background-color: #333333;
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+    margin: 1em 0 0;
+    padding-left: 25px;
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+    word-wrap: normal !important;
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+						.review-wrapper, .review-title, .review-desc p{ color: #555555;}
+			.review-list li, .review-wrapper{ background: #ffffff;}
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+			.review-wrapper, .review-title, .review-list li, .review-list li:last-child, .user-review-area{border-color: #e7e7e7;}
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+							<div id="post-13131" class="post-13131 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-wordpress tag-schema tag-schema-markup tag-snippets tag-wordpress g post has_thumb">
+					<div class="single_post">
+													<div class="breadcrumb" xmlns:v="http://rdf.data-vocabulary.org/#"><span typeof="v:Breadcrumb"><a rel="v:url" property="v:title" href="http://okaymarketing.com" rel="nofollow"><i class="icon-home"></i>&nbsp;Home</a></span>&nbsp;>&nbsp;<span typeof="v:Breadcrumb"><a href="http://okaymarketing.com/category/wordpress/" rel="v:url" property="v:title">WordPress</a></span>&nbsp;>&nbsp;<span typeof='v:Breadcrumb'><span property='v:title'>How to Add Schema Markup to a Page in WordPress</span></span></div>
+												<header>
+							<h1 class="entry-title title single-title">How to Add Schema Markup to a Page in WordPress</h1>
+															<div class="post-info">
+																			<span class="vcard author"><i class="icon-user"></i> By <span class="fn"> <a rel="author" href="https://plus.google.com/118032823674718072896">Brian Jackson</a></span></span>
+																																					<span class="thecategory"><i class="icon-tags"></i> <a href="http://okaymarketing.com/category/wordpress/" title="View all posts in WordPress" rel="nofollow">WordPress</a></span>
+																												<span class="thecomment"><i class="icon-comments"></i> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://okaymarketing.com/add-schema-markup-page-wordpress/#comments"><span class="dsq-postid" rel="13131 http://okaymarketing.com/?p=13131">No Comments</span></a></span>
+<div style="margin-top:10px;"><img width="850" height="348" src="http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/seo.jpg" class="attachment-large wp-post-image" alt="seo" /></div>
+																	</div>
+													</header><!--.headline_area-->
+						<div class="post-single-content box mark-links entry-content">
+																					<p>If you are operating a local business there is something you can do right now to gain an advantage over your competition. It is called schema markup. Taking advantage of this early on will benefit you. What is schema markup? Basically it is code you can add to your page so that search engines like Google and Bing can better identify the data and be more likely to serve that information up in SERPs.</p>
+<p><div class='tm-tweet-clear'></div><div class='tm-click-to-tweet'><div class='tm-ctt-text'><a href='https://twitter.com/share?text=Schema+Markup+is+the+Bees+Knees%21+%23schema+%23SERPs&via=okay_marketing&related=okay_marketing&url=http://okaymarketing.com/add-schema-markup-page-wordpress/' target='_blank'>Schema Markup is the Bees Knees! #schema #SERPs</a></div><a href='https://twitter.com/share?text=Schema+Markup+is+the+Bees+Knees%21+%23schema+%23SERPs&via=okay_marketing&related=okay_marketing&url=http://okaymarketing.com/add-schema-markup-page-wordpress/' target='_blank' class='tm-ctt-btn'>Click To Tweet</a><div class='tm-ctt-tip'></div><div class='tm-powered-by'></div></div></p>
+<p>There is a great article on KissMetrics about <a title="How to Boost Your SEO by Using Schema Markup" href="http://blog.kissmetrics.com/get-started-using-schema/" target="_blank">How to Boost Your SEO by Using Schema Markup</a>. I suggest reading through that if you want to know more about how schema markup helps you and then come back to our page. I will show you how to quickly add some schema markup for a local business location to a page in WordPress.</p>
+<p>There is a WordPress plugin out there called <a title="Schema Creator by Raven" href="http://wordpress.org/plugins/schema-creator/" target="_blank">Schema Creator by Raven</a>, however I was not happy with the results. There were a bunch of line breaks and I couldn&#8217;t get it to look like I wanted without going and editing the plugin itself. I needed to add location data, specifically the LocalBusiness attribute. So I asked my brother Brett who is a phenomenal PHP programmer and he whipped up something in a matter of minutes. So I thought I would share it with you as an alternative to using a plugin or simply pasting the HTML from a schema generator.</p>
+<h2>Step 1</h2>
+<p>First we are going to add a function for our schema itemtypes, specifically <strong>LocalBusiness</strong> and <strong>PostalAddress</strong>, to WordPress. So in your WordPress dashboard browse to Appearance and click on on &#8220;Editor.&#8221;</p>
+<p><img class="alignnone wp-image-13132 size-full" title="wordpress appearance editor" src="http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/wordpress-appearance-editor.png" alt="wordpress appearance editor" width="320" height="216" /></p>
+<h2>Step 2</h2>
+<p>Click into your WordPress functions.php file. <strong>(please don&#8217;t edit this file if you are unsure of what you are doing, or please make a backup first!)</strong></p>
+<p><img class="alignnone wp-image-13134 size-full" title="wordpress functions file" src="http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/wordpress-functions-file.png" alt="wordpress functions file" width="160" height="56" /></p>
+<h2>Step 3</h2>
+<p>Now scroll to the bottom and we are going to add this code. What we are doing is creating a shortcode we can use later. Why do we do a shortcode? Simply because if you have multiple people editing sometimes they will switch out out of the text view and you lose your schema markup.</p>
+<pre class="brush: php; title: ; notranslate" title="">
+function shortcode_printaddress($atts)
+{
+$val.= '&lt;div itemscope itemtype=&quot;http://schema.org/LocalBusiness&quot;&gt;';
+$val.= '&lt;a itemprop=&quot;url&quot; href=&quot;' . site_url() . '&quot;&gt;';
+$val.= '&lt;div itemprop=&quot;name&quot;&gt;';
+$val.= '&lt;strong&gt;' . $atts[&quot;name&quot;] . '&lt;/strong&gt;';
+$val.= '&lt;/div&gt;'; $val.= '&lt;/a&gt;';
+$val.= '&lt;div itemprop=&quot;address&quot; itemscope itemtype=&quot;http://schema.org/PostalAddress&quot;&gt;';
+$val.= '&lt;span itemprop=&quot;streetAddress&quot;&gt;';
+$val.= $atts[&quot;address1&quot;]; if(!empty($atts[&quot;address2&quot;]))
+{
+$val.= '&lt;br /&gt;' . $atts[&quot;address2&quot;];
+}
+$val.= '&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;';
+$val.= '&lt;span itemprop=&quot;addressLocality&quot;&gt;' . $atts[&quot;city&quot;] . '&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span itemprop=&quot;addressRegion&quot;&gt;' . $atts[&quot;state&quot;] . '&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span itemprop=&quot;postalCode&quot;&gt;' . $atts[&quot;zip&quot;] . '&lt;/span&gt;';
+$val.= '&lt;/div&gt;';
+$val.= '&lt;/div&gt;'; return
+$val;
+}
+add_shortcode('printaddress', 'shortcode_printaddress');
+</pre>
+<h2>Step 4</h2>
+<p>Now we can go to our page and add the shortcode. Obviously you will want to change the details below with your address.</p>
+<p><strong>[printaddress name="OKay Marketing" address1="8275 E Bell RD" address2="Suite 250" city="Scottsdale" state="AZ" zip="85260"]</strong></p>
+<p>The shortcode will display like our address below.</p>
+<div class="divider"></div>
+<div itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/LocalBusiness"><a itemprop="url" href="http://okaymarketing.com"><div itemprop="name"><strong>OKay Marketing</strong></div></a><div itemprop="address" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/PostalAddress"><span itemprop="streetAddress">8275 E Bell RD<br />Suite 250</span><br /><span itemprop="addressLocality">Scottsdale</span>, <span itemprop="addressRegion">AZ</span> <span itemprop="postalCode">85260</span></div></div>
+<div class="divider"></div>
+<p>The reason we like this method better is because it is much easier to style, there aren&#8217;t any line breaks and to the general user, it looks just like a normal address listing.</p>
+<h2>Step 5</h2>
+<p>Now you will want to copy the URL of the page you have the shortcode on and go test it in the <a title="Google Structured Data Testing Tool" href="http://www.google.com/webmasters/tools/richsnippets" target="_blank">Google Structured Data Testing Tool</a>.</p>
+<p>At the very bottom you will want to verify that you have the localbusiness item type and that the address points to <em>Item 1</em> which in turn points to Item 1 for the address.</p>
+<p><img class="alignnone wp-image-13136 size-full" title="schema local business wordpress" src="http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/schema-local-business-wordpress.png" alt="schema local business wordpress" width="538" height="441" /></p>
+<p>There are many more things you could add too, like phone number, hours of business, etc. To read more about the available schema types visit the official <a title="Schemas" href="https://schema.org/docs/schemas.html" target="_blank">schema</a> website.</p>
+
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+		<div class="ts-fab-avatar"><img alt='Brian Jackson' src='http://1.gravatar.com/avatar/7b778bf121a80189c1b7c8e6466f6614?s=64&amp;d=http%3A%2F%2F1.gravatar.com%2Favatar%2Fad516503a11cd5ca435acc9bb6523536%3Fs%3D64&amp;r=G' class='avatar avatar-64 photo' height='64' width='64' /></div>
+		<div class="ts-fab-text">
+			<div class="ts-fab-header"><h4><a rel="nofollow" href="http://okaymarketing.com">Brian Jackson</a></h4><div class="ts-fab-description"><span>Owner/Director of Optimization</span> at <a rel="nofollow" href="http://okaymarketing.com"><span>OKay Marketing</span></a></div></div><!-- /.ts-fab-header --><div class="ts-fab-content">SEO, PPC, Social Media, Email Marketing, and WordPress Expert. <strong>It's all about conversions folks.</strong> “Some people dream of great accomplishments, while others stay awake and do them.”</div>
+		</div>
+	</div>
+		<div class="ts-fab-tab" id="ts-fab-twitter-below-13131">
+			<div class="ts-fab-avatar"><img alt='Brian Jackson' src='http://1.gravatar.com/avatar/7b778bf121a80189c1b7c8e6466f6614?s=64&amp;d=http%3A%2F%2F1.gravatar.com%2Favatar%2Fad516503a11cd5ca435acc9bb6523536%3Fs%3D64&amp;r=G' class='avatar avatar-64 photo' height='64' width='64' /></div>
+			<div class="ts-fab-text">
+				<div class="ts-fab-header">
+					<h4><a rel="nofollow" href="//twitter.com/brianleejackson">@brianleejackson</a></h4><div class="ts-fab-description">Owner/Director of Optimization <a rel="nofollow" href="http://twitter.com/OKay_Marketing" title="Follow OKay_Marketing"  target="_blank" >@OKay_Marketing</a> and Blogger <a rel="nofollow" href="http://twitter.com/webguystricks" title="Follow webguystricks"  target="_blank" >@webguystricks</a>  <a rel="nofollow" href="http://twitter.com/search/?q=%23SEO" title="Search #SEO"  target="_blank" >#SEO</a>, <a rel="nofollow" href="http://twitter.com/search/?q=%23PPC" title="Search #PPC"  target="_blank" >#PPC</a>, <a rel="nofollow" href="http://twitter.com/search/?q=%23Social" title="Search #Social"  target="_blank" >#Social</a> Media, and <a rel="nofollow" href="http://twitter.com/search/?q=%23WordPress" title="Search #WordPress"  target="_blank" >#WordPress</a> Expert. Active member on <a rel="nofollow" href="http://twitter.com/RiseForums" title="Follow RiseForums"  target="_blank" >@RiseForums</a></div></div><!-- /.ts-fab-header --><div class="ts-fab-content"><div class="ts-fab-twitter-tweet">Breaking Down Page Speed Events For SEO Gain - <a rel="nofollow" href="http://t.co/O2F3Yxf2p7" title="http://t.co/O2F3Yxf2p7"   target="_blank" >http://t.co/O2F3Yxf2p7</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://twitter.com/search/?q=%23SEO" title="Search #SEO"  target="_blank" >#SEO</a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://twitter.com/search/?q=%23PageSpeed" title="Search #PageSpeed"  target="_blank" >#PageSpeed</a><span class="ts-fab-twitter-time"> - 1 hour ago</span></div></div><div class="ts-fab-twitter-widget-wrapper"></div></div>
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+			<div class="ts-fab-avatar"><img alt='Brian Jackson' src='http://1.gravatar.com/avatar/7b778bf121a80189c1b7c8e6466f6614?s=64&amp;d=http%3A%2F%2F1.gravatar.com%2Favatar%2Fad516503a11cd5ca435acc9bb6523536%3Fs%3D64&amp;r=G' class='avatar avatar-64 photo' height='64' width='64' /></div>
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+			<div class="ts-fab-avatar"><img alt='Brian Jackson' src='http://1.gravatar.com/avatar/7b778bf121a80189c1b7c8e6466f6614?s=64&amp;d=http%3A%2F%2F1.gravatar.com%2Favatar%2Fad516503a11cd5ca435acc9bb6523536%3Fs%3D64&amp;r=G' class='avatar avatar-64 photo' height='64' width='64' /></div>
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+			<div class="ts-fab-avatar"><img alt='Brian Jackson' src='http://1.gravatar.com/avatar/7b778bf121a80189c1b7c8e6466f6614?s=64&amp;d=http%3A%2F%2F1.gravatar.com%2Favatar%2Fad516503a11cd5ca435acc9bb6523536%3Fs%3D64&amp;r=G' class='avatar avatar-64 photo' height='64' width='64' /></div>
+			<div class="ts-fab-text">
+				<div class="ts-fab-header">
+					<h4><a rel="nofollow" href="//www.pinterest.com/okaymarketing"">Brian Jackson</a></h4>
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+	<div class="ts-fab-tab" id="ts-fab-latest-posts-below-13131">
+		<div class="ts-fab-avatar"><img alt='Brian Jackson' src='http://1.gravatar.com/avatar/7b778bf121a80189c1b7c8e6466f6614?s=64&amp;d=http%3A%2F%2F1.gravatar.com%2Favatar%2Fad516503a11cd5ca435acc9bb6523536%3Fs%3D64&amp;r=G' class='avatar avatar-64 photo' height='64' width='64' /></div>
+		<div class="ts-fab-text">
+			<div class="ts-fab-header">
+				<h4>Latest posts by Brian Jackson <span class="latest-see-all">(<a href="http://okaymarketing.com/author/brianleejackson/">see all</a>)</span></h4>
+			</div>
+			<ul class="ts-fab-latest">
+				<li>
+					<a href="http://okaymarketing.com/add-schema-markup-page-wordpress/">How to Add Schema Markup to a Page in WordPress</a><span> - June 30, 2014</span> 
+				</li>
+				<li>
+					<a href="http://okaymarketing.com/best-stock-photo-site-ever-used-im-%e2%9d%a4/">The Best Stock Photo Site I Have Ever Used &#8211; I&#8217;m in ❤</a><span> - June 16, 2014</span> 
+				</li>
+				<li>
+					<a href="http://okaymarketing.com/setup-twitter-card-wordpress/">How to Setup Your Twitter Card in WordPress</a><span> - June 15, 2014</span> 
+				</li>
+		</ul></div>
+	</div>
+		</div>
+	</div>																															<div class="bottomad">
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+<li class="icon-group menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-12509"><a href="http://okaymarketing.com/about/">About</a></li>
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+<ul class="sub-menu">
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+	<li class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-13127"><a href="http://okaymarketing.com/social-media-tips/">Social Media</a></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li class="icon-signal menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-13120"><a href="http://okaymarketing.com/advertise/">Advertise</a></li>
+<li class="icon-phone menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-12507"><a href="http://okaymarketing.com/contact/">Contact</a></li>
+</ul>			</nav>
+</div>
+<!--start footer code-->
+<script>
+  (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){
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+			<div id="fb-root"></div>
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+			<input type="hidden" id="snp_popup_id" value="" />
+			<input type="hidden" id="snp_popup_theme" value="" />
+			<input type="hidden" id="snp_exithref" value="" />
+			<input type="hidden" id="snp_exittarget" value="" />
+				<div id="snppopup-welcome" class="snp-pop-12954 snppopup"><input type="hidden" class="snp_open_after" value="20" /><input type="hidden" class="snp_optin_redirect_url" value="" /><input type="hidden" class="snp_show_cb_button" value="yes" /><input type="hidden" class="snp_popup_id" value="12954" /><input type="hidden" class="snp_popup_theme" value="theme14" /><input type="hidden" class="snp_overlay" value="default" /><input type="hidden" class="snp_cookie_conversion" value="30" /><input type="hidden" class="snp_cookie_close" value="-1" /><div class="snp-fb snp-theme14">
+<div class="color-top">
+<span style="background:#ef3e36;"></span>
+<span style="background:#abb92e;"></span>
+<span style="background:#f57826;"></span>
+<span style="background:#17b4e9;"></span>
+</div>
+<div class="headers">
+	<div class="snp-headers"><div class="snp-header">Weekly Marketing Tips</div></div><div class="snp-body"><div class="snp-text"><p>SEO, PPC, Social Media, Marketing, and WordPress Tips Delivered Right To Your Inbox, once a week. Let us help you increase your conversions and traffic for free!</div> 
+</div>
+
+    <div class="snp-img"><img src="http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/logo.png" alt=""/></div>
+    <div class="snp-right">
+
+	<div class="snp-form">
+	    <form action="#" method="post" class="snp-subscribeform snp_subscribeform">
+				<fieldset>	    
+		    		    <input type="text" name="email" id="snp_email" placeholder="Your E-mail:" class="snp-field snp-field-email" />
+		    <button type="submit" data-loading="" class="snp-submit">Subscribe Now!</button>
+		</fieldset>
+	    </form>
+	</div>
+		<a href="#" class="snp-close snp_nothanks">x</a></div>    </div>
+    <br style="clear: both;"/>
+</div>
+<style>.snp-pop-12954 .snp-theme14 { max-width: 800px;}
+.snp-pop-12954 .snp-theme14 .snp-header {font-size: 40px; color: #484848;}
+.snp-pop-12954 .snp-theme14 .snp-header2 {font-size: 16px; color: #757575;}
+.snp-pop-12954 .snp-theme14 .snp-text {font-size: 17px;}
+.snp-pop-12954 .snp-theme14 { color: #757575;}
+.snp-pop-12954 .snp-headers { border-bottom: 1px #757575 solid;}
+.snp-pop-12954 .snp-theme14 .snp-submit, .snp-pop-12954 .snp-theme14 .snp-submit:hover { background-color: #4192c3;}
+.snp-pop-12954 .snp-theme14 .snp-submit { color: #fff; border-bottom: none;}
+.snp-pop-12954 .snp-theme14 { background-color: #FFFFFF; }
+</style></div>		</div>
+		<script type="text/javascript">
+			var snp_timer;
+			var snp_timer_o;
+			var snp_ajax_url= 'http://okaymarketing.com/wp-admin/admin-ajax.php';
+			var snp_ignore_cookies = false;
+			var snp_is_interal_link;
+			jQuery(document).ready(function(){
+				jQuery('[placeholder]').placeholder();				jQuery(".snp_nothanks, .snp_closelink").click(function(){
+					jQuery.fancybox2.close();
+					return false;
+				});
+				jQuery(".snp_subscribeform").submit(function(){
+					return snp_onsubmit(jQuery(this));
+				});
+												var snp_open_after=jQuery('#snppopup-welcome .snp_open_after').val();
+								if(snp_open_after)
+								{
+									snp_timer_o=setTimeout("snp_open_popup('','','snppopup-welcome','welcome');",snp_open_after*1000);	
+								}
+								else
+								{
+									snp_open_popup('','','snppopup-welcome','welcome');
+								}
+								});	
+					</script>
+		<script type='text/javascript' src='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/syntaxhighlighter/syntaxhighlighter3/scripts/shCore.js?ver=3.0.9'></script>
+<script type='text/javascript' src='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/syntaxhighlighter/syntaxhighlighter3/scripts/shBrushPhp.js?ver=3.0.9'></script>
+<script type='text/javascript'>
+	(function(){
+		var corecss = document.createElement('link');
+		var themecss = document.createElement('link');
+		var corecssurl = "http://okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/syntaxhighlighter/syntaxhighlighter3/styles/shCore.css?ver=3.0.9";
+		if ( corecss.setAttribute ) {
+				corecss.setAttribute( "rel", "stylesheet" );
+				corecss.setAttribute( "type", "text/css" );
+				corecss.setAttribute( "href", corecssurl );
+		} else {
+				corecss.rel = "stylesheet";
+				corecss.href = corecssurl;
+		}
+		document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0].insertBefore( corecss, document.getElementById("syntaxhighlighteranchor") );
+		var themecssurl = "http://okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/syntaxhighlighter/syntaxhighlighter3/styles/shThemeDefault.css?ver=3.0.9";
+		if ( themecss.setAttribute ) {
+				themecss.setAttribute( "rel", "stylesheet" );
+				themecss.setAttribute( "type", "text/css" );
+				themecss.setAttribute( "href", themecssurl );
+		} else {
+				themecss.rel = "stylesheet";
+				themecss.href = themecssurl;
+		}
+		//document.getElementById("syntaxhighlighteranchor").appendChild(themecss);
+		document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0].insertBefore( themecss, document.getElementById("syntaxhighlighteranchor") );
+	})();
+	SyntaxHighlighter.config.strings.expandSource = '+ expand source';
+	SyntaxHighlighter.config.strings.help = '?';
+	SyntaxHighlighter.config.strings.alert = 'SyntaxHighlighter\n\n';
+	SyntaxHighlighter.config.strings.noBrush = 'Can\'t find brush for: ';
+	SyntaxHighlighter.config.strings.brushNotHtmlScript = 'Brush wasn\'t configured for html-script option: ';
+	SyntaxHighlighter.defaults['pad-line-numbers'] = false;
+	SyntaxHighlighter.defaults['toolbar'] = false;
+	SyntaxHighlighter.all();
+</script>
+<link rel='stylesheet' id='scroll_to_top_button_style-css'  href='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/scroll-to-top-button/assets/css/style.css?ver=3.9.1' type='text/css' media='all' />
+<link rel='stylesheet' id='wp_review-style-css'  href='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/wp-review/assets/css/wp-review.css?ver=1.0' type='text/css' media='all' />
+<link rel='stylesheet' id='wp_review_tab_widget-css'  href='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/wp-review/assets/css/wp-review-tab-widget.css?ver=3.9.1' type='text/css' media='all' />
+<script type='text/javascript' src='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/easy-social-share-buttons/assets/js/easy-social-share-buttons.min.js?ver=1.3.9.5'></script>
+<script type='text/javascript' src='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/easy-social-share-buttons/assets/js/essb-mailform.js?ver=1.3.9.5'></script>
+<script type='text/javascript' src='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-includes/js/comment-reply.min.js?ver=3.9.1'></script>
+<script type='text/javascript'>
+/* <![CDATA[ */
+var scrollTopParams = {"scheme":"dark","size":"large"};
+/* ]]> */
+</script>
+<script type='text/javascript' src='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/scroll-to-top-button/assets/js/scroll-to-top.js?ver=3.9.1'></script>
+<script type='text/javascript'>
+/* <![CDATA[ */
+var wp_review_tab = {"ajax_url":"http:\/\/okaymarketing.com\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php"};
+/* ]]> */
+</script>
+<script type='text/javascript' src='http://cdn.okaymarketing.com/wp-content/plugins/wp-review/assets/js/wp-review-tab-widget.js?ver=3.9.1'></script>
+</body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_okaymarketing.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_okaymarketing.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..fd8671d8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_okaymarketing.json
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.businessinsider.com/larry-page-the-untold-story-2014-4",
+    "expected": {
+        "cleaned_text": "If you are operating a local business there is something you can do right now to gain an advantage over your competition."
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/politico1.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_politico.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/politico1.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_politico.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_politico.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_politico.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..10a27e4c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_politico.json
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.politico.com/news/stories/1010/43352.html", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "Demographic changes are likely to alter the route Obama took to victory in 2008.", 
+        "domain": "www.politico.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.politico.com/news/stories/1010/43352.html", 
+        "meta_keywords": "2012, Maggie Haberman and Shira Toeplitz", 
+        "cleaned_text": "If the newest Census Bureau estimates stay close to form", 
+        "meta_favicon": "http://www.politico.com/favicon.ico", 
+        "meta_lang": "en"
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/techcrunch1.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_techcrunch1.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/techcrunch1.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_techcrunch1.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_techcrunch1.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_techcrunch1.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..fb8ec081
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_techcrunch1.json
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://techcrunch.com/2011/08/13/2005-zuckerberg-didnt-want-to-take-over-the-world/", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "", 
+        "domain": "techcrunch.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://techcrunch.com/2011/08/13/2005-zuckerberg-didnt-want-to-take-over-the-world/", 
+        "meta_keywords": "", 
+        "cleaned_text": "The Huffington Post has come across this fascinating five-minute interview", 
+        "tags": [
+            "facebook"
+        ], 
+        "title": "2005 Zuckerberg Didn\u2019t Want To Take Over The World", 
+        "meta_favicon": "http://s2.wp.com/wp-content/themes/vip/tctechcrunch2/images/favicon.ico?m=1310283187g", 
+        "meta_lang": "en"
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/huffpo1.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_testHuffingtonPost.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/huffpo1.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_testHuffingtonPost.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_testHuffingtonPost.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_testHuffingtonPost.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..ff24f015
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_testHuffingtonPost.json
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/08/13/federal-reserve-pursuing_n_681540.html", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "A top regional Federal Reserve official sharply criticized Friday the Fed's ongoing policy of keeping interest rates near zero -- and at record lows -- as a \"dangerous gamble.\"", 
+        "domain": "www.huffingtonpost.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/08/13/federal-reserve-pursuing_n_681540.html", 
+        "meta_keywords": "federal, reserve's, low, rate, policy, is, a, 'dangerous, gamble,', says, top, central, bank, official, business", 
+        "cleaned_text": "A top regional Federal Reserve official sharply criticized Friday", 
+        "tags": [
+            "Financial Crisis", 
+            "Financial Reform", 
+            "Federal Reserve", 
+            "Great Recession", 
+            "Fomc", 
+            "Thomas Hoenig", 
+            "Federal Open Market Committee", 
+            "Monetary Policy", 
+            "Kansas City Fed", 
+            "Financial Regulatory Reform", 
+            "The Financial Fix", 
+            "Wall Street Reform", 
+            "Too Big To Fail", 
+            "Federal Reserve Bank Of Kansas City", 
+            "Interest Rates", 
+            "Financial Regulation"
+        ], 
+        "description": "A top regional Federal Reserve official sharply criticized Friday the Fed's ongoing policy of keeping interest rates near zero -- and at record lows -- as a \"dangerous gamble.\"", 
+        "title": "Federal Reserve's Low Rate Policy Is A 'Dangerous Gamble,' Says Top Central Bank Official", 
+        "meta_favicon": "/favicon.ico", 
+        "meta_lang": "en"
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/time1.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_time.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/time1.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_time.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_time.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_time.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..05cb400c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_time.json
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,2011497,00.html", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "Researchers at the University of Georgia  believe that much of the oil from the BP spill is still present underwater in the Gulf of Mexico, where its impact on aquatic life is far from clear", 
+        "domain": "www.time.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,2011497,00.html", 
+        "meta_keywords": "bp, oil, spill, gulf, mexico, invisible, dispersed, deepwater horizon, Charles Hopkinson", 
+        "cleaned_text": "This month, the federal government released", 
+        "title": "Oil from Spill Could Still Pose Major Threat", 
+        "meta_favicon": "http://img.timeinc.net/time/favicon.ico", 
+        "meta_lang": null
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/time2.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_time2.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/time2.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_time2.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_time2.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_time2.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..c22c143f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_time2.json
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://newsfeed.time.com/2011/08/24/washington-monument-closes-to-repair-earthquake-induced-crack/", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "Despite what the jeers of jaded Californians might suggest, toppled lawn chairs weren't actually the worst of the damage from Tuesday's earthquake that rattled the East Coast.  The Washington Monument developed a crack near its peak from the magnitude-5.", 
+        "domain": "newsfeed.time.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://newsfeed.time.com/2011/08/24/washington-monument-closes-to-repair-earthquake-induced-crack/", 
+        "meta_keywords": "nation, u.s., crack, damage, earthquake, nation, obelisk, virginia earthquake, washington dc, washington monument", 
+        "cleaned_text": "Despite what the jeers of jaded Californians might suggest", 
+        "tags": [
+            "obelisk", 
+            "virginia earthquake", 
+            "damage", 
+            "nation", 
+            "washington monument", 
+            "Crack", 
+            "washington dc", 
+            "earthquake"
+        ], 
+        "meta_favicon": "http://1.gravatar.com/blavatar/de038c9fc06774c15706fda5010eb7cb?s=16", 
+        "meta_lang": null
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_usatoday_issue_74.html b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_usatoday_issue_74.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..e3c6b8ac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_usatoday_issue_74.html
@@ -0,0 +1,184 @@
+
+<!doctype html><!--[if IE 8]><html class="no-js lt-ie10 lt-ie9" lang="en"><![endif]--><!--[if IE 9]><html class="no-js lt-ie10" lang="en"><![endif]--><!--[if gt IE 10]><!--><html class="no-js" lang="en"  itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/NewsArticle" ><!--<![endif]--><head prefix="og: http://ogp.me/ns#"><title>NAMM 2014:  Use IK Multimedia's rings to make music</title><meta charset="utf-8"><meta name="google" content="notranslate"><meta name="description" itemprop="description" content="ANAHEIM, Calif. — Musicians often show off lots of ring bling —but rarely have rings been thought of for making music — until now."><link rel="canonical" href="http://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/01/25/namm-2014---ik-multimedias-rings-to-make-music/4863193/"><meta name="ROBOTS" content="NOODP, NOYDIR" /><meta property="fb:app_id" content="215046668549694"/><meta itemprop="dateModified" content="2014-01-25T15:53:10.8100000"/><meta itemprop="datePublished" content="2014-01-25T00:57:05.3430000"/><meta itemprop="articleSection" content="tech,columnist,talkingtech"/><meta itemprop="thumbnailUrl" content="http://www.gannett-cdn.com/-mm-/5b414ac2cfba724111b6312de8fc8e8dedbc99a6/c=803-0-1882-1079&amp;r=x153&amp;c=150x150/local/-/media/USATODAY/test/2014/01/24//1390624252000-a-iringpic.jpg"/><meta itemprop="image" content="http://www.gannett-cdn.com/-mm-/6cc9f139cf2bd3088eb0cfe970b1f1458a6648c3/c=803-0-1882-1079&amp;r=x203&amp;c=200x200/local/-/media/USATODAY/test/2014/01/24//1390624252000-a-iringpic.jpg"/><meta property="og:image" content="http://www.gannett-cdn.com/-mm-/deac9eb8a5f727a1928e59a3bc42142f491f4d78/c=242-0-1678-1079&amp;r=x117&amp;c=155x114/local/-/media/USATODAY/test/2014/01/24//1390624252000-a-iringpic.jpg"/><meta property="og:image:width" content="400" /><meta property="og:image:height" content="400" /><meta property="og:title" content="NAMM 2014:  Use IK Multimedia's rings to make music"/><meta property="og:description" content="ANAHEIM, Calif. — Musicians often show off lots of ring bling —but rarely have rings been thought of for making music — until now."/><meta property="og:url" content="http://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/01/25/namm-2014---ik-multimedias-rings-to-make-music/4863193/"/><meta property="og:type" content="article"/><meta name="viewport" content="width=1070" /><link rel="shortcut icon" href="http://www.gannett-cdn.com/sites/usatoday/images/favicon.png"><!--[if gt IE 9]><!--><link data-identifier="main" rel="stylesheet" href="http://www.gannett-cdn.com/static/usat-web-static-14.2.1/css/bundles/main_modern.min.css"><!--<![endif]--><!--[if IE 9]><link data-identifier="main" rel="stylesheet" href="http://www.gannett-cdn.com/static/usat-web-static-14.2.1/css/bundles/main.min.css"><link data-identifier="main" rel="stylesheet" href="http://www.gannett-cdn.com/static/usat-web-static-14.2.1/css/bundles/dynamic.min.css"><![endif]--><!--[if lt IE 9]><link data-identifier="main" rel="stylesheet" href="/static/usat-web-static-14.2.1/css/bundles/main.min.css"><link data-identifier="main" rel="stylesheet" href="/static/usat-web-static-14.2.1/css/bundles/dynamic.min.css"><![endif]--><link rel="stylesheet" href="http://www.gannett-cdn.com/static/usat-web-static-14.2.1/css/print.css" media="print"><style></style><!--[if lt IE 9]><script src="http://www.gannett-cdn.com/static/usat-web-static-14.2.1/js/libs/respond/respond.min.js"></script><![endif]--><script type="text/javascript">
+        window.js_debug_chance = 0;
+        window.site_vars = {"aws_site_name": "usat", "sections": "news|sports|life|money|tech|travel|opinion|weather|home", "ads": {"poster_scroll_refresh_disabled": true}, "base_url": "usatoday.com"};
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+                                </p></div></div></div><div class="util-bar-flyout-close-ribbon"></div></div></div></div><div class="util-bar-secondary-modules"><div class="util-bar-module util-bar-module-print"><div
+                        class="util-bar-btn util-bar-btn-print"
+                        data-uotrack="UtilityBarPrintBtn"
+                        data-module-name="utility-bar-module-print"></div></div></div></div></div><section id="module-position-M8M1xNcEXZY" class="storytopbar-bucket sponsored-series-topbar-module"><div class="full content-bar content-bar-top"><div class="head"><div class="title content-bar-block"><h3 class="content-bar-heading">This story is part of <a href="/topic/7d0fe226-ca29-4b78-8ac6-8a40329381a7/talking-tech/" class="content-bar-em content-bar-block-link">Talking Tech</a></h3></div><div class="content-bar-block"><a href="/story/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/02/02/talking-tech--exercise-tracking-apps/5057969/"    class="content-bar-block-link" data-ht="topicbar1">Talking Tech | 3 fun, free exercise tracking apps</a></div><div class="content-bar-block"><a href="/story/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/02/01/talking-tech-facebook-10/5037085/"    class="content-bar-block-link" data-ht="topicbar2">Talking Tech: Facebook at 10: Will it be liked in &#39;24?</a></div><div class="content-bar-block"><a href="/videos/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/01/28/4945577/"    class="content-bar-block-link" data-ht="topicbar3">Smokey Robinson says &#39;social media is out of hand&#39;</a></div></div><span class="border"></span></div></section><section id="module-position-M8M1xNdYxWo" class="storytopbar-bucket story-headline-module"><h1 itemprop="headline">NAMM 2014:  Use IK Multimedia&#39;s rings to make music</h1></section><section id="module-position-M8M1xNcOjms" class="storytopbar-bucket priority-asset-module"><div id="module-position-M8M1xN_UmzI" class="story-priority-asset video-asset"><div class="video" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/VideoObject"><meta itemprop="width" content="880" /><meta itemprop="height" content="495" /><meta itemprop="thumbnailUrl" content="http://videos.usatoday.net/Brightcove2/29906170001/2014/01/29906170001_3103166837001_th-52e341f3e4b02691a71d600f-767904723001.jpg?pubId=29906170001" /><meta itemprop="contentURL" content="http://www.usatoday.com/videos/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/01/25/4867473/" /><meta itemprop="uploadDate" content="1/25/2014 12:49:46 AM" /><meta itemprop="expires" content="" /><div class="videoObject" style="width: 880px; height: 495px;"
+        data-keywords="IK Multimedia,technology,Talking tech,iring,namm"
+        data-videocontentprovider=""
+        data-cst="tech"
+        data-ssts="tech/columnist/talkingtech"
+        data-videourl="http://www.usatoday.com/videos/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/01/25/4867473/"
+        data-publisheddate="1/25/2014 12:49:46 AM"
+        data-brightcovevideoid="3103155719001"
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+         
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+><object id="myExperience923806" class="BrightcoveExperience"><param name="bgcolor" value="#FFFFFF" /><param name="playerID" value="1797379883001" /><param name="width" value="880" /><param name="height" value="495" /><param name="autoStart" value="true" /><param name="usat_shareFunction" value="function(){setTimeout(&quot;$('.util-bar-btn-email').click();&quot;, 1)}" /><param name="usat_linkurl" value="http://www.usatoday.com/videos/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/01/25/4867473/" /><param name="SSTSCode" value="tech/columnist/talkingtech/" /><param name="isVid" value="true" /><param name="isUI" value="true" /><param name="wmode" value="transparent" /><param name="htmlFallback" value="true" /><param name="usat_hasEmbed" value="true" /><param name="dynamicStreaming" value="true" /><param name="@videoPlayer" value="ref:4867473" /><param name="includeAPI" value="true" /><param name="templateLoadHandler" value="BCLoad" /></object></div></div><p class="video-desc" itemprop="description">How do you make digital music with rings? Jefferson Graham finds out at the NAMM show in Anaheim. <span class="credit"></span></p></div></section><section id="module-position-M8M1xNcc5pE" class="storytopbar-bucket story-byline-module"><div class="asset-metabar" itemprop="author" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/Person"><span itemprop="name" class="asset-metabar-author asset-metabar-item">
+        Jefferson Graham, USA TODAY
+    </span><span class="asset-metabar-time asset-metabar-item nobyline">3:53 p.m. EST January 25, 2014</span></div></section><div class="asset-double-wide double-wide" role="main" itemprop="articleBody"><div id="module-position-M8M1xN-o-lQ" class="story-asset story-metadata-asset"><div class="article-metadata-wrap"><section id="module-position-M8M1xN_RYb0" class="storymetadata-bucket expandable-photo-module"><aside itemprop="associatedMedia" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ImageObject" class="single-photo expandable-collapsed"><div class="image-wrap"><img class="expand-img-horiz" itemprop="url" src="http://www.gannett-cdn.com/-mm-/66f91d42091aeb4ed852d74ba954cbc9db77f53a/c=242-0-1678-1079&amp;r=x404&amp;c=534x401/local/-/media/USATODAY/test/2014/01/24//1390624252000-a-iringpic.jpg" alt="a_iringpic" /><span class="toggle"></span><meta itemprop="name" content="a_iringpic" /></div><p class="image-credit-wrap"><span class="cutline">IK Multimedia&#39;s new iRings will go on sale in the spring.</span><meta itemprop="copyrightHolder" content="" /><span class="credit">(Photo: Sean Fujiwara)</span></p></aside></section><section id="module-position-M8M1xN-cFEc" class="storymetadata-bucket story-highlights-module"><aside class="comp story-highlights"><h3 class="hlts">Story Highlights</h3><ul class="hlt"><li class="hlt-item">IK Multimedia unveils rings to make digital music</li><li class="hlt-item">Company best known for its iRig microphones that plug into Apple and Android devices</li><li class="hlt-item">The rings will go on sale in the spring for $29.99 for a pair</li></ul></aside></section></div></div><div id="module-position-M8M1xN_KoLk" class="story-asset inline-share-tools-asset"><div class="inline-share-tools asset-inline-share-tools asset-inline-share-tools-top"><span class="inline-share-tools-label">SHARE</span><span
+        class="inline-share-btn inline-share-btn-facebook"
+        data-share-method="facebook"
+        data-uotrack="InlineShareFacebookBtn"><span class="inline-share-count inline-share-count-facebook">
+            79
+        </span><span class="inline-share-btn-label inline-share-btn-label-facebook">CONNECT</span></span><a
+        class="inline-share-btn inline-share-btn-twitter"
+        data-share-method="twitter"
+        data-uotrack="InlineShareTwitterLink"
+        data-popup-width="550"
+        data-popup-height="450"
+        href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?url=http://usat.ly/1mUB5t9&amp;text=NAMM%202014:%20%20Use%20IK%20Multimedia's%20rings%20to%20make%20music&amp;via=usatoday"
+        target="_blank" data-popup><span class="inline-share-count inline-share-count-twitter">
+            32
+        </span><span class="inline-share-btn-label inline-share-btn-label-twitter">TWEET</span></a><span
+        class="inline-share-btn inline-share-btn-comments"
+        data-share-method="comments"
+        data-uotrack="InlineShareCommentsBtn"><span class="inline-share-count inline-share-count-comments"></span><span class="inline-share-btn-label inline-share-btn-label-comments">COMMENT</span></span><span
+        class="inline-share-btn inline-share-btn-email"
+        data-share-method="email"
+        data-uotrack="InlineShareEmailBtn"><span class="inline-share-count inline-share-count-email"></span><span class="inline-share-btn-label inline-share-btn-label-email">EMAIL</span></span><span
+        class="inline-share-btn inline-share-btn-more"
+        data-share-method="facebook"
+        data-uotrack="InlineShareMoreBtn"><span class="inline-share-count inline-share-count-more"></span><span class="inline-share-btn-label inline-share-btn-label-more">MORE</span></span></div></div><p>ANAHEIM, Calif. — Musicians often show  off lots of ring bling —but rarely have rings been thought of for making music — until now.</p><p>Modena, Italy-based tech firm IK Multimedia hopes to change that. It brought its iRings motion control technology to the National Association of Music Merchants show here. The idea is that music fans could soon start waving their hands at iPads and iPhones to make digital music with their fingers.</p><p>Here's how it works:</p><p>You put a ring on each hand (a set costs $24.99 and will be out in the spring) and wave them your Apple device's camera, which responds to it. Via IK's music apps, you can move the volume up and down, adjust effects, add beats to a song, or even play games. At its NAMM booth, IK showed off the possibilities of playing a variation on the classic video game classic Pong with rings, instead of controllers.</p><p>IK Multimedia is giving the SDK—the Software Developer's Kit—to app developers in the hope that they will begin creating additional apps to take advantage of the IK "touchless technology."</p><p>Follow <a href="http://twitter.com/jeffersongraham" title="http://twitter.com/jeffersongraham">Jefferson Graham</a> on Twitter.</p></div><aside class="story-right-rail"><section id="module-position-M8M1xN4Jn28" class="storyrightrail-bucket poster-ad-asset-module"><div class="partner-placement partner-asset-right-ad"></div></section><section id="module-position-M8M1xN56qK4" class="storyrightrail-bucket sponsored-series-module"><div class="story-ribbon"><h6 class="story-ribbon-title"><a class="series-head-link" href="/topic/7d0fe226-ca29-4b78-8ac6-8a40329381a7/talking-tech/">Talking Tech</a></h6><div class="story-ribbon-content"><ul class="series-promo-list"><li class="series-promo-item"><a class="series-promo-thumb-link" href="/story/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/02/02/talking-tech--exercise-tracking-apps/5057969/"   ><img src="http://www.gannett-cdn.com/-mm-/54d1480af402e0721bdd93d7485045649c87d406/r=x83&amp;c=80x80/http/videos.usatoday.net/Brightcove2/29906170001/2014/01/29906170001_3129891751001_vs-52eb2a05e4b01a5cc059f1a1-672293875001.jpg" width="80" height="80" alt="Runtastic, a fitness tracking app" class="series-promo-thumb"/><div class="play-btn-m series-promo-play-btn"></div></a><h6 class="series-promo-headline"><a class="series-promo-headline-link" href="/story/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/02/02/talking-tech--exercise-tracking-apps/5057969/"    data-ht="series1">Talking Tech | 3 fun, free exercise tracking apps</a></h6><div class="series-promo-meta">
+                        Jefferson Graham
+                    </div></li><li class="series-promo-item"><a class="series-promo-thumb-link" href="/story/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/02/01/talking-tech-facebook-10/5037085/"   ><img src="http://www.gannett-cdn.com/-mm-/54d1480af402e0721bdd93d7485045649c87d406/r=x83&amp;c=80x80/http/videos.usatoday.net/Brightcove2/29906170001/2014/01/29906170001_3123614174001_vs-52e97bdae4b05b53454d5a1b-1592194010001.jpg" width="80" height="80" alt="Allie Marion, an Orange County photographer, discusses Facebook." class="series-promo-thumb"/><div class="play-btn-m series-promo-play-btn"></div></a><h6 class="series-promo-headline"><a class="series-promo-headline-link" href="/story/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/02/01/talking-tech-facebook-10/5037085/"    data-ht="series2">Talking Tech: Facebook at 10: Will it be liked in &#39;24?</a></h6><div class="series-promo-meta">
+                        Jefferson Graham
+                    </div></li><li class="series-promo-item"><a class="series-promo-thumb-link" href="/videos/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/01/28/4945577/"   ><img src="http://www.gannett-cdn.com/-mm-/54d1480af402e0721bdd93d7485045649c87d406/r=x83&amp;c=80x80/http/videos.usatoday.net/Brightcove2/29906170001/2014/01/29906170001_3114173798001_vs-52e6c7b9e4b044677ef03a6f-1592194027001.jpg" width="80" height="80" alt="Smokey Robinson says &#39;social media is out of hand&#39;" class="series-promo-thumb"/><div class="play-btn-m series-promo-play-btn"></div></a><h6 class="series-promo-headline"><a class="series-promo-headline-link" href="/videos/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/01/28/4945577/"    data-ht="series3">Smokey Robinson says &#39;social media is out of hand&#39;</a></h6><div class="series-promo-meta">
+                        VPC
+                    </div></li><li class="series-promo-item"><a class="series-promo-thumb-link" href="/videos/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/01/27/4936583/"   ><img src="http://www.gannett-cdn.com/-mm-/54d1480af402e0721bdd93d7485045649c87d406/r=x83&amp;c=80x80/http/videos.usatoday.net/Brightcove2/29906170001/2014/01/29906170001_3109591653001_vs-52e5664ce4b02691a71d7a9a-672293877001.jpg" width="80" height="80" alt="NAMM 2014 | Todd Rundgren wins tech achievement award" class="series-promo-thumb"/><div class="play-btn-m series-promo-play-btn"></div></a><h6 class="series-promo-headline"><a class="series-promo-headline-link" href="/videos/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/01/27/4936583/"    data-ht="series4">NAMM 2014 | Todd Rundgren wins tech achievement award</a></h6></li><li class="series-promo-item"><a class="series-promo-thumb-link" href="/story/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/01/27/namm-2014--musician-todd-rundgren-nabs-les-paul-award-for-tech-acheivement/4929491/"   ><img src="http://www.gannett-cdn.com/-mm-/54d1480af402e0721bdd93d7485045649c87d406/r=x83&amp;c=80x80/http/videos.usatoday.net/Brightcove2/29906170001/2014/01/29906170001_3109591653001_vs-52e5664ce4b02691a71d7a9a-672293877001.jpg" width="80" height="80" alt="ANAHEIM, CA - JANUARY 24:  Musician Todd Rundgren attends the NAMM Tec Awards at the Anaheim Hilton on January 24, 2014 in Anaheim, California.  (Photo by Jesse Grant/Getty Images for NAMM)" class="series-promo-thumb"/><div class="play-btn-m series-promo-play-btn"></div></a><h6 class="series-promo-headline"><a class="series-promo-headline-link" href="/story/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/01/27/namm-2014--musician-todd-rundgren-nabs-les-paul-award-for-tech-acheivement/4929491/"    data-ht="series5">NAMM 2014 | Musician Todd Rundgren nabs Les Paul award for tech achievement</a></h6><div class="series-promo-meta">
+                        Jefferson Graham
+                    </div></li><li class="series-promo-item"><a class="series-promo-thumb-link" href="/videos/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/01/25/4893099/"   ><img src="http://www.gannett-cdn.com/-mm-/54d1480af402e0721bdd93d7485045649c87d406/r=x83&amp;c=80x80/http/videos.usatoday.net/Brightcove2/29906170001/2014/01/29906170001_3103533562001_vs-52e3658fe4b02691a71d6175-767904724001.jpg" width="80" height="80" alt="NAMM 2014 | New Fender Stratocasters" class="series-promo-thumb"/><div class="play-btn-m series-promo-play-btn"></div></a><h6 class="series-promo-headline"><a class="series-promo-headline-link" href="/videos/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/01/25/4893099/"    data-ht="series6">NAMM 2014 | New Fender Stratocasters</a></h6></li></ul></div></div></section><section id="module-position-M8M1xN4eIeA" class="storyrightrail-bucket usanow-module"><div class="story-ribbon"><h6 class="story-ribbon-title">
+USA NOW
+</h6><div class="story-ribbon-content"><div class="usanow-vid-container"><a href="/media/cinematic/video/5079909/super-bowl-bets-gone-wild-usa-now/" data-ht="usanowstoryrecirculation" class="media-list-link"><span class="thumbnail"><img src="http://www.gannett-cdn.com/-mm-/9eef7679603c8ad07f8d41160a412115caf9e5b5/r=x159&amp;c=280x156/local/-/media/USATODAY/USATODAY/2014/01/31//1391184640000-USA-NOW-still.jpg" class="thumb-img"><div class="play-btn-l usanow-vid-play"></div></span></a></div><h5 class="usanow-vid-title" >Super Bowl bets gone wild | USA NOW</h5><h5 class="usanow-vid-date">Jan 31, 2014</h5></div></div></section><section id="module-position-M8M1xN4MVn4" class="storyrightrail-bucket poster-ad-asset2-module"><div class="partner-asset-right-ad-2"><div class="partner-placement poster-scroll-ad"></div></div></section></aside><div class="recommended-flyout-container"><div class="recommended-flyout-wrap"><div class="recommended-flyout closed"></div></div><script type="text/template" id="recommended-flyout-template"><a href="<%= data.url %>" data-ht="recommendedflyout" class="recommended-flyout-link"><% if ((typeof data.image_1_1 !== 'undefined') && data.image_1_1.length > 0) { %><img src="<%= data.image_1_1 %>" alt="<%= data.title %>" class="recommended-flyout-content-image"/><% } %><h6 class="recommended-flyout-heading">Recommended for you</h6><h4 class="recommended-flyout-content-headline" data-link="<%= data.url %>"><%= data.title %></h4></a><span class="recommended-flyout-close">&#10006;</span></script></div><section id="module-position-M8M1xN7o1F4" class="storybottombar-bucket taboola-related-module"><div class="more more-stories-wrap"><div class="more-stories-content"><h3 class="more-stories">More Stories:</h3><div id="taboola-div-grid-2x4"></div><div id="taboola-div-verticalx8"></div></div></div><div class="clearfix"></div></section><section id="module-position-M8M1xN6CHNk" class="storybottombar-bucket sponsored-series-module"><div class="full content-bar content-bar-bottom"><span class="border"></span><div class="head"><div class="title content-bar-block"><h3 class="content-bar-heading">This story is part of <a href="/topic/7d0fe226-ca29-4b78-8ac6-8a40329381a7/talking-tech/" class="content-bar-em content-bar-block-link">Talking Tech</a></h3></div><div class="content-bar-block"><a href="/story/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/02/02/talking-tech--exercise-tracking-apps/5057969/"    class="content-bar-block-link" data-ht="topicbar1">Talking Tech | 3 fun, free exercise tracking apps</a></div><div class="content-bar-block"><a href="/story/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/02/01/talking-tech-facebook-10/5037085/"    class="content-bar-block-link" data-ht="topicbar2">Talking Tech: Facebook at 10: Will it be liked in &#39;24?</a></div><div class="content-bar-block"><a href="/videos/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/01/28/4945577/"    class="content-bar-block-link" data-ht="topicbar3">Smokey Robinson says &#39;social media is out of hand&#39;</a></div></div></div></section><!-- comscorekw=tech --><script type="json/pageinfo" class="pageinfo">
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diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_usatoday_issue_74.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_usatoday_issue_74.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..4ddb6b2d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_usatoday_issue_74.json
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/columnist/talkingtech/2014/01/25/namm-2014---ik-multimedias-rings-to-make-music/4863193/", 
+    "expected": {
+        "cleaned_text": "ANAHEIM, Calif. — Musicians often show off lots of ring bling —but rarely have rings been thought of for making music — until now."
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/yahoo1.txt b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_yahoo.html
similarity index 100%
rename from tests/data/statichtml/yahoo1.txt
rename to tests/data/extractors/content/test_yahoo.html
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/content/test_yahoo.json b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_yahoo.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..46aa1d0e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/content/test_yahoo.json
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://news.yahoo.com/apple-says-steve-jobs-resigning-ceo-224628633.html", 
+    "expected": {
+        "meta_description": "Read 'Apple says Steve Jobs resigning as CEO' on Yahoo! News. Steve Jobs, the mind behind the iPhone, iPad and other devices that turned Apple Inc. into one of the world's most powerful companies, resigned as CEO on Wednesday, saying he can no longer handle the job but will continue to play a leadership role.", 
+        "domain": "news.yahoo.com", 
+        "final_url": "http://news.yahoo.com/apple-says-steve-jobs-resigning-ceo-224628633.html", 
+        "meta_keywords": "", 
+        "cleaned_text": "SAN FRANCISCO (AP) \u2014 Steve Jobs, the mind behind the iPhone", 
+        "meta_favicon": "", 
+        "meta_lang": "en"
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/images/test_basic_image/50850547cc7310bc53e30e802c6318f1 b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_basic_image/50850547cc7310bc53e30e802c6318f1
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diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/images/test_basic_image/test_basic_image.html b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_basic_image/test_basic_image.html
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index 00000000..f4a2fad8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_basic_image/test_basic_image.html
@@ -0,0 +1,2269 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html> 
+<html lang="fr" xmlns:og="http://ogp.me/ns#">
+<head>
+    
+    <meta charset="utf-8">
+    <title>Ayrault «assume» et «revendique» sa méthode - Libération</title>
+    
+        
+            <link rel="canonical" href="http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2012/10/27/ayrault-assume-et-revendique-sa-methode_856451" />
+        
+    
+    
+    <script>
+    /*
+* JS Redirection Mobile
+*
+* Developed by
+* Sebastiano Armeli-Battana (@sebarmeli) - http://www.sebastianoarmelibattana.com
+* Dual licensed under the MIT or GPL Version 3 licenses.
+* @version 0.9.5
+* https://github.com/sebarmeli/JS-Redirection-Mobile-Site
+*/
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+                <h1>Ayrault «assume» et «revendique» sa méthode</h1>
+
+                <h5>
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+<span class="date">
+   <time itemprop="datePublished" datetime="2012-10-27T18:27:17+02:00">27 octobre 2012 à 18:27</time>
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+       (Mis à jour: <time itemprop="dateModified" datetime="2012-10-27T19:56:41+02:00">19:56</time>)
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+                        <img src="http://md0.libe.com/photo/465395/?modified_at=1351411813&amp;ratio_x=03&amp;ratio_y=02&amp;width=476" alt="Jean-Marc Ayrault, le 27 octobre 2012 à Toulouse" class="visual big" />
+                        <div class="legende">Jean-Marc Ayrault, le 27 octobre 2012 à Toulouse (Photo Lionel Bonaventure. AFP)</div>
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+                        <h2><span class="slug">Analyse</span> Après une semaine agitée, le Premier ministre s&#39;est offert un succès d&#39;estrade à bon compte lors du congrès du Parti socialiste à Toulouse.</h2>
+                    
+                    <div class="author">
+
+
+    Par <strong>LILIAN ALEMAGNA</strong>, <strong>LAURE BRETTON</strong> Envoyés spéciaux à Toulouse
+</div>
+                    
+                        <p>A Toulouse, Jean-Marc Ayrault aura fait deux rappels sur scène. Le premier, seul, une fois son discours sur le «nouveau modèle français» bouclé. Les bras en V avant de faire celui qui montre ses muscles puis de joindre ses deux mains sur la poitrine, saluant les congressistes à l’asiatique. Pour le second, il aura fallu un conseil glissé en toute hâte à l’oreille du Premier ministre par l’un de ses proches pour qu’il pense à regrimper les marches en compagnie du nouveau premier secrétaire du Parti socialiste Harlem Désir.</p>
+<p>Après les turbulences de la semaine – <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/societe/2012/10/24/les-sages-annulent-la-loi-sur-le-logement-social_855514" target="_self">projet de loi annulé</a>, bourdes de communication et chômage qui n’en finit plus d’augmenter – le chef du gouvernement avait bien besoin de cette longue onction militante. D’ailleurs, au milieu d’un discours sans claquettes, Ayrault s’est offert un succès d’estrade à bon compte en défendant la laïcité et le non-cumul des mandats. Pour les réformes de société, le chef du gouvernement rappelle son engagement en faveur du mariage pour tous, de l'égalité entre les femmes et les hommes et le l’intégration de tous dans la République.</p>
+<p class="others"><span>A lire aussi :</span> <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2012/10/27/le-dernier-job-de-martine-aubry_856442" target="_self">Notre récit du discours de Martine Aubry</a></p>
+<p>Mais ne citera pas cette fois le droit de vote des étrangers, que certains dans la majorité préféreraient pour l’instant repousser. Le <em>«nouveau modèle français»</em>, c’est la réponse à la demande de perspective et de cap, plaide l’entourage du Premier ministre. Après les premières décisions difficiles, <em>«on dit à quoi peuvent conduire les efforts»</em>, ajoute-t-on de même source. Un Etat mieux organisé, plus écolo, plus juste, des institutions rééquilibrées et <em>«une France qui pèse et qui s’engage en Europe et dans le monde (...) Voilà, ce qui est au bout des efforts»</em>, assure Ayrault en scène.</p>
+<h3> Le plaidoyer du temps long</h3>
+<p>Pour le reste, après <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2012/10/27/le-dernier-job-de-martine-aubry_856442" target="_self">l’allocution de combat de Martine Aubry</a>, le Premier ministre a fait de la défense de sa méthode de gouvernement l’alpha et l’omega de son intervention. <em>«J’assume le choix de la négociation au risque d'être parfois critiqué sur le rythme des réformes»</em>, dit-il, à l’heure où les impatiences s’accumulent. Avant de répéter une demi-douzaine de fois la formule <em>«j’assume»</em> et de dresser la liste des avancées sociales du gouvernement, de l’accord <em>«historique»</em> sur les <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/societe/2012/10/23/honoraires-medicaux-un-accord-au-forceps_855467" target="_self">dépassements d’honoraires</a> aux <em>«contrats de génération»</em>. <em>«Non seulement j’assume mais je revendique cette méthode»</em> de négociation sociale. Un à un les ministres qui ont fait le déplacement de Toulouse ont relayé ce plaidoyer du temps long. <em>«Il faut intégrer ce que les socialistes n’intègrent pas : la durée. Nous sommes là pour un quinquennat»</em>, plaide Manuel Valls après son discours à la tribune.</p>
+<p>En chef de la majorité, Ayrault livre bataille contre la droite. Son adversaire est tout trouvé, c’est François Fillon, dont il ne cite pas le nom quand il dénonce <em>«l’aveu accablant»</em> de son prédécesseur à Matignon sur le <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/economie/2012/10/26/sarkozy-a-demande-a-psa-de-repousser-son-plan-social-apres-la-presidentielle_856099" target="_self">plan social de PSA repoussé après la présidentielle</a>. <em>«Combien d’autres plans sociaux retardés pour un plan avoué. Quel cynisme, quel mépris du peuple et du monde du travail. C’est la vieille droite bourgeoise dont le pays ne veut plus.»</em> La phrase fait mouche. Même si, en trente minutes, le Premier ministre n’aura pas prononcé les mots <em>«ouvrier»</em> ou <em>«licenciement»</em> malgré un discours entièrement centré sur la <em>«crise»</em>.</p>
+<p class="others"><span>A lire aussi :</span> <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2012/10/27/valls-applaudi-mais-pas-acclame-a-toulouse_856405" target="_self">La fierté de Manuel Valls d'être dans le gouvernement Ayrault</a></p>
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+                <div class="item article">
+                    <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2012/10/24/ayrault-en-flagrant-delit-d-amateurisme_855762">
+                        
+                            <img src="http://md0.libe.com/photo/464922/?modified_at=1351181814&amp;ratio_x=01&amp;ratio_y=01&amp;width=84" class="visual" />
+                        
+                        <h5>Ayrault en flagrant délit d’amateurisme ?</h5>
+                    </a>
+                    <p>Après avoir annoncé l’invalidation de la  loi Duflot, le Premier ministre a été la cible de la droite, qui condamne des couacs à répétition.</p>
+                    <div class="clear"></div>
+                </div>
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+                    <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2012/10/24/jean-marc-ayrault-le-bouc-emissaire_855669">
+                        
+                        <h5>Jean-Marc Ayrault, le bouc émissaire</h5>
+                    </a>
+                    <p>La presse est versatile et les médias sont frivoles. Avant les vacances de cet été, Jean-Marc Ayrault, tout juste nommé Premier ministre, était l’homme à la mode.</p>
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+            
+    <h2 class="noclass">Suivez en direct la fin du congrès socialiste à Toulouse</h2>
+
+            
+  
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+  
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+        <p class="subtitle">
+            
+            
+            
+                <span class="slug">vidéo</span> Après les discours de Martine Aubry et Jean-Marc Ayrault samedi, le nouveau premier secrétaire Harlem Désir va clore le 76e congrès du PS ce dimanche. Avec notre partenaire Public Sénat.
+            
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+            <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2012/10/28/suivez-en-direct-la-fin-du-congres-socialiste-a-toulouse_856485" class="lnk-comments">Commenter</a>
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+                        
+                            <li ><span> Analyse</span><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2012/10/26/le-parti-socialiste-en-pleine-crise-de-majorite_856330">Le Parti socialiste en pleine crise de majorité</a></li>
+                        
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+        <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/economie/2012/10/28/le-pacte-de-croissance-des-grands-patrons-a-hollande_856493">
+            
+                <h3 class="noclass">Le «pacte de croissance» des grands patrons à Hollande</h3>
+            
+            
+  
+    <img src="http://md0.libe.com/photo/465383/?modified_at=1351418189&amp;ratio_x=23&amp;ratio_y=13&amp;width=476" alt="François Hollande à l&#39;Elysée à Paris, le 26 octobre 2012." class="visual big" />
+  
+
+        </a>
+        <p class="subtitle">
+            
+            
+            
+                Baisse des cotisations sociales, de la dépense publique, de l&#39;impôt sur les sociétés... Voici ce que demandent les grands patrons français dans un appel au président de la République.
+            
+        </p>
+        
+        
+        
+            
+    
+        
+        <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/economie/2012/10/28/commentaires/le-pacte-de-croissance-des-grands-patrons-a-hollande_856493" rel="nofollow" class="lnk-comments">78 commentaires</a>
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+                    <ul class="list-linked-items">
+                        
+                            <li ><span> Pour mémoire</span><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2012/10/25/hollande-demine-le-couac-de-competitivite_856080">Hollande démine le couac de compétitivité</a></li>
+                        
+                            <li ><span> Pour mémoire</span><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/economie/2012/10/25/le-cout-du-travail-seul-coupable_856033">Le coût du travail, seul coupable ?</a></li>
+                        
+                        
+                        
+                    </ul>
+                
+            
+            <div class="clear"></div>
+        </div>
+    
+</div>
+
+
+                    
+                
+            
+                                    
+                    
+                        
+
+<div class="mini-tpl">
+    <div class="item article">
+    
+        
+    
+        <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/monde/2012/10/28/une-haute-responsable-de-l-eta-arretee-en-france_856492">
+            
+                <h3 class="noclass">Une haute responsable de l&#39;ETA arrêtée en France</h3>
+            
+            
+                
+            
+        </a>
+        <p class="subtitle">
+            
+            
+            
+                La femme, Isaskun Lesaka, a été arrêtée par les policiers du RAID en compagnie d’un autre membre présumé du groupe près de Macon.
+            
+        </p>
+        
+        
+        
+            
+    
+        
+        <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/monde/2012/10/28/commentaires/une-haute-responsable-de-l-eta-arretee-en-france_856492" rel="nofollow" class="lnk-comments">1 commentaire</a>
+    
+
+
+        
+        <div class="clear"></div>
+    </div>
+    
+        <div class="others">
+            
+                
+                
+            
+            <div class="clear"></div>
+        </div>
+    
+</div>
+
+
+                    
+                
+            
+                                    
+                    
+                        
+
+<div class="mini-tpl">
+    <div class="item article">
+    
+        
+    
+        <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/societe/2012/10/28/un-ferry-de-la-sncm-prend-l-eau-dans-le-port-de-marseille_856499">
+            
+  <h2 class="noclass">Un ferry de la SNCM prend l&#39;eau dans le port de Marseille
+</h2>
+
+            
+
+        </a>
+        <p class="subtitle">
+            
+            
+            
+        </p>
+        
+        
+        
+            
+    
+        
+        <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/societe/2012/10/28/commentaires/un-ferry-de-la-sncm-prend-l-eau-dans-le-port-de-marseille_856499" rel="nofollow" class="lnk-comments">3 commentaires</a>
+    
+
+
+        
+        <div class="clear"></div>
+    </div>
+    
+        <div class="others">
+            
+                
+                
+            
+            <div class="clear"></div>
+        </div>
+    
+</div>
+
+
+                    
+                
+            
+                                    
+                    
+                        
+
+<div class="mini-tpl">
+    <div class="item article">
+    
+        
+    
+        <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/societe/2012/10/28/six-departements-maintenus-en-vigilance-orange_856496">
+            
+                <h3 class="noclass">Six départements maintenus en vigilance orange</h3>
+            
+            
+  
+    <img src="http://md0.libe.com/photo/465374/?modified_at=1351418489&amp;ratio_x=23&amp;ratio_y=05&amp;width=476" alt="Une route enneigée." class="visual pano" />
+  
+
+        </a>
+        <p class="subtitle">
+            
+            
+            
+                Sont concernés l’Ardèche, la Drôme et l’Isère jusqu&#39;à 21h00, les Bouches-du-Rhône, le Vaucluse et les Pyrénées-Orientales jusqu&#39;à 22h00.
+            
+        </p>
+        
+        
+        
+            
+    
+        
+        <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/societe/2012/10/28/commentaires/six-departements-maintenus-en-vigilance-orange_856496" rel="nofollow" class="lnk-comments">1 commentaire</a>
+    
+
+
+        
+        <div class="clear"></div>
+    </div>
+    
+        <div class="others">
+            
+                
+                
+                    <ul class="list-linked-items">
+                        
+                            <li style="display: none;"><span> L&#39;actu</span><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/societe/2012/10/28/tempete-disparition-d-un-enfant-dans-le-var-d-un-veliplanchiste-dans-l-herault_856498">Tempête : disparition d&#39;un enfant dans le Var, d&#39;un véliplanchiste dans l&#39;Hérault
+</a></li>
+                        
+                        
+                        
+                            <li class="more-linked-items"><span>+ <a href="#" onclick="$(this).parents('li').fadeOut(function() {$('li:hidden:not(.more-linked-items)', $(this).parents('ul')).fadeIn()}); return false">Sur le sujet</a></span></li>
+                        
+                    </ul>
+                
+            
+            <div class="clear"></div>
+        </div>
+    
+</div>
+
+
+                    
+                
+            
+                                    
+                    
+                        
+
+<div class="mini-tpl">
+    <div class="item article">
+    
+        
+    
+        <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/societe/2012/10/28/tempete-disparition-d-un-enfant-dans-le-var-d-un-veliplanchiste-dans-l-herault_856498">
+            
+                <h3 class="noclass">Tempête : disparition d&#39;un enfant dans le Var, d&#39;un véliplanchiste dans l&#39;Hérault
+</h3>
+            
+            
+                
+            
+        </a>
+        <p class="subtitle">
+            
+            
+            
+                Les recherches se poursuivent ce dimanche matin.
+            
+        </p>
+        
+        
+        
+            
+    
+        
+            <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/societe/2012/10/28/tempete-disparition-d-un-enfant-dans-le-var-d-un-veliplanchiste-dans-l-herault_856498" class="lnk-comments">Commenter</a>
+        
+    
+
+
+        
+        <div class="clear"></div>
+    </div>
+    
+        <div class="others">
+            
+                
+                
+                    <ul class="list-linked-items">
+                        
+                            <li style="display: none;"><span> L&#39;actu</span><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/societe/2012/10/28/six-departements-maintenus-en-vigilance-orange_856496">Six départements maintenus en vigilance orange</a></li>
+                        
+                        
+                        
+                            <li class="more-linked-items"><span>+ <a href="#" onclick="$(this).parents('li').fadeOut(function() {$('li:hidden:not(.more-linked-items)', $(this).parents('ul')).fadeIn()}); return false">Sur le sujet</a></span></li>
+                        
+                    </ul>
+                
+            
+            <div class="clear"></div>
+        </div>
+    
+</div>
+
+
+                    
+                
+            
+                                    
+                    
+                        
+
+<div class="mini-tpl">
+    <div class="item article">
+    
+        
+    
+        <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/monde/2012/10/28/la-campagne-americaine-perturbee-par-l-ouragan-sandy_856480">
+            
+    <h2 class="noclass">La campagne américaine perturbée par l&#39;ouragan Sandy</h2>
+
+            
+  
+    <img src="http://md0.libe.com/photo/465437/?modified_at=1351413323&amp;ratio_x=23&amp;ratio_y=13&amp;width=476" alt="Barack Obama à Nashua, dans le New Hampshire, le 27 octobre 2012." class="visual big" />
+  
+
+        </a>
+        <p class="subtitle">
+            
+            
+            
+                Barack Obama et son rival républicain Mitt Romney doivent adapter leurs déplacements à l&#39;ouragan, qui se rapproche de la côte Atlantique des Etats-Unis.
+            
+        </p>
+        
+        
+        
+            
+    
+        
+        <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/monde/2012/10/28/commentaires/la-campagne-americaine-perturbee-par-l-ouragan-sandy_856480" rel="nofollow" class="lnk-comments">11 commentaires</a>
+    
+
+
+        
+        <div class="clear"></div>
+    </div>
+    
+        <div class="others">
+            
+                
+                
+                    <ul class="list-linked-items">
+                        
+                        
+                            <li><span>Dossier</span><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/elections-americaines-2012,100118">Élections américaines</a></li>
+                        
+                        
+                    </ul>
+                
+            
+            <div class="clear"></div>
+        </div>
+    
+</div>
+
+
+                    
+                
+            
+                                    
+                    
+                        
+
+<div class="mini-tpl">
+    <div class="item article">
+    
+        
+    
+        <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/economie/2012/10/28/la-grece-va-devoir-mener-encore-150-reformes_856484">
+            
+                <h3 class="noclass">La Grèce va devoir mener encore 150 réformes</h3>
+            
+            
+
+        </a>
+        <p class="subtitle">
+            
+
+            
+                C&#39;est du moins ce que vont exiger les créanciers internationaux, selon des informations de l&#39;hebdomadaire allemand Der Spiegel.
+            
+        </p>
+        
+        
+        
+            
+    
+        
+        <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/economie/2012/10/28/commentaires/la-grece-va-devoir-mener-encore-150-reformes_856484" rel="nofollow" class="lnk-comments">37 commentaires</a>
+    
+
+
+        
+        <div class="clear"></div>
+    </div>
+    
+        <div class="others">
+            
+                
+                
+            
+            <div class="clear"></div>
+        </div>
+    
+</div>
+
+
+                    
+                
+            
+        </div>
+    </div>
+    <!-- // Block -->
+
+
+    
+
+        </div>
+        <!-- // 17 units -->
+        
+        <!-- 11 units on 29 -->
+        <div class="col w11unit col-contextual m-bot-s3">
+        
+    <!-- Linked Items -->
+    
+    
+    <!-- Block - Same Subject -->
+    <div class="block">
+        <div class="block-top">
+            <h5>+ Sur le sujet</h5>
+        </div>
+        <div class="block-content">
+            <ul>
+                
+                    <li><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2012/10/24/ayrault-en-flagrant-delit-d-amateurisme_855762">Ayrault en flagrant délit d’amateurisme ?</a></li>
+                
+                    <li><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2012/10/24/jean-marc-ayrault-le-bouc-emissaire_855669">Jean-Marc Ayrault, le bouc émissaire</a></li>
+                
+            </ul>
+        </div>
+    </div>
+    <!-- // Block -->
+
+
+    <div class="ad-square">
+        <div class="block-ad">
+    <script type="text/javascript"> 
+        var sas_formatid = 163;
+        var sas_pageid = "252/83806";
+        var sas_target = "support=article;objectId=article856451";
+
+        
+            displayAd(document, sas_pageid, sas_formatid, sas_target, "square1");
+        
+    </script>
+</div>
+
+    </div>
+
+    
+    <div class="block">
+        <div class="block-top">+ Dans la même rubrique</div>
+        <div class="block-content">
+            <ul>
+                
+                    
+                    <li><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2012/10/28/suivez-en-direct-la-fin-du-congres-socialiste-a-toulouse_856485">Suivez en direct la fin du congrès socialiste à Toulouse</a></li>
+                    
+                
+                    
+                
+                    
+                    <li><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2012/10/27/le-dernier-job-de-martine-aubry_856442">Le dernier job de Martine Aubry</a></li>
+                    
+                
+                    
+                    <li><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2012/10/27/maurel-nous-sommes-du-cote-des-canards-boiteux_856446">Maurel : «Nous sommes du côté des canards boiteux !»</a></li>
+                    
+                
+            </ul>
+        </div>
+    </div>
+
+
+
+    <div class="ad-square">
+        <div class="block-ad">
+    <script type="text/javascript"> 
+        var sas_formatid = 1169;
+        var sas_pageid = "252/83806";
+        var sas_target = "support=article;objectId=article856451";
+
+        
+            displayAd(document, sas_pageid, sas_formatid, sas_target, "partnersquare1");
+        
+    </script>
+</div>
+
+    </div>
+
+    
+        
+
+
+
+    
+    
+    
+
+<!-- Iframe partner SHOPPING -->
+<div class="block block-iframe block-ad iframe-replace m-bot-s2" data-iframewidth="300" data-iframeheight="280" data-iframesrc="http://shoppingbox.liberation.fr/liberation/001_mise_en_avant.htm" data-iframeisfromlibe="0">
+    
+    <div class="block-top">
+        
+        <span class="right">avec <a href="http://leguide.com"><strong>LeGuide.com</strong></a></span>
+        
+        Shopping
+    </div>
+    
+    <div class="block-content">
+    </div>
+</div>
+<!-- // Iframe partner -->
+
+    
+    
+
+    
+<!-- Block - Articles most viewed or commented -->
+<div class="block">
+    <div class="block-top">
+        <span class="right"><a href="#" class="on" onclick="return false;">Vus</a></span>Articles les +
+    </div>
+    <div class="block-content">
+        <ul class="list-links list-itemsmost">
+            
+                <li><strong>1.</strong> <a href="http://next.liberation.fr/sexe/2012/10/25/le-baiser-qui-fait-mal-aux-opposants-au-mariage-gay_855861">Le baiser qui fait mal aux opposants au mariage gay</a></li>
+            
+                <li><strong>2.</strong> <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/economie/2012/10/24/le-president-de-mitsubishi-france-traite-montebourg-d-abruti-mental_855565">Le président de Mitsubishi France traite Montebourg d&#39;«abruti mental»</a></li>
+            
+                <li><strong>3.</strong> <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/societe/2012/10/24/tarnac-le-releve-bancaire-qui-change-la-donne_855589">Tarnac, le relevé bancaire qui change la donne</a></li>
+            
+                <li><strong>4.</strong> <a href="http://next.liberation.fr/cinema/2012/10/24/les-pires-repliques-de-james-bond_855563">Les pires répliques de James Bond</a></li>
+            
+                <li><strong>5.</strong> <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/societe/2012/10/25/la-suspension-des-allocations-familiales-efficace-contre-l-absenteisme-scolaire_855918">La suspension des allocs efficace contre l&#39;absentéisme scolaire ?</a></li>
+            
+                <li><strong>6.</strong> <a href="http://next.liberation.fr/sexe/2012/10/24/737-000-dollars-la-difference-de-prix-entre-la-virginite-d-une-femme-et-d-un-homme_855542">777 000 dollars, la différence de prix entre la virginité d’une femme et d’un homme</a></li>
+            
+                <li><strong>7.</strong> <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2012/10/26/debat-ump-comment-fillon-a-dejoue-les-pieges-de-cope_856086">Débat UMP : comment Fillon a déjoué les pièges de Copé</a></li>
+            
+                <li><strong>8.</strong> <a href="http://next.liberation.fr/musique/2012/10/26/concert-des-rolling-stones-le-public-etait-totalement-dechaine_856130">Concert des Rolling Stones : «Le public était totalement déchaîné»</a></li>
+            
+                <li><strong>9.</strong> <a href="http://next.liberation.fr/cinema/2012/10/25/skyfall-eloge-de-la-debondade_856021">«Skyfall», éloge de la déBondade</a></li>
+            
+                <li><strong>10.</strong> <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/societe/2012/10/27/la-cour-des-comptes-finit-d-egratigner-sciences-po_856422">La Cour des comptes finit d&#39;égratigner Sciences Po</a></li>
+            
+        </ul>
+    </div>
+</div>
+<!-- // Block -->
+
+
+
+    <div class="ad-square">
+        <div class="block-ad">
+    <script type="text/javascript"> 
+        var sas_formatid = 828;
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+        
+            displayAd(document, sas_pageid, sas_formatid, sas_target, "square2");
+        
+    </script>
+</div>
+
+    </div>
+    
+    
+<!-- AD - Ligatus -->
+<div class="ad-ligatus m-bot-s4 block-ad">
+    <script type="text/javascript">
+        var content = '<scr' + 'ipt type="text/javascript" src="http://a.ligatus.com/?ids=18028&amp;t=js"></scr' + 'ipt>';
+        writeAd(document, content, "ligatus_18028");
+    </script>    
+</div>
+<!-- // AD -->
+
+
+    <div class="ad-square">
+        <div class="block-ad">
+    <script type="text/javascript"> 
+        var sas_formatid = 92;
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+
+        
+            displayAd(document, sas_pageid, sas_formatid, sas_target, "square3");
+        
+    </script>
+</div>
+
+    </div>
+
+    <!-- Empty your brain ads -->
+
+<div class="OUTBRAIN" data-src="http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2012/10/27/ayrault-assume-et-revendique-sa-methode_856451" data-widget-id="AR_2" data-ob-template="liberation" ></div>
+
+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://widgets.outbrain.com/outbrain.js"></script>
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+
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+        </div>
+        <!-- // 11 units -->
+    
+        <!-- FLOAT CLEAR -->
+        <div class="clear"></div>
+
+    </div>
+    <!-- // Column 10 -->
+    
+    <!-- 5 units on 35 -->
+    <div class="col w5unit col-part">
+    
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+
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+    <div class="block ">
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+<div class="block block-iframe block-ad iframe-replace m-bot-s2" data-iframewidth="140" data-iframeheight="185" data-iframesrc="http://trf.greatviews.de/pl?m320=1351421397&amp;m315=f&amp;q=mjCFjLRQUwjjwuc_nB6bPJDU" data-iframeisfromlibe="0">
+    
+    <div class="block-content">
+    </div>
+</div>
+<!-- // Iframe partner -->
+
+    </div>
+
+    </div>
+</div>
+
+
+    <div class="block  block-ad">
+    <div class="block-top">
+       Notre comparateur
+    </div>
+    <div class="block-content">
+    
+
+    
+
+    <p class="center" class="m-bot-s2">
+        <a href="http://www.easyvoyage.com/" target="_blank">
+            <img src="http://s0.libe.com/libepartnerships/easy_voyage/img/logo.jpg" alt="logo easy voyage" class="visual" />
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+
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+    
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+<!-- // Iframe partner -->
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+    </div>
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+
+
+    <div class="block ">
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+    </div>
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+    
+        <a href="http://livre-photo.liberation.fr/">
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+            
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+    
+    </div>
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+
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+    <div class="block ">
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+    </div>
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+        <a href="http://cours-anglais.liberation.fr/liberate-your-english/redirect?url=http://cours-anglais.liberation.fr/liberate-your-english/should-we-change-popes&amp;amp;rrfextension=LYE-SHOULD-WE-CHANGE-POPES">
+            
+                <img src="http://m0.libe.com/libepartnerships/businesspartner_photo/2012/09/06/popes.png" alt="Cours d&#39;anglais" class="visual" />
+            
+            
+        </a>
+    
+    </div>
+</div>
+
+
+    <div class="block ">
+    <div class="block-top">
+       Audience
+    </div>
+    <div class="block-content">
+    
+        <a href="http://www.ojd-internet.com/chiffres">
+            
+                <img src="http://m0.libe.com/libepartnerships/businesspartner_photo/2011/08/14/OJD.gif" alt="Audience" class="visual" />
+            
+            
+            <p>
+                <strong>La fréquentation de ce site est certifiée OJD</strong>
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+                <img src="http://m0.libe.com/libepartnerships/businesspartner_photo/2012/10/23/primeur.jpeg" alt="Partenariat" class="visual" />
+            
+            
+        </a>
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+    </div>
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+    <div class="block ">
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+    </div>
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+        <a href="http://www.liberation.fr/mobile/">
+            
+                <img src="http://m0.libe.com/libepartnerships/businesspartner_photo/2011/08/25/iphone.png" alt="Libé sur iPhone" class="visual" />
+            
+            
+            <p>
+                <strong>Découvrez Libé sur votre iPhone</strong>
+            </p>
+            
+        </a>
+    
+    </div>
+</div>
+
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+
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+
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+    </div>
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+        </a>
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+    </div>
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+            
+                <img src="http://m0.libe.com/libegifts/gift_photo/2012/10/24/TNB_MES_133x250_LIBE.jpg" alt="Venez assister au festival Mettre en Scène au Théâtre National de Bretagne" class="visual" />
+            
+        </a>
+    </div>
+</div>
+
+
+    
+    </div>
+    <!-- // 5 units -->
+
+        
+        
+
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+    <div class="clear"></div>
+
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+        </div>
+        
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+                    <li><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/">A la Une</a></li>
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+                    <li><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/politiques,11">Politiques</a></li>
+                    
+                
+                    <li><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/societe,12">Société</a></li>
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+                    <li><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/ecofutur,100181">EcoFutur</a></li>
+                    
+                        </ul><ul>
+                    
+                
+                    <li><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/medias,62">Médias</a></li>
+                    
+                
+                    <li><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/vous,15">Vous</a></li>
+                    
+                
+                    <li><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/sports,14">Sports</a></li>
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+                
+                    <li><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/terre,89">Terre</a></li>
+                    
+                
+                    <li><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/sciences,90">Sciences</a></li>
+                    
+                
+                    <li><a href=""></a></li>
+                    
+                
+                    <li><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/desintox,99721">Désintox</a></li>
+                    
+                
+            </ul>
+        </div>
+        <div class="services">
+            <h5>Services</h5>
+            <ul>
+                
+                    <li><a href="http://emploi.liberation.fr">Emploi</a></li>
+                    
+                
+                    <li><a href="http://pointscommuns.liberation.fr/">Rencontres</a></li>
+                    
+                
+                    <li><a href="http://petites-annonces.liberation.fr/">Petites annonces</a></li>
+                    
+                
+                    <li><a href="http://cours-anglais.liberation.fr">Cours d&#39;anglais</a></li>
+                    
+                
+                    <li><a href="http://shopping.liberation.fr">Shopping</a></li>
+                    
+                
+                    <li><a href="http://boutiqueliberation.myshopify.com">Anciens numéros</a></li>
+                    
+                
+                    <li><a href="http://liberation.spreadshirt.fr">T-shirts</a></li>
+                    
+                
+                    <li><a href=" http://petites-annonces.liberation.fr">Petites annonces</a></li>
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+                        </ul><ul>
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+                
+                    <li><a href="http://tele.liberation.fr/programmes-tv/ce-soir.html">Programme TV</a></li>
+                    
+                
+                    <li><a href="http://libefood.liberation.fr/la-fourchette">Restaurants</a></li>
+                    
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+            </ul>
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+        <li class="first">&copy; Libération</li>
+        <li><a href="/contacts/">Contacts</a></li>
+        <li><a href="http://www.espaces-liberation.fr/">Publicité</a></li>
+        <li><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/licence/">Licence</a></li>
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+        <li><a href="http://www.liberation.fr/rss/">RSS</a></li>
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+    </ul>
+        <ul>
+        <li class="first">Un site de Libération Network</li>
+        <li>Site hébergé par <a title="Pilot Systems" href="http://www.pilotsystems.net/">
+        <strong>Pilot Systems</strong></a></li>
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+
+    
+
+            
+                <div class="block-ad">
+    <script type="text/javascript"> 
+        var sas_formatid = 94;
+        var sas_pageid = "252/83806";
+        var sas_target = "support=article;objectId=article856451";
+
+        
+            displayAd(document, sas_pageid, sas_formatid, sas_target, "dhtml");
+        
+    </script>
+</div>
+
+            
+            
+            
+        </div>
+    </div>
+    
+    
+    
+
+
+    <div id="bar-liberation" data-url="/monlibe/bar/" data-nextparam="/politiques/2012/10/27/ayrault-assume-et-revendique-sa-methode_856451"> 
+        <div class="content">
+            <!-- First spaces -->
+            <div class="close">
+                <a href="#">x</a>
+            </div>
+            <div class="open">
+                <a href="#">
+                    <span class="arrow"></span>
+                    Avec MonLibé, commentez l'actualité
+                </a>
+            </div>
+            <div class="login">
+                <h3>Commentez et archivez gratuitement vos articles favoris avec MonLibé</h3>
+                <a href="/accounts/register/" class="subscribe">Je m'inscris</a>
+                <span>ou</span><a href="/jogger/login/" class="connect">se connecter</a>
+            </div>
+            <!-- // First spaces -->
+            <!-- Popin Contents -->
+            <div id="login-box-content">
+                <form id="bar-liberation-loginform" action="/jogger/login/" method="post">
+<ul>
+<li><label for="bar-liberation-email">Email:</label> <input id="bar-liberation-email" type="text" name="email" maxlength="75" /></li>
+<li><label for="bar-liberation-password">Mot de passe:</label> <input type="password" name="password" id="bar-liberation-password" /></li>
+<li><label for="bar-liberation-remember_me">Se souvenir de moi:</label> <input type="checkbox" name="remember_me" id="bar-liberation-remember_me" /></li>
+<li class="btn-basic"><input type="submit" id="bar-liberation-loginbox_submit" value="S'identifier"/></li>
+</ul>
+</form>
+
+                <p class="forgot-password"> <a href="/accounts/password_reset/">Mot de passe oublié ?</a> </p>
+            </div>
+            <!-- // Popin Contents -->
+        </div>
+    </div>
+
+
+
+    
+    
+    
+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://s0.libe.com/cache/js/0a42e353e1a3.js"></script>
+
+
+    <script type="text/javascript" src="http://s0.libe.com/cache/js/30dd9115c381.js"></script>
+
+    <script type='text/javascript'>
+        var ezMarkerType = 'asq';
+        var ezC = ["g:liberation","d:liberation","flt:0", "cat:politiques"];
+        var ezFmt = 'liberation';
+        (function(){
+           var s = document.createElement("script");
+           s.type = "text/javascript";
+           s.src = document.location.protocol + "//asq.ezakus.net/marker/";
+           s.async = true;
+           var head = document.head || document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0];
+           head.appendChild(s);
+        })();
+    </script>
+
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+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://s0.libe.com/cache/js/d0c9cf05c387.js"></script>
+    
+
+    
+    
+    
+
+
+    <script type="text/javascript">
+        <!--
+        xtnv = document;        //parent.document or top.document or document
+        xtsd = "http://logliberation";
+        xtsite = "381060";
+        xtn2 = "2";        // level 2
+        xtpage = "article::ayrault-assume-et-revendique-sa-methode-856451";        //page name (with the use of :: to create chapters)
+        xtdi = "";        //implication degree
+        //-->
+    </script>
+    <noscript>
+        <img width="1" height="1" alt="xiti" src="http://logliberation.xiti.com/hit.xiti?s=381060&amp;s2=2&amp;p=article::ayrault-assume-et-revendique-sa-methode-856451&amp;di=&amp;" >
+    </noscript>
+
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+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://s0.libe.com/cache/js/1883037ffeac.js"></script>
+
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+    <img id="hit-count" src="http://hitcount.liberation.fr/pix.gif?url=/politiques/2012/10/27/ayrault-assume-et-revendique-sa-methode_856451" alt="" />
+
+
+
+    <!-- email reflex -->
+    <img src="http://email-reflex.com/tags/target.php?source=122&amp;pid=856451" alt="" width="0" height="0" style="display:none;" />
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/images/test_basic_image/test_basic_image.json b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_basic_image/test_basic_image.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..322c79fd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_basic_image/test_basic_image.json
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/2013/02/08/stand-up-guys/", 
+    "expected": {
+        "top_image": {
+            "extraction_type": "bigimage", 
+            "src": "http://md0.libe.com/photo/465395/?modified_at=1351411813&ratio_x=03&ratio_y=02&width=476", 
+            "confidence_score": 100, 
+            "bytes": 0, 
+            "height": 317, 
+            "width": 476, 
+            "top_image_node": null
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_class/test_known_image_css_class.html b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_class/test_known_image_css_class.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..92b8f771
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_class/test_known_image_css_class.html
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"><html>
+<html>
+    <head>
+        <title>test</title>
+    </head>
+
+    <body>
+        <div>
+            <img class="storytext" src="http://bla.com/images/465395/"/>
+        </div>
+        <div>
+            <img class="mediaimage" src="http://go.com/images/465395/"/>
+        </div>
+        <div>
+            <h1>title</h1>
+            <p>
+                TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+            </p>
+            <p>
+                Most of our team is using Eclipse as the main IDE, its incrimental compilation in Java with its tight JUnit integration are great for fast TDD programming. Unfortunately the Eclipse Scala plugin is not there yet, it may hangs the IDE and messes up Java compilation - especially in large (more then 1000 source files) Java/Scala projects. Though the plugin is getting better over time some developers would find the plugin as a majore drag on their productivity.
+                For developers who do not write Scala at all or rather edit Scala with other editors, you can use this alternate path which lets them work on their Java or Scala code without messing with the plugin.
+            </p>
+        </div>
+    </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_class/test_known_image_css_class.json b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_class/test_known_image_css_class.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..0b33749c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_class/test_known_image_css_class.json
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://go.com/bla/bla", 
+    "expected": {
+        "cleaned_text" : "TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start u",
+        "top_image": {
+            "extraction_type": "known", 
+            "src": "http://go.com/images/465395/", 
+            "confidence_score": 90, 
+            "bytes": 0, 
+            "height": 0, 
+            "width": 0, 
+            "top_image_node": null
+        }
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_id/test_known_image_css_id.html b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_id/test_known_image_css_id.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..8078bf70
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_id/test_known_image_css_id.html
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"><html>
+<html>
+    <head>
+        <title>test</title>
+    </head>
+
+    <body>
+        <div>
+            <img id="storytext" src="http://bla.com/images/465395/"/>
+        </div>
+        <div>
+            <img id="mediaimage" src="http://go.com/images/465395/"/>
+        </div>
+        <div>
+            <h1>title</h1>
+            <p>
+                TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+            </p>
+            <p>
+                Most of our team is using Eclipse as the main IDE, its incrimental compilation in Java with its tight JUnit integration are great for fast TDD programming. Unfortunately the Eclipse Scala plugin is not there yet, it may hangs the IDE and messes up Java compilation - especially in large (more then 1000 source files) Java/Scala projects. Though the plugin is getting better over time some developers would find the plugin as a majore drag on their productivity.
+                For developers who do not write Scala at all or rather edit Scala with other editors, you can use this alternate path which lets them work on their Java or Scala code without messing with the plugin.
+            </p>
+        </div>
+    </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_id/test_known_image_css_id.json b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_id/test_known_image_css_id.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..0b33749c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_id/test_known_image_css_id.json
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://go.com/bla/bla", 
+    "expected": {
+        "cleaned_text" : "TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start u",
+        "top_image": {
+            "extraction_type": "known", 
+            "src": "http://go.com/images/465395/", 
+            "confidence_score": 90, 
+            "bytes": 0, 
+            "height": 0, 
+            "width": 0, 
+            "top_image_node": null
+        }
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_parent_class/test_known_image_css_parent_class.html b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_parent_class/test_known_image_css_parent_class.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..07d69af8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_parent_class/test_known_image_css_parent_class.html
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"><html>
+<html>
+    <head>
+        <title>test</title>
+    </head>
+
+    <body>
+        <div class="storytext">
+            <img src="http://bla.com/images/465395/"/>
+        </div>
+        <div class="mediaimage">
+            <img src="http://go.com/images/465395/"/>
+        </div>
+        <div>
+            <h1>title</h1>
+            <p>
+                TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+            </p>
+            <p>
+                Most of our team is using Eclipse as the main IDE, its incrimental compilation in Java with its tight JUnit integration are great for fast TDD programming. Unfortunately the Eclipse Scala plugin is not there yet, it may hangs the IDE and messes up Java compilation - especially in large (more then 1000 source files) Java/Scala projects. Though the plugin is getting better over time some developers would find the plugin as a majore drag on their productivity.
+                For developers who do not write Scala at all or rather edit Scala with other editors, you can use this alternate path which lets them work on their Java or Scala code without messing with the plugin.
+            </p>
+        </div>
+    </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_parent_class/test_known_image_css_parent_class.json b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_parent_class/test_known_image_css_parent_class.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..0b33749c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_parent_class/test_known_image_css_parent_class.json
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://go.com/bla/bla", 
+    "expected": {
+        "cleaned_text" : "TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start u",
+        "top_image": {
+            "extraction_type": "known", 
+            "src": "http://go.com/images/465395/", 
+            "confidence_score": 90, 
+            "bytes": 0, 
+            "height": 0, 
+            "width": 0, 
+            "top_image_node": null
+        }
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_parent_id/test_known_image_css_parent_id.html b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_parent_id/test_known_image_css_parent_id.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..41088dfa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_parent_id/test_known_image_css_parent_id.html
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"><html>
+<html>
+    <head>
+        <title>test</title>
+    </head>
+
+    <body>
+        <div id="storytext">
+            <img src="http://bla.com/images/465395/"/>
+        </div>
+        <div id="mediaimage">
+            <img src="http://go.com/images/465395/"/>
+        </div>
+        <div>
+            <h1>title</h1>
+            <p>
+                TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+            </p>
+            <p>
+                Most of our team is using Eclipse as the main IDE, its incrimental compilation in Java with its tight JUnit integration are great for fast TDD programming. Unfortunately the Eclipse Scala plugin is not there yet, it may hangs the IDE and messes up Java compilation - especially in large (more then 1000 source files) Java/Scala projects. Though the plugin is getting better over time some developers would find the plugin as a majore drag on their productivity.
+                For developers who do not write Scala at all or rather edit Scala with other editors, you can use this alternate path which lets them work on their Java or Scala code without messing with the plugin.
+            </p>
+        </div>
+    </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_parent_id/test_known_image_css_parent_id.json b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_parent_id/test_known_image_css_parent_id.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..0b33749c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_css_parent_id/test_known_image_css_parent_id.json
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://go.com/bla/bla", 
+    "expected": {
+        "cleaned_text" : "TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start u",
+        "top_image": {
+            "extraction_type": "known", 
+            "src": "http://go.com/images/465395/", 
+            "confidence_score": 90, 
+            "bytes": 0, 
+            "height": 0, 
+            "width": 0, 
+            "top_image_node": null
+        }
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_empty_src/test_known_image_empty_src.html b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_empty_src/test_known_image_empty_src.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..ba5a2401
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_empty_src/test_known_image_empty_src.html
@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"><html>
+<html>
+    <head>
+        <title>test</title>
+    </head>
+
+    <body>
+        <div>
+            <img class="storytext" src="http://bla.com/images/465395/"/>
+        </div>
+        <div>
+            <img class="mediaimage" src=""/>
+        </div>
+        <div>
+            <h1>title</h1>
+            <p>
+                TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+            </p>
+            <p>
+                Most of our team is using Eclipse as the main IDE, its incrimental compilation in Java with its tight JUnit integration are great for fast TDD programming. Unfortunately the Eclipse Scala plugin is not there yet, it may hangs the IDE and messes up Java compilation - especially in large (more then 1000 source files) Java/Scala projects. Though the plugin is getting better over time some developers would find the plugin as a majore drag on their productivity.
+                For developers who do not write Scala at all or rather edit Scala with other editors, you can use this alternate path which lets them work on their Java or Scala code without messing with the plugin.
+            </p>
+        </div>
+    </body>
+</html>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_empty_src/test_known_image_empty_src.json b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_empty_src/test_known_image_empty_src.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..80294037
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_empty_src/test_known_image_empty_src.json
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://go.com/bla/bla",
+    "expected": {
+        "cleaned_text" : "TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start u",
+        "top_image": {
+            "extraction_type": "NA",
+            "src": "",
+            "confidence_score": 0.0,
+            "bytes": 0,
+            "height": 0,
+            "width": 0,
+            "top_image_node": null
+        }
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_name_parent/test_known_image_name_parent.html b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_name_parent/test_known_image_name_parent.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..d3edf394
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_name_parent/test_known_image_name_parent.html
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"><html>
+<html>
+    <head>
+        <title>test</title>
+    </head>
+
+    <body>
+        <div class="big_photo">
+            <img src="http://go.com/images/465395/"/>
+        </div>
+        <div>
+            <h1>title</h1>
+            <p>
+                TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+            </p>
+            <p>
+                Most of our team is using Eclipse as the main IDE, its incrimental compilation in Java with its tight JUnit integration are great for fast TDD programming. Unfortunately the Eclipse Scala plugin is not there yet, it may hangs the IDE and messes up Java compilation - especially in large (more then 1000 source files) Java/Scala projects. Though the plugin is getting better over time some developers would find the plugin as a majore drag on their productivity.
+                For developers who do not write Scala at all or rather edit Scala with other editors, you can use this alternate path which lets them work on their Java or Scala code without messing with the plugin.
+            </p>
+        </div>
+    </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_name_parent/test_known_image_name_parent.json b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_name_parent/test_known_image_name_parent.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..0b33749c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_known_image_name_parent/test_known_image_name_parent.json
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://go.com/bla/bla", 
+    "expected": {
+        "cleaned_text" : "TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start u",
+        "top_image": {
+            "extraction_type": "known", 
+            "src": "http://go.com/images/465395/", 
+            "confidence_score": 90, 
+            "bytes": 0, 
+            "height": 0, 
+            "width": 0, 
+            "top_image_node": null
+        }
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/images/test_opengraph_tag/test_opengraph_tag.html b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_opengraph_tag/test_opengraph_tag.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..384af897
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_opengraph_tag/test_opengraph_tag.html
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"><html>
+<html>
+    <head>
+        <title>test</title>
+        <meta property="og:image" content="http://go.com/images/465395/" />
+    </head>
+
+    <body>
+        <div>
+            <h1>title</h1>
+            <p>
+                TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+            </p>
+            <p>
+                Most of our team is using Eclipse as the main IDE, its incrimental compilation in Java with its tight JUnit integration are great for fast TDD programming. Unfortunately the Eclipse Scala plugin is not there yet, it may hangs the IDE and messes up Java compilation - especially in large (more then 1000 source files) Java/Scala projects. Though the plugin is getting better over time some developers would find the plugin as a majore drag on their productivity.
+                For developers who do not write Scala at all or rather edit Scala with other editors, you can use this alternate path which lets them work on their Java or Scala code without messing with the plugin.
+            </p>
+        </div>
+    </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/images/test_opengraph_tag/test_opengraph_tag.json b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_opengraph_tag/test_opengraph_tag.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..b50e7316
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/images/test_opengraph_tag/test_opengraph_tag.json
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://go.com/bla/bla", 
+    "expected": {
+        "cleaned_text" : "TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start u",
+        "top_image": {
+            "extraction_type": "opengraph", 
+            "src": "http://go.com/images/465395/", 
+            "confidence_score": 100, 
+            "bytes": 0, 
+            "height": 0, 
+            "width": 0, 
+            "top_image_node": null
+        }
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/links/test_links.html b/tests/data/extractors/links/test_links.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..c097d4ee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/links/test_links.html
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+<html>
+    <body>
+        <div>
+            <p>
+              TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. 
+              <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/python?src=hash">links</a>
+              Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+            </p>
+        </div>
+        <div itemprop="articleBody">
+            <p>
+              TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/python?src=hash"> team its hard </a> to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/python?src=hash">to truly absorb Scala into your</a> existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+            </p>
+        </div>
+    </body>
+</html>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/links/test_links.json b/tests/data/extractors/links/test_links.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..74f1c682
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/links/test_links.json
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://exemple.com/links/", 
+    "expected": {
+        "links": 2
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/opengraph/test_opengraph.html b/tests/data/extractors/opengraph/test_opengraph.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..bcc8cbb8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/opengraph/test_opengraph.html
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+<html>
+    <head>
+      <meta property="og:url" content="http://www.somenews.com/2012/09/19/nyregion/some-news-article.html?pagewanted=all"/>
+      <meta property="og:type" content="article"/>
+      <meta property="og:title" content="Some News Article Story"/>
+      <meta property="og:description" content="Some News Happened in New York">
+      <meta property="og:image" content="http://graphics8.somenews.com/images/2012/09/19/region/some-news-image.jpg"/>
+    </head>
+    <body>
+        <div>
+            <p>
+              TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+            </p>
+        </div>
+    </body>
+</html>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/opengraph/test_opengraph.json b/tests/data/extractors/opengraph/test_opengraph.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..ba05d768
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/opengraph/test_opengraph.json
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://exemple.com/test_opengraphcontent",
+    "expected": {
+        "opengraph": {
+            "url": "http://www.somenews.com/2012/09/19/nyregion/some-news-article.html?pagewanted=all", 
+            "image": "http://graphics8.somenews.com/images/2012/09/19/region/some-news-image.jpg", 
+            "type": "article", 
+            "description": "Some News Happened in New York", 
+            "title": "Some News Article Story"
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date.html b/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..6ce2b927
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date.html
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+<html>
+  <head>
+    <meta name='OriginalPublicationDate' content='2014-06-30T16:54:02+00:00'>
+  </head>
+  <body>
+  </body>
+</html>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date.json b/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..a37e1173
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date.json
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+{
+  "url": "http://example.com/example",
+    "expected": {
+        "publish_date": "2014-06-30T16:54:02+00:00"
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date_article.html b/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date_article.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..3d03667e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date_article.html
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+<html>
+  <head>
+    <meta property='article:published_time' content='2012-01-11T15:55:01+00:00'>
+  </head>
+  <body>
+  </body>
+</html>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date_article.json b/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date_article.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..06f14aa6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date_article.json
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+{
+  "url": "http://example.com/example",
+    "expected": {
+        "publish_date": "2012-01-11T15:55:01+00:00"
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date_rnews.html b/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date_rnews.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..ca71f718
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date_rnews.html
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+<html>
+  <head>
+    <meta property='rnews:datePublished' content='2010-02-22T11:53:04+00:00'>
+  </head>
+  <body>
+  </body>
+</html>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date_rnews.json b/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date_rnews.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..623b13bb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date_rnews.json
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://example.com/example",
+    "expected": {
+        "publish_date": "2010-02-22T11:53:04+00:00"
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date_schema.html b/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date_schema.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..8a666dfa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date_schema.html
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"><html>
+<html>
+    <head>
+        <title>test video</title>
+    </head>
+
+    <body>
+        <div>
+            <time itemprop="datePublished" datetime="2014-10-09T12:06:16">9 octobre 2014 à 12:06</time>
+            <p>
+            TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+            </p>
+        </div>
+    </body>
+</html>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date_schema.json b/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date_schema.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..8e150921
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/publishdate/test_publish_date_schema.json
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://example.com/example",
+    "expected": {
+        "publish_date": "2014-10-09T12:06:16"
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_abcau.html b/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_abcau.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..a3d48a8f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_abcau.html
@@ -0,0 +1,653 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+  <!--[if lt IE 7]>      <html lang="en-AU" class="lt-ie9 lt-ie8 lt-ie7"> <![endif]-->
+  <!--[if IE 7]>         <html lang="en-AU" class="lt-ie9 lt-ie8"> <![endif]-->
+  <!--[if IE 8]>         <html lang="en-AU" class="lt-ie9"> <![endif]-->
+  <!--[if gt IE 8]><!--> <html lang="en-AU"> <!--<![endif]-->
+  <head>
+    <title>Swimming greats say cuts a shame - ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)</title>
+  <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" />
+<link rel="schema.DC" href="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" />
+<link rel="schema.DCTERMS" href="http://purl.org/dc/terms/" />
+<link rel="schema.iptc" href="urn:newsml:iptc.org:20031010:topicset.iptc-genre:8" />
+<link rel="canonical" href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-04-22/swimming-greats-say-cuts-a-shame/4644544" />
+<meta name="title" content="Swimming greats say cuts a shame"/>
+          <meta name="description" content="The decision to cut funding for swimming has drawn negative comments from Australia&#039;s swimming greats. They see it as a possible punishment for the disappointing team performance at the London Olympics."/>
+          <meta name="keywords" content="swimming, sport, funding"/>
+          <meta name="ICBM" content="-26.000,134.500"/>
+          <meta name="geo.position" content="-26.000;134.500"/>
+          <meta name="ContentId" content="4644544"/>
+          <meta name="ABC.site" content="ABC News"/>
+          <meta name="ABC.editorialGenre" content="News &amp; Current Affairs"/>
+          <meta name="ABC.tags" content="olympics-summer;swimming"/>
+          <meta name="ABC_WCMS_sitesearch_include" content="true"/>
+          <meta name="DC.Publisher.CorporateName" content="Australian Broadcasting Corporation"/>
+          <meta name="DC.rights" scheme="DCTERMS.URI" content="http://www.abc.net.au/conditions.htm#UseOfContent"/>
+        <meta name="DC.rightsHolder" content="ABC"/>
+          <meta name="DC.type" content="Sound"/>
+          <meta name="DC.type" scheme="iptc-genre" content="Transcript and Verbatim"/>
+        <meta name="DC.title" content="Swimming greats say cuts a shame"/>
+          <meta name="DC.creator.CorporateName" content="Australian Broadcasting Corporation"/>
+          <meta name="DC.date" scheme="DCTERMS.W3CDTF" content="2013-04-22T18:54:00+1000"/>
+        <meta name="DC.format" scheme="DCTERMS.IMT" content="text/html"/>
+        <meta name="DC.identifier" scheme="DCTERMS.URI" content="http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-04-22/swimming-greats-say-cuts-a-shame/4644544"/>
+          <meta name="DC.language" scheme="DCTERMS.RFC3066" content="en-AU"/>
+        <meta name="DC.subject" scheme="ABCTERMS.subject" content="Sport:Olympics (Summer);Sport:Swimming"/>
+        <meta name="DCTERMS.issued" scheme="DCTERMS.W3CDTF" content="2013-04-22T18:54:00+1000"/>
+        <meta name="DCTERMS.modified" scheme="DCTERMS.W3CDTF" content="2013-04-22T18:58:00+1000"/>
+        <meta name="DCTERMS.spatial" content="Australia"/>
+          <meta name="DCTERMS.spatial" scheme="DCTERMS.DCMIPoint" content="east=134.500;north=-26.000"/>
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+    >
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+    >
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+  </a>
+</li>
+ <li class="last">
+    <a href="/news/abcnews24/programs/tonic/"
+    >
+        <span>Tonic</span>
+  </a>
+</li>
+ </ul></div>
+                </div>
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+              </div>
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+    >
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+  </a>
+</li>
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+ </ul></div>
+                </div>
+              </div>
+          </div>
+      </div>
+    </li></ul>
+  </div>
+<!-- A modules - start -->
+  <div class="section media-article media-article-audio"  style="background-image: url(/news/linkableblob/2733914/data/audio-page-background-image-data.png);">
+    <div class="inline-content audio article">
+    <div class="inline-audio">
+          <script type="text/javascript" charset="utf-8">
+            if (typeof inlineAudioData == 'undefined') var inlineAudioData = new Array();
+            inlineAudioData.push([
+              {'url': 'rtsp://media1.abc.net.au/reallibrary/audio/pm/201304/20130422-pm02-swimming-cuts.rm', 'contentType': 'application/vnd.rn-realmedia', 'codec': '', 'bitrate': '40', 'fileSize': '1616268'}
+              ,{'url': 'mms://media4.abc.net.au/winlibrary/audio/pm/201304/20130422-pm02-swimming-cuts.wma', 'contentType': 'audio/x-ms-wma', 'codec': '', 'bitrate': '40', 'fileSize': '1744921'}
+              ,{'url': 'http://mpegmedia.abc.net.au/news/audio/pm/201304/20130422-pm02-swimming-cuts.mp3', 'contentType': 'audio/mp3', 'codec': '', 'bitrate': '64', 'fileSize': '1552091'}
+            ]);
+          </script>
+        </div>
+      </div>
+</div>
+<!-- A modules - end -->
+  <div class="page section">
+    <div class="subcolumns">
+    <div class="c75l">
+      <!-- B modules - start -->
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+     href="http://www2b.abc.net.au/EAF/View/MailToQuery.aspx?http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-04-22/swimming-greats-say-cuts-a-shame/4644544"><span>Email</span></a>
+</div><!--endnoindex-->
+    <h1>Swimming greats say cuts a shame</h1>
+    <p class="published">
+      Updated
+    <span class="timestamp">
+      April 22, 2013 18:58:00
+    </span>
+    </p>
+<p>The decision to cut funding for swimming has drawn negative comments from Australia's swimming greats. They see it as a possible punishment for the disappointing team performance at the London Olympics.</p><div class="byline">
+          Ellesa Throwden</div>
+      <p class="source">
+      Source: <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/pm">PM</a>
+      |
+      Duration: 3min 13sec</p>
+<p class="topics">
+	<strong>Topics:</strong>
+	<a href="/news/topic/olympics-summer">olympics-summer</a>,
+	<a href="/news/topic/swimming">swimming</a>,
+	<a href="/news/topic/australia">australia</a>
+</p><p class="media-transcript-toggle"><a href="#" class="button"><span>Transcript</span></a></p>
+      <div class="media-transcript">
+        <p>MARK BANNERMAN: Perhaps not surprisingly, the decision to cut funding for swimming has drawn some comment. Former swimming greats don't like it and see it as a possible punishment for the disappointing team performance at the London Olympics.</p><p>While swimming remains the top funded individual sport, the Australian Sports Commission has cut about half a million dollars from its budget for the next year.</p><p>Ellesa Throwden reports.</p><p>ELLESA THROWDEN: It's been a tough time for the sport of swimming in Australia ever since the poor showing in the London Olympics.</p><p>Soul searching was replaced by a public shaming of damning reports, the resignation of the head coach Leigh Nugent, and the airing of the infamous bonding session of the men's relay team.</p><p>Now former swimming greats like Jon Sieben says today's announcement of a funding cut of about half a million dollars for the next year has dealt a further blow.</p><p>JON SIEBEN: It is a shame that funding has been cut, but I don't think it's the end of the world for Australian swimming.</p><p>I think they can still produce many, many champions, and there's been probably many a year where we have produced some great swimming moments with a lot less funding.</p><p>ELLESA THROWDEN: Do you think this is punishment for what occurred in London?</p><p>JON SIEBEN: Look, reading between the lines, I guess you could come to that opinion without them obviously stating it as a matter of fact, but it certainly would seem that way.</p><p>Otherwise it could be seen - the performance wasn't that good, so therefore they may have dropped back in the pecking order as a sport.</p><p>ELLESA THROWDEN: Despite the funding cut, Jon Sieben - who won gold in butterfly in the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics - doesn't believe it will affect swimmers' performance at the upcoming world titles in Barcelona or the 2016 Olympics in Rio.</p><p>JON SIEBEN: I don't think it should. You know, if you want to become the best swimmer in the world, it's not the money that's going to make it for you. It's about dedicating yourself putting in the hard work in the pool.</p><p>It's not about how many dollars are in the bank account.</p><p>ELLESA THROWDEN: Some might say out there, Jon that given their poor showing in London that that's every reason to give them more funding.</p><p>JON SIEBEN: I mean there's certainly an argument for that, to say that "yes, OK, well maybe they do need some more help". Certainly, you look at the London Olympics - the London Olympic movement put a lot of funding towards their program, and they had a massive improvement, but by the same token there's also, you could say there's some wasted money put towards it.</p><p>ELLESA THROWDEN: Wasted money is a shared concern of Olympian Bill Kirby, who won gold in the men's 400 metre relay at the 2000 Olympics in Sydney.</p><p>These days, he coaches in Western Australia.</p><p>He's disappointed but not surprised by the cut to funding and says the sport needs to reorganise the way money is spent.</p><p>BILL KIRBY: I just can't get my head around the fact that we seem to have so many different organisations shooting for the same goals.</p><p>The current model or the current structures of having so many organisations that all have administrators being paid what is these days fairly good money that could be spent elsewhere - I think that model needs to be the first thing that needs to be looked at.</p><p>ELLESA THROWDEN: According to Bill Kirby, it's a wakeup call for the sport.</p><p>BILL KIRBY: Swimming needs to lift its game. It's already been trying hard to do that, and now with a cut in funds, it's going to have to be very smart in how those dollars are actually spent.</p><p>MARK BANNERMAN: Olympian Bill Kirby ending that report from Ellesa Throwden.</p></div>
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diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_abcau.json b/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_abcau.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..8e402965
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_abcau.json
@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-04-22/swimming-greats-say-cuts-a-shame/4644544", 
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+            "swimming"
+        ]
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+}
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+<ul class="breadcrumb"> <li><a href="/">CNET</a></li> <!-- TODO: Find a better way to target between blogs and node posts for breadcrumb --> <li><a href="/the-404/">The 404 Podcast</a></li> <li>The 404 1,310: Where it's love ...</li> </ul>
+</div> </div> <div class="post"> <!--[if lt IE 9]> <noscript><div class="header" section="title"></noscript> <![endif]--> <header section="title"> <h1>The 404 1,310: Where it's love at first swipe (podcast)</h1> <p id="introP">Today we'll expose a ring of identify thieves hijacking your personal data and using it to fill out fake online dating profiles, complete with your real name and photos! We'll also talk Tinder, purgatory, and the Pope.</p> <div class="postByline"> <a rel="author" href="/profile/justin.yu/"><figure><img class="mugshot" alt="Justin Yu" height="43" width="60" src="http://asset0.cbsistatic.com/cnwk.1d/i/tim/2012/12/05/Justin_Yu_60x43.jpg" /></figure></a> <div id="nameAndTime"> <span class="author"> <div class="singleAuthor"> by <a rel="author" href="/profile/justin.yu/">Justin Yu</a> </div> </span> <!--[if lt IE 9]> <noscript><div class="datestamp"></noscript> <![endif]--> <time class="datestamp"> July 30, 2013 11:25 AM PDT </time> <!--[if lt IE 9]> <noscript></div></noscript> <![endif]--> <menu class="inline-view fullwidth noMarginTop"> <ul> <li> <a href="http://www.twitter.com/malusbrutus" class="twitter-follow-button" data-show-screen-name="false" data-show-count="false" data-width="70px">Follow @malusbrutus</a> </li> </ul> </menu> <!--Bug 616807, this is to test if the Author is Chris Matyszczyk --> </div> </div> </header> <!--[if lt IE 9]> <noscript></div></noscript> <![endif]--> <div class="postBody txtWrap" section="txt" >
+<a rel="enclosure" href="http://www.Podtrac.com/pts/redirect.mp3/chkpt.zdnet.com/chkpt/1pcast.the404/podcast-files.cnet.com/podcast/cnet_the404_073013.mp3"></a><br></span>
+<div class="cnet-image-div image-REGULAR float-none" style="width: 500px">
+<img class="cnet-image" src="http://asset0.cbsistatic.com/cnwk.1d/i/tim2/2013/07/30/tumblr_mpwdqsCZto1qzvlx2o1_500.jpg" alt=""
+width="500" height="375" />
+<span class="image-credit">
+(Credit:
+<a href="http://wikimediafoundation.tumblr.com/">
+Wikimedia Foundation</a>)
+</span>
+</div>
+<P>Leaked from today's 404 episode:</p>
+<P> - Thanks to William for calling this to our attention: Yahoo used our screenshot for a list of the "<a href="http://news.yahoo.com/best-podcasts-itunes-193044509.html" >Best Podcasts You've Never Heard, but Should</a>."</p>
+<P> - <a href="http://news.cnet.com/8301-17938_105-57594054-1/cut-your-time-in-purgatory-by-following-pope-on-twitter/" >Cut your time in purgatory</a> by following pope on Twitter.</p>
+<P> - Internet dating firms entice lonely hearts with <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2380535/Internet-dating-firms-entice-lonely-hearts-faked-profiles-based-real-people.html" >faked profiles based on real people</a>.</p>
+<P> - A new app that lets you <a href="http://www.npr.org/blogs/alltechconsidered/2013/07/29/206493794/a-new-app-will-let-you-share-your-leftovers-with-strangers" >share your leftovers with strangers</a>.</p>
+<br>
+<div class="videoPlayer" style='float: none; clear: none;'>
+<h4 class="universalVideoTitle">Ep. 1310: Where it's love at first swipe</h4>
+<div id='universalVideoid50151954' class="inline-VideoPlayer" doAutoplay='false' adTargetType='Page' adPreroll='true' contentType='id' contentValue='50151954' playlistDisplay='over' playerSize='blogLarge' interactiveConsole='none'>
+</div>
+</div>
+<!--pagebreak-->
+</p><h2><b>Episode 1,310</b></h2>
+<div class="menuTag podcastMenu">
+<b>Listen Now:</b>
+<a href="http://www.Podtrac.com/pts/redirect.mp3/chkpt.zdnet.com/chkpt/1pcast.the404/podcast-files.cnet.com/podcast/cnet_the404_073013.mp3">Download Today's Podcast</a>
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+<br><br><br><br><br><br>
+</p><p><br><br><b>Subscribe:</b><br></p><p><a href="https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/the-404-video-hd/id562417950">iTunes (HD)
+</a> |&nbsp;<a href="https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/the-404-video-sd/id315423594">iTunes (SD)
+</a> |&nbsp;<a href="https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/the-404-video-hq/id368787108">iTunes (HQ)
+</a> |&nbsp;<a href="https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/the-404-mp3/id272216090">iTunes (MP3)
+<br></a></p><p>
+<a href="http://feeds.feedburner.com/The404hd">RSS (HD)
+</a> |&nbsp;<a href="http://feeds.feedburner.com/cnet/the404video">RSS (SD)
+</a> |&nbsp;<a href="http://feeds.feedburner.com/cnet/the404hqvideo">RSS (HQ)
+</a> |&nbsp;<a href="http://feeds.feedburner.com/The404">RSS (MP3)</a></p>
+<br><br>
+<span style="">&nbsp;</span><o:p></o:p><p></p><p></p><p></p><div style="background: url(&quot;http://img.cbsi.com/i/fd/arrow_black.gif&quot;) no-repeat scroll 0pt 2px transparent; padding-left: 10px;">Follow us on Twitter!<ul><b></b><li><b><a href="http://twitter.com/the404">The 404</a>
+</b></li><li><b><a href="http://twitter.com/jeffbakalar">Jeff Bakalar</a>
+</b></li><li><b><a href="http://twitter.com/malusbrutus">Justin Yu</a>
+</b></li></ul></div><br clear="all">
+<div style="background: url(&quot;http://img.cbsi.com/i/fd/arrow_black.gif&quot;) no-repeat scroll 0pt 2px transparent; padding-left: 10px;">Add us on Facebook!<ul><b></b><li><b><a href="http://www.facebook.com/pages/The-404/9285896730?ref=ts">The 404 Fan Page</a>
+</b></li><li><b><a href="http://www.facebook.com/pages/The-404/9285896730?ref=ts#/group.php?gid=7797981637&amp;ref=ts">The 404 Group</a>
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+</b></li><li><b><a href="http://www.facebook.com/jeffbakalar">Jeff Bakalar</a>
+</b></li></ul></div><br clear="all">
+<!-- end show notes container -->
+</div><!-- /div section --> <footer> <!--[if lt IE 9]> <noscript><div></noscript> <![endif]--> <aside> </aside> <!--[if lt IE 9]> <noscript></div></noscript> <![endif]--> <div section="tags" class="tagsWrap"> <div class="postLinks"> <dl> <dt><b>Topics:</b></dt> <dd> <a href="/8300-5_1-0.html?categoryId=9853570">Show notes</a>, </dd> <dd> <a href="/8300-5_1-0.html?categoryId=9853582">The 404 podcast</a> </dd> <dt class="pipe"><b>Tags:</b></dt> <dd> <a href="/8300-5_1-0.html?keyword=app">app</a>, </dd> <dd> <a href="/8300-5_1-0.html?keyword=tinder">Tinder</a>, </dd> <dd> <a href="/8300-5_1-0.html?keyword=pope">Pope</a>, </dd> <dd> <a href="/8300-5_1-0.html?keyword=yahoo">Yahoo</a>, </dd> <dd> <a href="/8300-5_1-0.html?keyword=marc+maron">Marc Maron</a>, </dd> <dd> <a href="/8300-5_1-0.html?keyword=romance">romance</a>, </dd> <dd> <a href="/8300-5_1-0.html?keyword=online+dating">online dating</a>, </dd> <dd> <a href="/8300-5_1-0.html?keyword=leftovers">leftovers</a>, </dd> <dd> <a href="/8300-5_1-0.html?keyword=pontifex">Pontifex</a>, </dd> <dd> <a href="/8300-5_1-0.html?keyword=leftover+swap">Leftover Swap</a>, </dd> <dd> <a href="/8300-5_1-0.html?keyword=okcupid">OKCupid</a>, </dd> <dd> <a href="/8300-5_1-0.html?keyword=purgatory">purgatory</a>, </dd> <dd> <a href="/8300-5_1-0.html?keyword=match.com">Match.com</a>, </dd> <dd> <a href="/8300-5_1-0.html?keyword=twitter">Twitter</a>, </dd> <dd> <a href="/8300-5_1-0.html?keyword=usdate">USDATE</a> </dd> <!-- Added DVAR tag per bug 422649. liaHeader value=app;Tinder;Pope;Yahoo;Marc Maron; --> </dl> </div> </div> <div class="editorBio"> <a rel="author" href="/profile/justin.yu/"><figure><img class="mugshot" src="http://asset3.cbsistatic.com/cnwk.1d/html/news/clear.gif" height="100" width="140" lazySrc="http://i.i.cbsi.com/cnwk.1d/i/tim/2012/12/05/Justin_Yu_140x100.jpg" /></figure></a> <div id="bioLinks"> <a rel="author" href="/profile/justin.yu/">Justin Yu</a> <p class="shortBio">Justin Yu covers headphones and peripherals for CNET. When he's not wading through Web gulch or challenging colleagues to typing tests, you can find him making fun of technology with Jeff Bakalar every afternoon on <a href="/the-404/">The 404 show.</a>.</p> <div id="socialFollow" section="socialFollow"> <menu class="inline-view fullwidth noMarginTop"> <ul> <li> <a href="http://www.twitter.com/malusbrutus" class="twitter-follow-button" data-show-screen-name="false" data-show-count="false" data-width="200px">Follow @malusbrutus</a> </li> </ul> <ul> <li> <fb:like class="fb_XFBML" href="http://www.cnet.com/profile/justin.yu/" layout="button_count" show_faces="false" ref="fblikeeditor"></fb:like> </li> </ul> </menu> </div><!--/socialFollow--> </div><!--/bioLinks--> </div><!--/editorBio--> </footer> </div><!-- /post --> <!-- MAC T 94A.94A.94D.94D --><!-- MAC [r20120816-1010-dataManipAddDnsBufSize:1.13.14] phx1-rb-tron-xw5.cnet.com::1540540736 2013.07.31.18.35.47 --><!-- MAC-AD STATUS: COULD NOT MAP ( _MAPPINGS='CNET_COMMERCE' BRAND='1' SITE='1' SP='174' CNET-PTYPE='00' POS='100' NCAT='11455:13952:B81:' CNET-PARTNER-ID='1' ) TO _RGROUP --><!-- NO AD TEXT: _QUERY_STRING="PREHTML=%3Cdiv%20class%3D%22infoboardWrap%22%3E%3Cdiv%20class%3D%22infoboard%22%3EPOSTHTML=%3C%2Fdiv%3E%3C%2Fdiv%3ENCAT=11455%3A13952%3AB81%3APOS=100SP=174" _REQ_NUM="0"  --><!-- MAC ad --> <div class="nrelateUnit" id="nrelate_related_placeholder"></div> <!-- nagTag --> <script type="text/javascript">
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diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_cnet.json b/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_cnet.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..a4faa2fb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_cnet.json
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.cnet.com/8301-13952_1-57596170-81/the-404-1310-where-its-love-at-first-swipe-podcast/", 
+    "expected": {
+        "tags": [
+            "purgatory", 
+            "USDATE", 
+            "Pope", 
+            "online dating", 
+            "leftovers", 
+            "app", 
+            "Yahoo", 
+            "OKCupid", 
+            "romance", 
+            "Pontifex", 
+            "Tinder", 
+            "Leftover Swap", 
+            "Match.com", 
+            "Twitter", 
+            "Marc Maron"
+        ]
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_deadline.html b/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_deadline.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..f80b8a28
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+++ b/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_deadline.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1486 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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+<head profile="http://gmpg.org/xfn/11">
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+<!-- ChartBeat End -->
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+	<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" />
+	<meta property="fb:page_id" content="105558754896" />
+	<meta  property="og:image" content="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Deadline-Big-Media-ep-38__130607220342-200x200.jpg" /><meta  property="og:title" content="Deadline Big Media With David Lieberman, Episode 38" /><meta  property="og:type" content="article" /><meta  property="og:url" content="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/deadline-big-media-with-david-lieberman-episode-38/" /><meta  property="og:site_name" content="Deadline.com" />	<title>Deadline Big Media With David Lieberman, Episode 38 - Deadline.com</title>
+
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+    <meta http-equiv="pragma" content="no-cache" />
+    <meta name="robots" content="all" />    <meta name="MSSmartTagsPreventParsing" content="true" />
+    <meta http-equiv="imagetoolbar" content="false" />
+    <meta name="y_key" content="a810be562637c603" />
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+
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+
+		<link rel='archives' title='June 2013' href='http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/' />
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+                                            <li>
+
+					<a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/goodwin-games-scott-foley-sets-directorial-debut-donald-faison-nicollette-sheridan-star/" title="&#8216;Scandal&#8217;s&#8217; Scott Foley Sets Directorial Debut; Donald Faison &amp; Nicollette Sheridan Star">
+
+                                <img src="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/thumbnails/520622-2013-06-13-23-39-34.jpg" width="130" height="95" alt="&#8216;Scandal&#8217;s&#8217; Scott Foley Sets Directorial Debut; Donald Faison &#038; Nicollette Sheridan Star" />
+                                &#8216;Scandal&#8217;s&#8217; Scott Foley Sets Directorial &#133;                            	</a>
+                        </li>
+                                            <li>
+
+					<a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/disney-release-dates-marvel-movies-alexander-into-the-woods-planes-2/" title="More Disney Release Dates: Two New Marvel Pics, &#8216;Alexander&#8217;, &#8216;Hundred-Foot Journey&#8217;, &#8216;Into The Woods&#8217;, &#8216;Planes&#8217; Sequel Slotted">
+
+                                <img src="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/thumbnails/5206192013-06-13-23-47-20-2013-06-13-23-47-20.png" width="130" height="95" alt="More Disney Release Dates: Two New Marvel Pics, &#8216;Alexander&#8217;, &#8216;Hundred-Foot Journey&#8217;, &#8216;Into The Woods&#8217;, &#8216;Planes&#8217; Sequel Slotted" />
+                                More Disney Release Dates: Two New Marvel Pics, &#133;                            	</a>
+                        </li>
+                                            <li>
+
+					<a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/the-bling-ring-pandoras-promise-so-young-the-stroller-strategy-in-the-fog-box-office-specialty/" title="Specialty B.O. Preview: &#8216;The Bling Ring&#8217;, &#8216;Pandora&#8217;s Promise&#8217;, &#8216;So Young&#8217;, &#8216;The Stroller Strategy&#8217;, &#8216;In The Fog&#8217;">
+
+                                <img src="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/thumbnails/520594-2013-06-13-22-44-16.jpg" width="130" height="95" alt="Specialty B.O. Preview: &#8216;The Bling Ring&#8217;, &#8216;Pandora&#8217;s Promise&#8217;, &#8216;So Young&#8217;, &#8216;The Stroller Strategy&#8217;, &#8216;In The Fog&#8217;" />
+                                Specialty B.O. Preview: &#8216;The Bling Ring&#8217;, &#133;                            	</a>
+                        </li>
+                                            <li>
+
+					<a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/hot-trailer-salinger/" title="Hot Trailer: &#8216;Salinger&#8217;">
+
+                                <img src="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/thumbnails/520574-2013-06-13-23-17-14.jpg" width="130" height="95" alt="Hot Trailer: &#8216;Salinger&#8217;" />
+                                Hot Trailer: &#8216;Salinger&#8217;                             	</a>
+                        </li>
+                                            <li>
+
+					<a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/smurfs-2-scoops-150m-global-promotional-tie-ins-for-hollywoods-unexpected-hit/" title="&#8216;Smurfs 2&#8242; Scoops $150M Global Tie-Ins For Hollywood&#8217;s Unexpected Blue Blockbuster">
+
+                                <img src="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/thumbnails/5204552013-06-13-21-11-51-2013-06-13-21-11-51.jpg" width="130" height="95" alt="&#8216;Smurfs 2&#8242; Scoops $150M Global Tie-Ins For Hollywood&#8217;s Unexpected Blue Blockbuster" />
+                                &#8216;Smurfs 2&#8242; Scoops $150M Global Tie-Ins For &#133;                            	</a>
+                        </li>
+                                            <li>
+
+					<a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/royal-pains-necessary-roughness-usa-network-ratings/" title="USA&#8217;s &#8216;Royal Pains&#8217; &amp; &#8216;Necessary Roughness&#8217; Season Premieres Down">
+
+                                <img src="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/thumbnails/520456-2013-06-13-21-55-28.jpeg" width="130" height="95" alt="USA&#8217;s &#8216;Royal Pains&#8217; &#038; &#8216;Necessary Roughness&#8217; Season Premieres Down" />
+                                USA&#8217;s &#8216;Royal Pains&#8217; &#038; &#133;                            	</a>
+                        </li>
+                                            <li>
+
+					<a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/angelina-jolie-narrowing-choices-for-young-lou-zamperini-in-unbroken/" title="Angelina Jolie Narrowing Choices For Young Lou Zamperini In &#8216;Unbroken&#8217;">
+
+                                <img src="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/thumbnails/5203822013-06-13-22-46-15-2013-06-13-22-46-15.jpg" width="130" height="95" alt="Angelina Jolie Narrowing Choices For Young Lou Zamperini In &#8216;Unbroken&#8217;" />
+                                Angelina Jolie Narrowing Choices For Young Lou Zamperini In &#133;                            	</a>
+                        </li>
+                                            <li>
+
+					<a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/wes-bentley-to-star-in-ryan-murphys-hbo-pilot-open/" title="Wes Bentley To Star In Ryan Murphy&#8217;s HBO Pilot &#8216;Open&#8217;">
+
+                                <img src="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/thumbnails/5203552013-06-13-22-56-01-2013-06-13-22-56-01.jpg" width="130" height="95" alt="Wes Bentley To Star In Ryan Murphy&#8217;s HBO Pilot &#8216;Open&#8217;" />
+                                Wes Bentley To Star In Ryan Murphy&#8217;s HBO Pilot &#133;                            	</a>
+                        </li>
+                                            <li>
+
+					<a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/this-is-the-end-opens-1-midweek-with-6-5m/" title="&#8216;This Is The End&#8217; Opens #1 With $7.8M">
+
+                                <img src="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/thumbnails/519978-2013-06-13-19-40-43.jpg" width="130" height="95" alt="&#8216;This Is The End&#8217; Opens #1 With $7.8M" />
+                                &#8216;This Is The End&#8217; Opens #1 With $7.8M                             	</a>
+                        </li>
+                                            <li>
+
+					<a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/steven-spielberg-george-lucas-predict-film-industry-meltdown-video/" title="Spielberg &amp; Lucas Predict &#8220;Meltdown&#8221; Of Movie Biz: Video">
+
+                                <img src="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/thumbnails/5204232013-06-13-22-49-57-2013-06-13-22-49-57.jpg" width="130" height="95" alt="Spielberg &#038; Lucas Predict &#8220;Meltdown&#8221; Of Movie Biz: Video" />
+                                Spielberg &#038; Lucas Predict &#8220;Meltdown&#8221; Of &#133;                            	</a>
+                        </li>
+                                            <li>
+
+					<a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/sarah-palin-returns-to-fox-news/" title="Sarah Palin Returns To Fox News">
+
+                                <img src="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/thumbnails/520367-2013-06-13-20-29-08.jpeg" width="130" height="95" alt="Sarah Palin Returns To Fox News" />
+                                Sarah Palin Returns To Fox News                             	</a>
+                        </li>
+                                            <li>
+
+					<a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/melissa-mccarthy-joins-seth-rogen-in-dreamworks-animations-b-o-o-bureau-of-otherworldly-operations/" title="Melissa McCarthy Joins Seth Rogen In DreamWorks Animation&#8217;s &#8216;B.O.O. (Bureau Of Otherworldly Operations)&#8217;">
+
+                                <img src="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/thumbnails/520342-2013-06-13-19-50-48.jpg" width="130" height="95" alt="Melissa McCarthy Joins Seth Rogen In DreamWorks Animation&#8217;s &#8216;B.O.O. (Bureau Of Otherworldly Operations)&#8217;" />
+                                Melissa McCarthy Joins Seth Rogen In DreamWorks &#133;                            	</a>
+                        </li>
+                                            <li>
+
+					<a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/rupert-murdoch-files-for-divorce/" title="News Corp&#8217;s Rupert Murdoch Files For Divorce Which Won&#8217;t Affect News Corp Split">
+
+                                <img src="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/thumbnails/520162-2013-06-13-19-48-56.jpg" width="130" height="95" alt="News Corp&#8217;s Rupert Murdoch Files For Divorce Which Won&#8217;t Affect News Corp Split" />
+                                News Corp&#8217;s Rupert Murdoch Files For Divorce Which &#133;                            	</a>
+                        </li>
+                                            <li>
+
+					<a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/laura-linney-speech-gender-inequality-film-industry/" title="Laura Linney On Gender Inequality In Film Business: &#8216;It&#8217;s Unhealthy&#8221;">
+
+                                <img src="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/thumbnails/5202362013-06-13-17-33-03-2013-06-13-17-33-03.jpg" width="130" height="95" alt="Laura Linney On Gender Inequality In Film Business: &#8216;It&#8217;s Unhealthy&#8221;" />
+                                Laura Linney On Gender Inequality In Film Business: &#133;                            	</a>
+                        </li>
+                                            <li>
+
+					<a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/stanley-cup-finals-ratings-game-1-record/" title="RATINGS RAT RACE: Stanley Cup Finals Game 1 Hits 16-Year High, &#8216;American Baking Competition&#8217; Rises">
+
+                                <img src="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/thumbnails/520095-2013-06-13-16-00-04.jpg" width="130" height="95" alt="RATINGS RAT RACE: Stanley Cup Finals Game 1 Hits 16-Year High, &#8216;American Baking Competition&#8217; Rises" />
+                                RATINGS RAT RACE: Stanley Cup Finals Game 1 Hits 16-Year &#133;                            	</a>
+                        </li>
+                                            <li>
+
+					<a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/man-of-steel-beginning-worldwide-release-record-opening-day-in-the-philippines/" title="&#8216;Man Of Steel&#8217; Begins Worldwide Release; Record Opening Day In The Philippines">
+
+                                <img src="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/thumbnails/519940-2013-06-13-19-01-40.jpg" width="130" height="95" alt="&#8216;Man Of Steel&#8217; Begins Worldwide Release; Record Opening Day In The Philippines" />
+                                &#8216;Man Of Steel&#8217; Begins Worldwide Release; Record &#133;                            	</a>
+                        </li>
+                                            <li>
+
+					<a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/gannett-agrees-to-buy-belo-for-1-5b-making-it-the-no-4-owner-of-tv-affiliates/" title="Gannett Agrees To Buy Belo For $1.5B, Making It The No. 4 Owner Of TV Affiliates">
+
+                                <img src="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/thumbnails/520042-2013-06-13-16-15-37.jpg" width="130" height="95" alt="Gannett Agrees To Buy Belo For $1.5B, Making It The No. 4 Owner Of TV Affiliates" />
+                                Gannett Agrees To Buy Belo For $1.5B, Making It The No. 4 &#133;                            	</a>
+                        </li>
+                                            <li>
+
+					<a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/filmdistrict-seals-whopping-10-million-deal-on-rocketman-tom-hardy-circling-elton-john-role/" title="FilmDistrict Seals Whopping $10 Million Deal On &#8216;Rocketman&#8217;; Tom Hardy Circling Elton John Role">
+
+                                <img src="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/thumbnails/519791-2013-06-13-16-26-14.jpg" width="130" height="95" alt="FilmDistrict Seals Whopping $10 Million Deal On &#8216;Rocketman&#8217;; Tom Hardy Circling Elton John Role" />
+                                FilmDistrict Seals Whopping $10 Million Deal On &#133;                            	</a>
+                        </li>
+                                            <li>
+
+					<a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/eddie-redmayne-to-play-stephen-hawking-in-working-titles-theory-of-everything/" title="Eddie Redmayne To Play Stephen Hawking In Working Title&#8217;s &#8216;Theory Of Everything&#8217;">
+
+                                <img src="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/thumbnails/519683-2013-06-13-16-26-30.jpg" width="130" height="95" alt="Eddie Redmayne To Play Stephen Hawking In Working Title&#8217;s &#8216;Theory Of Everything&#8217;" />
+                                Eddie Redmayne To Play Stephen Hawking In Working &#133;                            	</a>
+                        </li>
+                                            <li>
+
+					<a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/video-hot-trailer-the-wolverine-hugh-jackman/" title="Hot Trailer: &#8216;The Wolverine&#8217;">
+
+                                <img src="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/thumbnails/5198002013-06-13-02-48-32-2013-06-13-02-48-32.jpg" width="130" height="95" alt="Hot Trailer: &#8216;The Wolverine&#8217;" />
+                                Hot Trailer: &#8216;The Wolverine&#8217;                             	</a>
+                        </li>
+                                        </ul>
+                </div>
+            </div>
+							                    <div id="email-nav">E-mail Address: <a href="mailto:mike@deadline.com">mike@deadline.com</a></div>
+                            <ul id="city-nav">
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+    						<div id="editor-detail"><a href="/mike-flemings-bio/">Mike Fleming:</a>  Editor</div>
+            
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+		<div class="post-516113 post type-post status-publish format-standard hentry category-hollywood category-london category-movies category-new-york category-tv tag-amazon-prime tag-deadline-big-media tag-steve-ballmer tag-tivo" id="post-516113">
+		<h1 class="post-title"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/deadline-big-media-with-david-lieberman-episode-38/" rel="bookmark" title="Deadline Big Media With David Lieberman, Episode 38">Deadline Big Media With David Lieberman, Episode 38</a></h1>
+	<div class="meta"><span class="meta-author">By <a href="http://www.deadline.com/author/dlieberman/" title="Visit DAVID LIEBERMAN, Executive Editor&#8217;s website" rel="external">DAVID LIEBERMAN, Executive Editor</a></span> | Friday June 7, 2013 @ 6:43pm EDT<span class="post-tags ">Tags: <a href="http://www.deadline.com/tag/amazon-prime/" title="Amazon Prime">Amazon Prime</a>, <a href="http://www.deadline.com/tag/deadline-big-media/" title="Deadline Big Media">Deadline Big Media</a>, <a href="http://www.deadline.com/tag/steve-ballmer/" title="Steve Ballmer">Steve Ballmer</a>, <a href="http://www.deadline.com/tag/tivo/" title="TiVo">TiVo</a></span>	</div>
+	<div class="post-social">
+	<div class="social-google">
+		<g:plusone size="medium" count="true" href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/deadline-big-media-with-david-lieberman-episode-38/"></g:plusone>
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+		<iframe src="http://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/deadline-big-media-with-david-lieberman-episode-38/&amp;layout=button_count&amp;show_faces=false&amp;width=90&amp;action=like&amp;colorscheme=light&amp;height=22" scrolling="no" frameborder="0" style="border:none; overflow:hidden; width:90px; height:22px;" allowTransparency="true"></iframe>
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+		<a href="http://twitter.com/share" class="twitter-share-button" data-count="horizontal" data-counturl="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/deadline-big-media-with-david-lieberman-episode-38/" data-url="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/deadline-big-media-with-david-lieberman-episode-38/" data-text="Deadline Big Media With David Lieberman, Episode 38" data-via="nikkifinke" data-related="nikkifinke:Deadline,deadlineny:Deadline New York,deadlinelondon:Deadline London,deadlinetv:Deadline TV">Tweet</a>
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+	<span class="post-comments-link regular-comments">
+		<a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/deadline-big-media-with-david-lieberman-episode-38/#respond" rel="nofollow" title="Comment on Deadline Big Media With David Lieberman, Episode 38">Comments (0)</a>	</span>
+</div>
+	<div class="post-content">
+	    <p><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/deadline-big-media-with-david-lieberman-episode-38/deadline-big-media-ep-38-4/"  rel="attachment wp-att-516156"><img class="alignleft size-200px wp-image-516156" title="Deadline Big Media ep 38" src="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Deadline-Big-Media-ep-38__130607220342-200x200.jpg" alt="" width="160" height="160" /></a>Listen to (and share) episode 38 of our audio podcast <em>Deadline Big Media With David Lieberman</em>. Deadline&#8217;s Executive Editor talks with host David Bloom about the recent trip by <a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/microsoft-chiefs-urge-tv-execs-produce-xbox-one/" >Microsoft&#8217;s Steve Ballmer and Nancy Tellem</a> to romance Hollywood moguls with the Xbox One ahead of next week’s E3 videogame convention; <a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/google-pitches-movie-marketers-buyers-search-online-to-decide-what-to-see/" >Google’s pitch for movie marketers</a> for their ad dollars; whether <a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/viacom-agrees-major-streaming-deal-with-amazon/" >Amazon Prime </a>can move beyond the shadow of Netflix with deals such as this week’s Viacom arrangement; and why Wall Street punished <a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/tivo-shares-hit-after-it-reveals-lower-than-expected-trial-settlement-terms/" >Tivo’s stock price </a>after its latest lawsuit settlements.</p>
+<p><a href="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Deadline-Big-Media-ep-38__130607215900.mp3" onclick="javascript:_gaq.push(['_trackEvent','outbound-article','http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net']);" rel="nofollow">Deadline Big Media, Episode 38 (MP3 format)</a><br />
+<a href="http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Deadline-Big-Media-ep-38__130607220046.m4a" onclick="javascript:_gaq.push(['_trackEvent','outbound-article','http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net']);" rel="nofollow"> Deadline Big Media, Episode 38 (MP4a format)</a><span id="more-516113"></span></p>
+<p>The M4A version of this podcast is designed to run on any device using Apple&#8217;s iTunes software, and includes enhanced graphics and links to stories and other resources. The MP3 version of this podcast is designed to play on virtually any device capable of playing digital audio.</p>
+<p>To hear past episodes of “Deadline Big Media,” go here: http://www.deadline.com/tag/deadline-big-media/</p>
+<p>You can also hear the podcast on iTunes and on Deadline’s SoundCloud page. For those using non-iTunes software to listen to the podcast who want to automatically receive the &#8220;Deadline Big Media&#8221; podcasts in their non-iTunes &#8220;podcatcher&#8221; software, you can subscribe at http://www.deadline.com/big-media-podcast/</p>
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+        					<th class="mp-th-1">&nbsp;</th>
+        					<th class="mp-th-2">Two Weeks of Posts</th>
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+        				</tr>
+        			</thead>
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+        			            			    <tr class=" first">
+        			        <td class="mp-td-1 serif">1</td>
+        			        <td class="mp-td-2"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/first-box-office-after-earth-underperforming-now-you-see-me-on-track-fast-furious-6-still-holding-1-hangover-iii-lagging-star-trek-into-darkness/" title="Will Smith&#8217;s &#8216;After Earth&#8217; Fizzles Behind #2 &#8216;Now You See Me&#8217;, &#8216;Fast 6&#8242; Still Sizzles At #1, &#8216;Epic&#8217; And &#8216;Hangover III&#8217; Guzzle Overseas">Will Smith&#8217;s &#8216;After Earth&#8217; Fizzles Behind #2 &#133;</a></td>
+        			        <td class="mp-td-3 serif">354</td>
+        			    </tr>
+        			            			    <tr class="odd ">
+        			        <td class="mp-td-1 serif">2</td>
+        			        <td class="mp-td-2"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/outlander-greenlighted-to-series-by-starz/" title="&#8216;Outlander&#8217; Greenlighted To Series By Starz">&#8216;Outlander&#8217; Greenlighted To Series By Starz </a></td>
+        			        <td class="mp-td-3 serif">244</td>
+        			    </tr>
+        			            			    <tr class=" ">
+        			        <td class="mp-td-1 serif">3</td>
+        			        <td class="mp-td-2"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/wgas-101-best-written-tv-series-of-all-time-complete-list/" title="&#8217;101 Best Written TV Series Of All Time&#8217; From WGA/TV Guide: Complete List">&#8217;101 Best Written TV Series Of All Time&#8217; From WGA/TV &#133;</a></td>
+        			        <td class="mp-td-3 serif">219</td>
+        			    </tr>
+        			            			    <tr class="odd ">
+        			        <td class="mp-td-1 serif">4</td>
+        			        <td class="mp-td-2"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/caa-hollywood-agency-ad-attacks-century-city-mall/" title="WME Was Responsible For CAA &#8220;CAAN&#8217;T&#8221; Attack Ads Posted At Century City Mall">WME Was Responsible For CAA &#8220;CAAN&#8217;T&#8221; Attack &#133;</a></td>
+        			        <td class="mp-td-3 serif">199</td>
+        			    </tr>
+        			            			    <tr class=" ">
+        			        <td class="mp-td-1 serif">5</td>
+        			        <td class="mp-td-2"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/secret-life-of-the-american-teenager-rises-in-series-finale/" title="&#8216;Secret Life Of The American Teenager&#8217; Rises In Series Finale">&#8216;Secret Life Of The American Teenager&#8217; Rises In &#133;</a></td>
+        			        <td class="mp-td-3 serif">176</td>
+        			    </tr>
+        			            			</tbody>
+        		</table>
+        	</div>
+        </div>
+	</li><li id="text-5" class="widget widget_text"><h3>&#8216;Rush&#8217; Featurette</h3>			<div class="textwidget"><iframe width="320" height="225" frameborder="0" marginwidth="0" marginheight='0' scrolling="no" src="http://hub.video.msn.com/embed/e6cf1e5c-fd26-4b77-9258-198851098f4c/?vars=ZnI9c2hhcmVlbWJlZC1zeW5kaWNhdGlvbiZsaW5rb3ZlcnJpZGUyPWh0dHAlM0ElMkYlMkZtb3ZpZXMubXNuLmNvbSUyRm1vdmllcyUyRm1vdmllLXRyYWlsZXJzJTJGJTNGdmlkZW9JZCUzRCU3QjAlN0QlMjZmcm9tJTNEZW4tdXNfbXNuaHAlMjMlMkZ2aWRlbyUyRmU2Y2YxZTVjLWZkMjYtNGI3Ny05MjU4LTE5ODg1MTA5OGY0YyUyRiUyNmZyb20lM0Rlbi11c19tc25ocCUyNmd0MSUzRDQyMDEwJTI1MjAlMjUyMCUzRm9jaWQlM0Rtb2hmcFMxUkwxJnN5bmRpY2F0aW9uPXRhZyZjb25maWdOYW1lPXN5bmRpY2F0aW9ucGxheWVyJmxpbmtiYWNrPWh0dHAlM0ElMkYlMkZ3d3cuYmluZy5jb20lMkZ2aWRlb3MmbWt0PWVuLXVzJmNvbmZpZ0NzaWQ9TVNOVmlkZW8%3D">
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+        	<ul class="ui-tabs-nav ui-helper-reset ui-helper-clearfix ui-widget-header ui-corner-all">
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+        		<li class="ui-corner-top ui-state-default"><a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.deadline.com/wp-content/plugins/MMC_top-ten-newyork/top-ten-view-ajax.php?s=dvds" class="no-click">DVD Sales</a></li>
+        		<li class="ui-corner-top ui-state-default"><a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.deadline.com/wp-content/plugins/MMC_top-ten-newyork/top-ten-view-ajax.php?s=dvdr" class="no-click">DVD Rentals</a></li>
+        		<li class="ui-corner-top ui-state-default"><a rel="nofollow" href="http://www.deadline.com/wp-content/plugins/MMC_top-ten-newyork/top-ten-view-ajax.php?s=vgsales" class="no-click">Game Sales</a></li>
+        	</ul>
+        	<div id="top-ten-start" class="ui-tabs-panel ui-widget-content ui-corner-bottom">
+								<script type="text/javascript">
+				jQuery(document).ready(function(){
+					jQuery("#top-ten-start").hide();
+				});
+				</script>
+        		<table class="top-ten-table" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
+        			<thead>
+        				<tr>
+        					<th>&nbsp;</th>
+        					<th class="tt-th-2">Title</th>
+        					<th class="tt-th-3">Network</th>
+        					<th class="tt-th-4">Index</th>
+        				</tr>
+        			</thead>
+        			<tbody>
+        			            			    <tr class=" first">
+        			        <td class="tt-td-1 serif">1</td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-2">NCIS </td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-3">CBS </td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-4 serif">138</td>
+        			    </tr>
+        			            			    <tr class="odd ">
+        			        <td class="tt-td-1 serif">2</td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-2">NCIS: Los Angeles </td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-3">CBS </td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-4 serif">133</td>
+        			    </tr>
+        			            			    <tr class=" ">
+        			        <td class="tt-td-1 serif">3</td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-2">La Patrona </td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-3">TELMUN-B </td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-4 serif">127</td>
+        			    </tr>
+        			            			    <tr class="odd ">
+        			        <td class="tt-td-1 serif">4</td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-2">Criminal Minds </td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-3">CBS </td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-4 serif">127</td>
+        			    </tr>
+        			            			    <tr class=" ">
+        			        <td class="tt-td-1 serif">5</td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-2">CSI: Crime Scene &#133;</td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-3">CBS </td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-4 serif">126</td>
+        			    </tr>
+        			            			    <tr class="odd ">
+        			        <td class="tt-td-1 serif">6</td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-2">The Good Wife </td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-3">CBS </td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-4 serif">125</td>
+        			    </tr>
+        			            			    <tr class=" ">
+        			        <td class="tt-td-1 serif">7</td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-2">The Mentalist </td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-3">CBS </td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-4 serif">124</td>
+        			    </tr>
+        			            			    <tr class="odd ">
+        			        <td class="tt-td-1 serif">8</td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-2">Por ella soy Eva </td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-3">UNIV-B </td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-4 serif">124</td>
+        			    </tr>
+        			            			    <tr class=" ">
+        			        <td class="tt-td-1 serif">9</td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-2">Blue Bloods </td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-3">CBS </td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-4 serif">122</td>
+        			    </tr>
+        			            			    <tr class="odd ">
+        			        <td class="tt-td-1 serif">10</td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-2">Amor bravio </td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-3">UNIV-B </td>
+        			        <td class="tt-td-4 serif">121</td>
+        			    </tr>
+        			    									<tr id="number_source"><td><div>SOURCE: <a href="http://www.rentrak.com" target="_blank">RENTRAK.COM</a></div></td></tr>
+        			</tbody>
+        		</table>
+        		        	</div>
+        </div>
+	</li><li id="polls-widget-6" class="widget widget_polls-widget"><h3>Box Office Poll</h3><div id="polls-4" class="wp-polls">
+	<form id="polls_form_4" class="wp-polls-form" action="/2013/06/deadline-big-media-with-david-lieberman-episode-38/" method="post">
+		<p style="display: none;"><input type="hidden" name="poll_id" value="4" /></p>
+		<h4>What will 'Man Of Steel' gross this weekend?</h4>
+<div id="polls-4-ans" class="wp-polls-questions">
+		<input type="button" class="poll-btn" onclick="$('#poll-answer-20').attr('checked', 'checked');poll_vote(4); return false;" value="$100M" /><input type="radio" id="poll-answer-20" name="poll_4" class="poll-radio" value="20" />
+		<input type="button" class="poll-btn" onclick="$('#poll-answer-21').attr('checked', 'checked');poll_vote(4); return false;" value="$110M" /><input type="radio" id="poll-answer-21" name="poll_4" class="poll-radio" value="21" />
+		<input type="button" class="poll-btn" onclick="$('#poll-answer-29').attr('checked', 'checked');poll_vote(4); return false;" value="$120M" /><input type="radio" id="poll-answer-29" name="poll_4" class="poll-radio" value="29" />
+		<input type="button" class="poll-btn" onclick="$('#poll-answer-33').attr('checked', 'checked');poll_vote(4); return false;" value="$130M" /><input type="radio" id="poll-answer-33" name="poll_4" class="poll-radio" value="33" />
+		</div>
+<div class="poll-footer"><a href="#ViewPollResults" onclick="poll_result(4); return false;" title="View Results Of This Poll" class="poll-view">(View Results)</a>Cast Your Vote Now</div>
+	</form>
+</div>
+<div id="polls-4-loading" class="wp-polls-loading"><img src="http://www.deadline.com/wp-content/plugins/MMC_wp-polls/images/loading.gif" width="16" height="16" alt="Loading ..." title="Loading ..." class="wp-polls-image" />&nbsp;Loading ...</div>
+</li><li id="text-6" class="widget widget_text">			<div class="textwidget"><iframe allowtransparency="true" marginwidth="0" marginheight="0" hspace="0" vspace="0" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" src="http://api.finance.yahoo.com/instrument/1.0/TWX,DIS,NWSA,CBS,DWA,LGF,VIA,SNE,CMCSA/badge;chart=1y;quote/HTML?AppID=8hjEBZ4vb3HPrISTwHaiX2Lxo5pZ&sig=vS2900stno4CYU23VayRFFd.J8E-&t=1260469245538" width="300px" height="590px" style="margin-top:-12px;"><a href="http://finance.yahoo.com" onclick="javascript:_gaq.push(['_trackEvent','outbound-widget','http://finance.yahoo.com']);">Yahoo! Finance</a><br/><a href="http://finance.yahoo.com/q?s=TWX" onclick="javascript:_gaq.push(['_trackEvent','outbound-widget','http://finance.yahoo.com']);">Quote for TWX</a></iframe></div>
+		</li><li id="text-43" class="widget widget_text"><h3>Archives</h3>			<div class="textwidget"><ul>
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+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/02/" >February 2013</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2013/01/" >January 2013</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2012/12/" >December 2012</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2012/11/" >November 2012</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2012/10/" >October 2012</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2012/09/" >September 2012</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2012/08/" >August 2012</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2012/07/" >July 2012</a></li>
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+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2012/03/" >March 2012</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2012/02/" >February 2012</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2012/01/" >January 2012</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2011/12/" >December 2011</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2011/11/" >November 2011</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2011/10/" >October 2011</a></li>
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+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2011/06/" >June 2011</a></li>
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+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2011/02/" >February 2011</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2011/01/" >January 2011</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2010/12/" >December 2010</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2010/11/" >November 2010</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2010/10/" >October 2010</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2010/09/" >September 2010</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2010/08/" >August 2010</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2010/07/" >July 2010</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2010/06/" >June 2010</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2010/05/" >May 2010</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2010/04/" >April 2010</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2010/03/" >March 2010</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2010/02/" >February 2010</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2010/01/" >January 2010</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2009/12/" >December 2009</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2009/11/" >November 2009</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2009/10/" >October 2009</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2009/09/" >September 2009</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2009/08/" >August 2009</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2009/07/" >July 2009</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2009/06/" >June 2009</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2009/05/" >May 2009</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2009/04/" >April 2009</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2009/03/" >March 2009</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2009/02/" >February 2009</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2009/01/" >January 2009</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2008/12/" >December 2008</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2008/11/" >November 2008</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2008/10/" >October 2008</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2008/09/" >September 2008</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2008/08/" >August 2008</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2008/07/" >July 2008</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2008/06/" >June 2008</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2008/05/" >May 2008</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2008/04/" >April 2008</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2008/03/" >March 2008</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2008/02/" >February 2008</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2008/01/" >January 2008</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2007/12/" >December 2007</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2007/11/" >November 2007</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2007/10/" >October 2007</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2007/09/" >September 2007</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2007/08/" >August 2007</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2007/07/" >July 2007</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2007/06/" >June 2007</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2007/05/" >May 2007</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2007/04/" >April 2007</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2007/03/" >March 2007</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2007/02/" >February 2007</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2007/01/" >January 2007</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2006/12/" >December 2006</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2006/11/" >November 2006</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2006/10/" >October 2006</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2006/09/" >September 2006</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2006/08/" >August 2006</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2006/07/" >July 2006</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2006/06/" >June 2006</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2006/05/" >May 2006</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2006/04/" >April 2006</a></li>
+<li style="padding: 5px 10px; border-bottom: 1px dotted #CCC;"><a href="http://www.deadline.com/2006/03/" >March 2006</a></li>
+</ul></div>
+		</li><li id="recentpost_from_feed-14" class="widget widget_recentpost_from_feed"><h3><a class='recentpost_from_feedwidget' href='http://www.hsx.com/rss/box_office_forecast.rss' title='Syndicate this content'><img style=border:none;margin-left:-12px;'  src='http://www-deadline-com.vimg.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/deadline-hsx-header_20110707001603.png' alt='HSX Box Office Forecasts' /></a></h3><ul><li><a class='recentpost_from_feedwidget' href='http://www.hsx.com/security/view/rss-deadline/SUPR2' title=' [&hellip;]'>Man of Steel (SUPR2) forecast at $108.4M unchanged</a></li><li class="alternate"><a class='recentpost_from_feedwidget' href='http://www.hsx.com/security/view/rss-deadline/JSVSA' title=' [&hellip;]'>This is the End (JSVSA) forecast at $23.1M up $0.9M</a></li><li><a class='recentpost_from_feedwidget' href='http://www.hsx.com/security/view/rss-deadline/BFSU3' title=' [&hellip;]'>Before Midnight (BFSU3) forecast at $2.4M unchanged</a></li><li class="alternate"><a class='recentpost_from_feedwidget' href='http://www.hsx.com/security/view/rss-deadline/MONS2' title=' [&hellip;]'>Monsters University (MONS2) forecast at $81.9M unchanged</a></li><li><a class='recentpost_from_feedwidget' href='http://www.hsx.com/security/view/rss-deadline/WWARZ' title=' [&hellip;]'>World War Z (WWARZ) forecast at $49.0M up $0.3M</a></li></ul></li><!-- Scheduling cache update for Recent Post from Feed module @ 2013-06-13 23:57:00 UTC -->    </ul>
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+<script type='text/javascript' src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jqueryui/1.8.12/jquery-ui.min.js"></script>
+<script type='text/javascript' src="http://www.deadline.com/wp-content/themes/deadline/js/jquery.example.min.js?v4"></script>
+<script type='text/javascript' src="http://www.deadline.com/wp-content/themes/deadline/js/jquery.tipsy.js?v4"></script>
+<script type='text/javascript' src="http://www.deadline.com/wp-content/themes/deadline/js/dhd.js?v=020"></script>
+<script type='text/javascript' src="http://www.deadline.com/wp-content/themes/deadline/js/jcarousellite_1.0.1.min.js?v2"></script>
+
+<script type="text/javascript">
+	// jQuery live to catch any links that shouldn't redirect
+	$("a").live("click", function() {
+	  if($(this).hasClass("no-click") || $(this).hasClass("tooltip")) {
+		return false;
+	  }
+	});
+</script>
+
+<script type="text/javascript">
+jQuery(document).ready(function(){
+	jQuery(".auto .jcarousel-clip").jCarouselLite({
+    auto: 8000,
+    speed: 500,
+    scroll: 3,
+	visible: 4,
+	btnNext: ".jcarousel-next",
+	btnPrev: ".jcarousel-prev"
+	});
+});
+</script>
+
+<!-- Tweet Button Start -->
+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js"></script>
+<!-- Tweet Button End -->
+
+<!-- Google +1 Button Start -->
+<script type="text/javascript" src="https://apis.google.com/js/plusone.js"></script>
+<!-- Google +1 Button End -->
+
+<!-- AddThis start -->
+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://s7.addthis.com/js/250/addthis_widget.js?pub=xa-4a92b9d818cb896c"></script>
+<!-- AddThis end -->
+
+<!-- CrazyEgg start -->
+<script type="text/javascript">document.write(unescape('%3Cscript type="text/javascript" src="'+document.location.protocol+'//dnn506yrbagrg.cloudfront.net/pages/scripts/0011/4414.js"%3E%3C%2Fscript%3E'))</script>
+<!-- CrazyEgg end -->
+
+<script type='text/javascript'>
+/* <![CDATA[ */
+var pollsL10n = {
+	ajax_url: "http://www.deadline.com/wp-content/plugins/MMC_wp-polls/wp-polls.php",
+	text_wait: "Your last request is still being processed. Please wait a while ...",
+	text_valid: "Please choose a valid poll answer.",
+	text_multiple: "Maximum number of choices allowed: ",
+	show_loading: "1",
+	show_fading: "1"
+};
+/* ]]> */
+</script>
+<script type='text/javascript' src='http://www.deadline.com/wp-content/plugins/MMC_wp-polls/polls-js.js?ver=2.50'></script>
+<script type='text/javascript'>
+/* <![CDATA[ */
+var jetpackCarouselStrings = {
+	widths: "Array",
+	is_logged_in: "",
+	ajaxurl: "http://www.deadline.com/wp-admin/admin-ajax.php",
+	nonce: "1820a47bad",
+	display_exif: "1",
+	display_geo: "1",
+	background_color: "black",
+	post_comment: "Post Comment",
+	loading_comments: "Loading Comments...",
+	download_original: "View full size &lt;span class=&quot;photo-size&quot;&gt;{0}&lt;span class=&quot;photo-size-times&quot;&gt;&times;&lt;/span&gt;{1}&lt;/span&gt;",
+	no_comment_text: "Please be sure to submit some text with your comment.",
+	no_comment_email: "Please provide an email address to comment.",
+	no_comment_author: "Please provide your name to comment.",
+	comment_post_error: "Sorry, but there was an error posting your comment. Please try again later.",
+	comment_approved: "Your comment was approved.",
+	comment_unapproved: "Your comment is in moderation.",
+	camera: "Camera",
+	aperture: "Aperture",
+	shutter_speed: "Shutter Speed",
+	focal_length: "Focal Length",
+	local_comments_commenting_as: "&lt;fieldset&gt;&lt;label for=&quot;email&quot;&gt;Email (Required)&lt;/label&gt; &lt;input type=&quot;text&quot; name=&quot;email&quot; class=&quot;jp-carousel-comment-form-field jp-carousel-comment-form-text-field&quot; id=&quot;jp-carousel-comment-form-email-field&quot; /&gt;&lt;/fieldset&gt;&lt;fieldset&gt;&lt;label for=&quot;author&quot;&gt;Name (Required)&lt;/label&gt; &lt;input type=&quot;text&quot; name=&quot;author&quot; class=&quot;jp-carousel-comment-form-field jp-carousel-comment-form-text-field&quot; id=&quot;jp-carousel-comment-form-author-field&quot; /&gt;&lt;/fieldset&gt;&lt;fieldset&gt;&lt;label for=&quot;url&quot;&gt;Website&lt;/label&gt; &lt;input type=&quot;text&quot; name=&quot;url&quot; class=&quot;jp-carousel-comment-form-field jp-carousel-comment-form-text-field&quot; id=&quot;jp-carousel-comment-form-url-field&quot; /&gt;&lt;/fieldset&gt;"
+};
+/* ]]> */
+</script>
+<script type='text/javascript' src='http://www.deadline.com/wp-content/plugins/jetpack-carousel/jetpack-carousel.js?ver=20120629'></script>
+<script type='text/javascript' src='http://www.deadline.com/wp-includes/js/jquery/jquery.form.js?ver=2.73'></script>
+<script type='text/javascript' src='http://www.deadline.com/wp-content/plugins/contact-form-7/scripts.js?ver=2.3.1.1'></script>
+        <script type="text/javascript">
+            (function() {
+                function loadHorizon() { var s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.async = true;
+                    s.src = ('https:'==location.protocol?'https://dyrkrau635c04.cloudfront.net':'http://cdn.sailthru.com')+'/horizon/v1.js';
+                    var x = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; x.parentNode.insertBefore(s, x);
+                }
+                loadHorizon();
+                window.onload = function() {
+                    Sailthru.setup({
+                                                domain: 'horizon.example.com',
+                                                concierge: { from: 'top', threshold: 400 }
+                                            });
+                }
+            })();
+        </script>
+        
+<!-- start general-header footer 0.5-9 -->
+<!-- Quantcast Tag, part 2 -->
+<script type="text/javascript">
+_qevents.push([
+	{ qacct:"p-0f0nSqEQ_DwA6" }, // Deadline P-code
+	{ qacct:"p-31f3D02tYU8zY" } // PMC P-Code
+]);
+</script>
+<noscript>
+	<div style="display:none;">
+		<img src="//pixel.quantserve.com/pixel?a.1=p-0f0nSqEQ_DwA6&a.2=p-31f3D02tYU8zY" border="0" height="1" width="1" alt="Quantcast"/>
+	</div>
+</noscript>
+<!-- Quantcast tag End, part 2 -->
+<!--Heatmapping JS tag - using CrazyEgg Start -->
+<script type="text/javascript">document.write(unescape('%3Cscript type="text/javascript" src="'+document.location.protocol+'//dnn506yrbagrg.cloudfront.net/pages/scripts/0011/4414.js"%3E%3C%2Fscript%3E'))</script>
+<!--Heatmapping JS tag - using CrazyEgg End --><!-- START Nielsen Online SiteCensus V6.0 -->
+<!-- COPYRIGHT 2010 Nielsen Online -->
+<script type="text/javascript">
+(function () {
+var d = new Image(1, 1);
+d.onerror = d.onload = function () {
+	d.onerror = d.onload = null;
+};
+
+d.src = ["//secure-us.imrworldwide.com/cgi-bin/m?ci=us-203220h&cg=0&cc=1&si=", escape(window.location.href), "&rp=", escape(document.referrer), "&ts=compact&rnd=", (new Date()).getTime()].join('');
+
+})();
+</script>
+
+<noscript>
+<div>
+	<img src="//secure-us.imrworldwide.com/cgi-bin/m?ci=us-203220h&cg=0&cc=1&ts=noscript" width="1" height="1" alt="" />
+</div>
+</noscript>
+<!-- END Nielsen Online SiteCensus V6.0 -->
+<!-- end general-header footer -->
+
+<!-- start general-header footer desktop 0.5-9 -->
+<!-- this markup will go immediate before </body> tag on every page for desktop -->
+<script type="text/JavaScript" src="http://jobsearch.deadline.com/js/xmlScrollView2.js"></script>
+<script type="text/JavaScript" src="http://jobsearch.deadline.com/qjs/?clientid=deadline&stringVar=xmlString&pageSize=5&outFormat=jsxml&searchType=featured"></script>
+<script type="text/JavaScript" src="http://jobsearch.deadline.com/careers/company/cfetcher?site=deadline&stringVar=xmlPrefCo&output=jsxml&pagesize=6&searchType=featured&preferred=1"></script>
+<div id="BF_WIDGET_1"> </div>
+<script type="text/javascript">
+(function( ){
+BF_WIDGET_JS=document.createElement("script"); BF_WIDGET_JS.type="text/javascript";
+BF_WIDGET_SRC="http://ct.buzzfeed.com/wd/UserWidget?u=deadline.com&to=1&or=vb&wid=1&cb=" + (new Date()).getTime();
+setTimeout(function() {document.getElementById("BF_WIDGET_1").appendChild(BF_WIDGET_JS);BF_WIDGET_JS.src=BF_WIDGET_SRC},1);
+})();
+</script>
+<!-- end general-header footer desktop -->
+
+<div id="analytics">
+
+	<!-- Start Omniture tag -->
+		
+		<script language="JavaScript" type="text/javascript" src="http://www.deadline.com/wp-content/themes/deadline/js/s_code_mmc.js?v6.2"></script>
+				<script type="text/javascript">
+		if( 'undefined' !== typeof pmc_referrer_cookie && ! pmc.is_empty(pmc_referrer_cookie) ) {
+			if( 'undefined' !== typeof s_mmc ) {
+				s_mmc.referrer = pmc_referrer_cookie;
+			} else {
+				s.referrer = pmc_referrer_cookie;
+			}
+		}
+		</script>
+		<script language="JavaScript" type="text/javascript">s_mmc.prop24='DAVID LIEBERMAN, Executive Editor'; s_mmc.channel = "new-york"; var s_code=s_mmc.t();if(s_code)document.write(s_code);</script>
+	<!-- End Omniture tag -->
+</div>
+	<!--linked in general script -->
+<script src="//platform.linkedin.com/in.js" type="text/javascript"></script>
+<!-- START Nielsen Online SiteCensus V6.0 -->
+<!-- COPYRIGHT 2010 Nielsen Online -->
+<script type="text/javascript">
+(function () {
+var d = new Image(1, 1);
+d.onerror = d.onload = function () {
+	d.onerror = d.onload = null;
+};
+
+d.src = ["//secure-us.imrworldwide.com/cgi-bin/m?ci=us-203220h&cg=0&cc=1&si=", escape(window.location.href), "&rp=", escape(document.referrer), "&ts=compact&rnd=", (new Date()).getTime()].join('');
+
+})();
+</script>
+
+<noscript>
+<div>
+	<img src="//secure-us.imrworldwide.com/cgi-bin/m?ci=us-203220h&amp;cg=0&amp;cc=1&amp;ts=noscript" width="1" height="1" alt="" />
+</div>
+</noscript>
+<!-- END Nielsen Online SiteCensus V6.0 -->
+
+	<!-- CharBeat Start -->
+	<script type="text/javascript">
+	var _sf_async_config={uid:17615,domain:"deadline.com"};
+	_sf_async_config.sections	="Hollywood,London,Movies,New York,TV";
+_sf_async_config.authors	="DAVID LIEBERMAN, Executive Editor";
+	(function(){
+	  function loadChartbeat() {
+	    window._sf_endpt=(new Date()).getTime();
+	    var e = document.createElement('script');
+	    e.setAttribute('language', 'javascript');
+	    e.setAttribute('type', 'text/javascript');
+	    e.setAttribute('src',
+	       (("https:" == document.location.protocol) ? "https://a248.e.akamai.net/chartbeat.download.akamai.com/102508/" : "http://static.chartbeat.com/") +
+	       "js/chartbeat.js");
+	    document.body.appendChild(e);
+	  }
+	  var oldonload = window.onload;
+	  window.onload = (typeof window.onload != 'function') ?
+	     loadChartbeat : function() { oldonload(); loadChartbeat(); };
+	})();
+	</script>
+	<!-- ChartBeat End -->
+
+<!-- DO NOT REMOVE, comment for engineering, 4BAfe4nkpyAktm3S -->
+</body>
+</html>
+
+<!-- Performance optimized by W3 Total Cache. Learn more: http://www.w3-edge.com/wordpress-plugins/
+
+Page Caching using memcached
+Content Delivery Network via Amazon Web Services: CloudFront: Amazon Web Services: S3: www-deadline-com.vimg.net
+
+Served from: www.deadline.com @ 2013-06-13 23:57:00 -->
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_deadline.json b/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_deadline.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..0a93c9bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_deadline.json
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.deadline.com/2013/06/deadline-big-media-with-david-lieberman-episode-38/", 
+    "expected": {
+        "tags": [
+            "Deadline Big Media", 
+            "TiVo", 
+            "Amazon Prime", 
+            "Steve Ballmer"
+        ]
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_kexp.html b/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_kexp.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..5138cbee
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_kexp.html
@@ -0,0 +1,304 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en-US">
+
+<head profile="http://gmpg.org/xfn/11">
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" />
+
+<title>The Film Gang  &raquo; Blog Archive   &raquo; Stand Up Guys</title>
+
+<link rel="stylesheet" href="http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/wp-content/themes/mika/style.css" type="text/css" media="screen" />
+<link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="The Film Gang RSS Feed" href="http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/feed/" />
+<link rel="pingback" href="http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/xmlrpc.php" />
+<!-- kusp js and css -->
+<link href="http://kusp.org/css/footer.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="screen" />
+<link href="http://kusp.org/css/header-external.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" media="screen" />
+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://kusp.org/js/footer.js"></script>
+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://kusp.org/js/header.js"></script>
+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://kusp.org/js/jquery-1.6.4.js"></script>
+<script type="text/javascript">
+$(document).ready(function() {
+    // Only disable startStopped if the body has this class
+    if ($('body').hasClass("First Person Singular")) {
+        $('.entry p:contains(haiku)').remove();
+    }
+});
+</script>
+
+				<script type="text/javascript">var switchTo5x=false;</script>
+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://w.sharethis.com/button/buttons.js"></script>
+<script type="text/javascript">stLight.options({publisher:'8fccd13f-f163-456d-8d62-74acb3230929'});</script>
+
+
+<!--
+<script type="text/javascript">displayHeader();</script>
+<script type="text/javascript">displayFooter();</script>
+-->
+<!-- google analytics -->
+<script type="text/javascript">
+
+  var _gaq = _gaq || [];
+  _gaq.push(['_setAccount', 'UA-3564459-1']);
+  _gaq.push(['_setDomainName', '.kusp.org']);
+  _gaq.push(['_trackPageview']);
+
+  (function() {
+    var ga = document.createElement('script'); ga.type = 'text/javascript'; ga.async = true;
+    ga.src = ('https:' == document.location.protocol ? 'https://ssl' : 'http://www') + '.google-analytics.com/ga.js';
+    var s = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; s.parentNode.insertBefore(ga, s);
+  })();
+
+</script>
+
+<link rel='stylesheet' id='portfolio_slideshow-css'  href='http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/wp-content/plugins/portfolio-slideshow-pro/css/portfolio-slideshow.min.css?ver=1.4.6' type='text/css' media='screen' />
+<link rel='stylesheet' id='fancybox-css'  href='http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/wp-content/plugins/portfolio-slideshow-pro/js/fancybox/jquery.fancybox-1.3.4.css?ver=1.3.4' type='text/css' media='screen' />
+<link rel='stylesheet' id='pinterestRSScss-css'  href='http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/wp-content/plugins/pinterest-rss-widget/style.css?ver=3.5.1' type='text/css' media='all' />
+<link rel='stylesheet' id='contact-form-7-css'  href='http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/wp-content/plugins/contact-form-7/styles.css?ver=3.0.1' type='text/css' media='all' />
+<script type='text/javascript' src='http://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/1.7.1/jquery.min.js?ver=3.5.1'></script>
+<script type='text/javascript' src='http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/wp-content/plugins/pinterest-rss-widget/jquery.nailthumb.1.0.min.js?ver=3.5.1'></script>
+<link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" title="RSD" href="http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/xmlrpc.php?rsd" />
+<link rel="wlwmanifest" type="application/wlwmanifest+xml" href="http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/wp-includes/wlwmanifest.xml" /> 
+<link rel='prev' title='Barbara' href='http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/2013/02/04/barbara/' />
+<link rel='next' title='Wasonville Film Festival Honors Young Filmmakers, Luis Valdez' href='http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/2013/02/20/wasonville-film-festival-honors-young-filmmakers-luis-valdez/' />
+<meta name="generator" content="WordPress 3.5.1" />
+<link rel='canonical' href='http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/2013/02/08/stand-up-guys/' />
+<link rel='shortlink' href='http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/?p=470' />
+
+<!-- Portfolio Slideshow-->
+<noscript><link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/wp-content/plugins/portfolio-slideshow-pro/css/portfolio-slideshow-noscript.css?ver=1.4.6" /></noscript><style type="text/css">.centered .pscarousel {left: 2.5px; } .centered a.next.browse.right {left: 12.5px; } .scrollable {height:75px;} a.prev.browse.left {top:37.5px}a.next.browse.right {top:-47.5px}div.slideshow-wrapper .pager img {padding-right:5px !important; padding-bottom:5px !important;}</style><script type="text/javascript">/* <![CDATA[ */var psTimeout = new Array(); psAudio = new Array(); var psAutoplay = new Array(); var psFluid = new Array(); var psTrans = new Array(); var psRandom = new Array(); var psCarouselSize = new Array(); var touchWipe = new Array(); var keyboardNav = new Array(); var psPagerStyle = new Array(); psCarousel = new Array(); var psSpeed = new Array(); var psNoWrap = new Array();/* ]]> */</script>
+<!--//Portfolio Slideshow-->
+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/wp-content/plugins/powerpress/player.js"></script>
+<script type="text/javascript"><!--
+function powerpress_pinw(pinw){window.open('http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/?powerpress_pinw='+pinw, 'PowerPressPlayer','toolbar=0,status=0,resizable=1,width=460,height=320');	return false;}
+powerpress_url = 'http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/wp-content/plugins/powerpress/';
+//-->
+</script>
+</head>
+
+<body class="The Film Gang">
+<div id="wrap">
+<div id="page">
+
+
+<div id="header">
+<!--<script type="text/javascript">displayHeader();</script>-->
+	<div id="feedback">
+		<a href="http://kusp.org/comments-site.shtml">
+			<div class="feedback-button">
+				<span class="feedback-text">Site Feedback</span>
+			</div><!--end feedback button-->
+		</a>
+	</div><!--end feedback-->
+
+<div id="header-container">
+
+	<a href="http://kusp.org/index.shtml">
+		<div class="logo"></div><!--end logo-->
+	</a>
+	
+	<div class="main-nav">
+		<ul class="nav-ul primary">
+			<li class="nav-news"><a href="http://blogs.kusp.org/news/">News</a></li>
+			<li class="nav-talk"><a href="http://kusp.org/talk.shtml">Talk</a></li>
+			<li class="nav-music"><a href="http://kusp.org/music.shtml">Music</a></li>
+			<li class="nav-arts"><a href="http://kusp.org/arts.shtml">Arts</a></li>
+			<li class="nav-blogs"><a href="http://kusp.org/blogs.shtml">Blogs</a></li>
+			<li class="nav-npr"><a href="http://npr.org">NPR</a></li>
+		</ul>
+	</div><!--end navigation container-->
+	<!---->
+	<div class="secondary-nav">
+		<ul class="nav-ul secondary">
+			<a href="http://kusp.org/guide.html"><li><img src="http://kusp.org/images/program_guide.png"></li></a>
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+			<a href="http://kusp.org/pod"><li class="podcasts"><img src="http://kusp.org/images/podcasts.png"></li></a>
+			<a href="http://kusp.org/story.shtml"><li><img src="http://kusp.org/images/about_kusp.png"></li></a>
+		</ul>
+	</div><!--end secondary-nav-->
+	
+	<a href="http://donate.kusp.org/">
+		<div class="donate">
+			<a href="http://donate.kusp.org/"><img src="http://kusp.org/images/donate.png"></a>
+		</div><!--end secondary-nav-->
+	</a>
+	
+	<div id="google-search">
+	<div id="cse-search-form" style="width: 100%;"><!--insert loading text here--></div>
+
+		<script src="http://www.google.com/jsapi" type="text/javascript"></script>
+		<script type="text/javascript"> 
+		  google.load('search', '1', {language : 'en'});
+		  google.setOnLoadCallback(function() {
+			var customSearchControl = new google.search.CustomSearchControl('000110264888032798865:cjbakzbjr1w');
+			customSearchControl.setResultSetSize(google.search.Search.FILTERED_CSE_RESULTSET);
+			var options = new google.search.DrawOptions();
+			options.setAutoComplete(true);
+			options.enableSearchboxOnly("http://google.com/cse?cx=000110264888032798865:cjbakzbjr1w");    
+			customSearchControl.draw('cse-search-form', options);
+		  }, true);
+		</script>
+
+	<link rel="stylesheet" href="http://www.google.com/cse/style/look/default.css" type="text/css" />
+	<style type="text/css">
+	input.gsc-input {
+		border-color: #CCC;
+		background-color: #fff;
+	}
+	input.gsc-search-button {
+		border-color: #fff;
+		background-color: #DDD;
+		height: 21px;
+		font-family: arial, verdana;
+		font-weight: 100;
+		margin-left: -3px;
+	}
+	#google-search {
+		width: 180px;
+		position: absolute;
+		left: 610px;
+		/*: 74px;*/
+		top: 90px;
+		/* have to move it down by 26 because of the new feedback button */
+		/* after feedback button is removed, the 26 can be restored */	
+	}
+	.cse input.gsc-input,
+	input.gsc-input {
+		background-image:none !important;
+	}
+	.gsc-clear-button  {
+		display: none;
+	}
+	</style>
+	</div><!--end google search-->
+	
+	<!-- google analytics -->
+	<script type="text/javascript">
+	  var _gaq = _gaq || [];
+	  _gaq.push(['_setAccount', 'UA-3564459-1']);
+	  _gaq.push(['_trackPageview']);
+
+	  (function() {
+		var ga = document.createElement('script'); ga.type = 'text/javascript'; ga.async = true;
+		ga.src = ('https:' == document.location.protocol ? 'https://ssl' : 'http://www') + '.google-analytics.com/ga.js';
+		var s = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; s.parentNode.insertBefore(ga, s);
+	  })();
+	</script>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr />
+
+	<div id="content" class="widecolumn">
+	<h1><a href="http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/">The Film Gang</a></h1>
+
+	
+
+
+		<div class="post single" id="post-470">
+			<div class='post-date'>February 8th, 2013 <!-- by admin --></div>
+			<h2><a href="http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/2013/02/08/stand-up-guys/" rel="bookmark" title="Permanent Link to Stand Up Guys">
+				Stand Up Guys</a></h2>
+
+
+			<div class="entry">
+				<div class="powerpress_player" id="powerpress_player_7705"><a href="http://audio1.cruzio.com/kusp/pod/film/2013/02/130206standupguys.mp3" title="Play" onclick="return powerpress_embed_html5a('7705','http://audio1.cruzio.com/kusp/pod/film/2013/02/130206standupguys.mp3');" target="_blank"><img src="http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/wp-content/plugins/powerpress/play_audio.png" title="Play" alt="Play" style="border:0;" /></a></div>
+<p class="powerpress_links powerpress_links_mp3">Podcast: <a href="http://audio1.cruzio.com/kusp/pod/film/2013/02/130206standupguys.mp3" class="powerpress_link_pinw" target="_blank" title="Play in new window" onclick="return powerpress_pinw('470-podcast');">Play in new window</a>
+ | <a href="http://audio1.cruzio.com/kusp/pod/film/2013/02/130206standupguys.mp3" class="powerpress_link_d" title="Download">Download</a>
+</p>
+<p><strong>Listen to the review by Dennis Morton, above.</strong></p>
+<p><iframe src="http://player.vimeo.com/video/51492729" width="500" height="213" frameborder="0" webkitAllowFullScreen mozallowfullscreen allowFullScreen></iframe></p>
+
+								
+				
+				
+				<p class="postmetadata">
+
+					
+
+				 <p class="tag-metadata">Tags: <a href="http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/tag/dennis-morton/" rel="tag">Dennis Morton</a>, <a href="http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/tag/film/" rel="tag">film</a>, <a href="http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/tag/kusp-film-review/" rel="tag">kusp film review</a>, <a href="http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/tag/stand-up-guys/" rel="tag">Stand Up Guys</a></p>				
+				</p>
+				
+			
+				<div class="share">
+					<span class='comments'>
+											</span>
+					<span  class='st_facebook' displayText='Facebook' ></span>
+					<span  class='st_twitter' displayText='Twitter'></span>
+					<span  class='st_sharethis' displayText='ShareThis'></span>
+					<span  class='st_email' displayText='Email'></span>
+					
+					<span class='donate'>
+						<a href='http://donate.kusp.org/'>
+							<img src='http://kusp.org/images/red-micro-donate.gif'>
+								<span class='donate-text'>Donate</span>
+						</a>
+					</span>
+				</div><!--end div share-->
+
+			</div>
+		</div>
+		
+		<div class="navigation">
+			<div class="alignleft">&laquo; <a href="http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/2013/02/04/barbara/" rel="prev">Barbara</a></div>
+			<div class="alignright"><a href="http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/2013/02/20/wasonville-film-festival-honors-young-filmmakers-luis-valdez/" rel="next">Wasonville Film Festival Honors Young Filmmakers, Luis Valdez</a> &raquo;</div>
+		</div>
+	<div class="comments-box">
+	
+<!-- You can start editing here. -->
+
+
+			<!-- If comments are closed. -->
+		<p class="nocomments">Comments are closed.</p>
+
+	
+
+	</div>
+
+	
+	</div>
+
+	<div id="sidebar">
+		<ul>
+			<li id="text-3" class="widget widget_text"><h2 class="widgettitle">About</h2>			<div class="textwidget"><div class="about">
+<img src="http://kusp.org/images/75x75/film_75x75.jpg">
+Thoughtful film critiques of the latest movies, with Dennis Morton & David Anthony 
+<br/>
+<br/><br/>
+<span class="white">Broadcast:</span>
+Wednesdays at 8:35am & 7pm<br/><br/>
+
+<span class="white">Subscribe:</span> Itunes / RSS  &nbsp;
+<span class="white">Contact:</span> 
+<a href="http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/contact/">Email</a>
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+<script type="text/javascript" src="http://output89.rssinclude.com/output?type=js&amp;id=354450&amp;hash=fac3be50b647c870974ea54523099b98"></script>
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+<p>
+Check <a href="http://www.goodtimessantacruz.com/film-reviews/3105-santa-cruz-movie-times.html">local movie times</a>
+</p>
+
+<p><a href="http://www.goodtimessantacruz.com/film-reviews.html">Good Times reviews<a/></p></div>
+		</li>		</ul>
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+</div><!--end div #page-->
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+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_kexp.json b/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_kexp.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..c006c31a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_kexp.json
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://blogs.kusp.org/filmgang/2013/02/08/stand-up-guys/", 
+    "expected": {
+        "tags": [
+            "kusp film review", 
+            "Stand Up Guys", 
+            "film", 
+            "Dennis Morton"
+        ]
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_wnyc.html b/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_wnyc.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..4b1d9aff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_wnyc.html
@@ -0,0 +1,1307 @@
+
+<!DOCTYPE html>
+<html lang="en">
+<head>
+  <meta charset="utf-8">
+  
+  
+  
+  <meta property="og:title" content="Here&#39;s The Thing - Stacy Keach" />
+      <meta property="og:type" content="video.episode" />
+      <meta property="og:video" content="http://www.wnyc.org/media/audioplayer/facebook_embed.swf?file=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wnyc.org%2Faudio%2Fxspf%2F294907%2F&amp;autostart=true" />
+      <meta property="og:video:type" content="application/x-shockwave-flash" />
+      <meta property="og:video:width" content="200" />
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+  <meta property="og:url" content="http://www.wnyc.org/shows/heresthething/2013/may/27/?utm_source=sharedUrl&amp;utm_media=metatag&amp;utm_campaign=sharedUrl" />
+  <meta property="og:site_name" content="WNYC" />
+  <meta property="fb:app_id" content="151261804904925" />
+  <meta property="og:description" content="This week Alec sits down with actor Stacy Keach.&amp;nbsp; Some fans know Keach for his portrayal of Hamlet and Falstaff; others recall him as Sergeant Stedanko in Cheech and Chong&amp;rsquo;s Up in Smoke.&amp;nbsp;" />
+  <meta name="description" content="This week Alec sits down with actor Stacy Keach.&amp;nbsp; Some fans know Keach for his portrayal of Hamlet and Falstaff; ..." />
+  <!-- Google custom search stuff -->
+    <meta name="show" content="heresthething" />
+    <meta name="is_article" content="False" />
+    <meta name="has_audio" content="True" />
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+      <DataObject type="date">
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+
+
+  <title>
+  
+  
+
+Here's The Thing:
+
+  Stacy Keach
+ - WNYC</title>
+  
+  <link rel="shortcut icon" href="//media.wnyc.org/static/img/favicon_wnyc.ico" />
+
+
+  
+  
+<link rel="alternate"
+      type="application/rss+xml"
+      title="Here's The Thing Feed (RSS)"
+      href="/feeds/shows/heresthething"/>
+<link rel="alternate"
+      type="application/atom+xml"
+      title="Here's The Thing Feed (Atom)"
+      href="/atomfeeds/shows/heresthething"/>
+<link rel="alternate"
+      type="application/rss+xml"
+      title="alec baldwin Feed (RSS)"
+      href="/feeds/tags/alec_baldwin"/>
+<link rel="alternate"
+      type="application/atom+xml"
+      title="alec baldwin Feed (Atom)"
+      href="/atomfeeds/tags/alec_baldwin"/>
+<link rel="alternate"
+      type="application/rss+xml"
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+      href="/feeds/tags/other_desert_cities"/>
+<link rel="alternate"
+      type="application/atom+xml"
+      title="other desert cities Feed (Atom)"
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+  <script src="https://www.google.com/jsapi"></script>
+
+<script src="//maps.googleapis.com/maps/api/js?sensor=false&key=AIzaSyCDbxxvbl0Zj6af28IfWjJ-S0SKxwDXnkc
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+<script type="text/javascript" src="//media.wnyc.org/static/CACHE/js/a2cc98e1914f.js"></script>
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+      <div class="item-title"><a></a></div>
+      <div class="sharing"></div>
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+  <div class="util">
+    <div class="schedule toggle-menu"
+      data-menuSelector="#stream_launch_widget .schedule-menu">
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+      Schedule
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+      <li data-stream_slug="<%= data.slug %>">
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+    <script type="text/x-template" id="stream_launch_widget_schedule_entry">
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+          <span class="show-name"><%= data.show %></span>
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+      </li>
+    </script>
+    <script type="text/x-template" id="stream_launch_widget_options_entry">
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+    </script>
+  
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+</div>
+
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+<!-- main -->
+<div class="grid_8 main episode">
+  
+
+
+  <div class="page-titlegroup">
+    
+    
+      <div          class="story-longimage show-marquee"      >
+    
+
+      <a        href="http://www.wnyc.org/shows/heresthething/">    <img src="http://www.wnyc.org/i/620/372/l/80/photologue/photos/HerestheThing_web_header_alt3.jpg"       alt="Here's The Thing"     />
+      </a>      
+
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+
+<span class="credit">
+(Mary Ellen Matthews)
+</span>
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+<script type="text/javascript">
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+<script type="text/javascript">
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+var item_content_type = 'episode';
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+
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+    $('li.bookmark').html("<a class='suggest-login' href='/accounts/login/?next="+document.location.pathname+"'>Login</a> to Recommend");
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+// ]]>
+</script>
+
+  <div class="article-wide episode-full clearfix">
+    <div class="story-headergroup">
+        
+<h3 class="episode-number">
+Episode #42
+</h3>
+
+        <h2 class="title">
+          Stacy Keach
+        </h2>
+        <div class="article-prevnext">
+            
+            <a href="/shows/heresthething/2013/may/13/">&laquo; previous episode</a>
+            |
+            
+            <a href="/shows/heresthething/2013/jun/10/">next episode &raquo;</a>
+        </div>
+      
+  <h3 class="date">Monday, May 27, 2013</h3>
+
+      <span style="display: none;" class="vcard author">
+        <span class="fn">Emily Botein</span>
+      </span>
+        
+  <div class="article-tools clearfix">
+    <ul class="sharelinks clearfix">
+      
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+            
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+<div class="article-audioplayer clearfix">
+
+
+  
+  
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+<div class="inline_audioplayer_wrapper"><div id="audioplayer_idp869120abc0319a-e940-4b06-babe-9113f82eac31" class="player_element" data-url="http://www.wnyc.org/audio/xspf/294907/" data-width="515" data-title="" data-thumbnail="" data-download="http://www.podtrac.com/pts/redirect.mp3/audio.wnyc.org/heresthethingpod/heresthethingpod052713_skeach_pod.mp3" data-may-embed="true"></div></div>
+
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+<a title="Stream m3u" href="/audio/m3u/294907/" class="Stream no-rule">Stream m3u</a>
+
+</p>
+
+<p class="transcript"><a title="Transcript" href="/shows/heresthething/2013/may/27/transcript/">Transcript</a></p>
+
+</div>
+
+    
+<script>
+  wnyc.current_item = {
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+    "id": "294907",
+    "item_type": "episode",
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+      <a        href="#" onclick="return enlarge_imghttp___www_wnyc_org_i_raw_1_StacyKeach_1_jpg()">    <img src="http://www.wnyc.org/i/200/0/c/80/1/StacyKeach-1.jpg" id="imghttp___www_wnyc_org_i_raw_1_StacyKeach_1_jpg"       title="Stacy Keach"     />
+      </a>        <a class="enlarge_link" href="#"
+            onclick='return enlarge_imghttp___www_wnyc_org_i_raw_1_StacyKeach_1_jpg();'>Enlarge</a>
+      </div>
+      
+
+
+<p class="image-caption"     >
+
+
+<span class="caption">Stacy Keach</span>
+
+
+
+
+
+</p>
+
+      </div>
+
+</li>
+
+
+<script>
+  wnyc.series = [
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+  wnyc.series.pop();
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+
+
+
+
+
+
+</ul>
+
+      <div class="article-description">
+        <p>This week Alec sits down with actor Stacy Keach.  Some fans know Keach for his portrayal of Hamlet and Falstaff; others recall him as Sergeant Stedanko in Cheech and Chong’s <em>Up in Smoke</em>. </p>
+      </div>
+      <div class="article-description">
+        <p><a href="http://www.wnyc.org/shows/heresthething/2013/may/27/transcript/" target="_blank"><strong>READ | Full Transcript</strong></a></p>
+<p>Stacy Keach has been acting for more than half a century and as he explains to Alec, his philosophy on the craft has evolved: “I think in my early days I started pretty much from the outside and tried to get a fix on what the character looked like and …  I think it’s better to start inside and work out if you can.”  </p>
+      </div>
+    
+  
+    
+
+
+    
+
+    
+
+
+<div class="article-bottom-appearances">
+<h4>Hosted by:</h4>
+
+
+<a href="/people/alec-baldwin/">Alec Baldwin</a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="article-bottom-appearances">
+<h4>Produced by:</h4>
+
+
+<a href="/people/emily-botein/">Emily Botein</a> and <a href="/people/kathie-russo/">Kathie Russo</a>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+      <div class="article-bottom-tags">
+        <ul>
+          <h4>Tags:</h4>
+            
+            <li><a href="/tags/alec_baldwin/">alec baldwin</a></li>
+            <li><a href="/tags/other_desert_cities/">other desert cities</a></li>
+            <li><a href="/tags/stacy_keach/">stacy keach</a></li>
+
+        </ul>
+      </div>
+  </div><!-- article-wide -->
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+
+      <h3 class="brand"><span>Comments</span> [3]</h3>
+      
+  <div class="comment-list">
+    <script type="text/javascript">
+      var flag_for_mod_url = '/comments/userflag/';
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+    </script>
+    
+        <div class="comment" id=comment443778>
+          <div class="comment-head">
+            
+              <span class="comment-author">
+                Susan
+                from Toledo, OH
+              </span>
+          </div>
+          <div class="comment-text"><p>My son suggested I listen to Here's the Thing because he knows I am a huge fan of Elaine Strich.  I have since downloaded most of the archive and have enjoyed each interview/discussion. Mr. Baldwin is a wonderful and very well prepared host and you can tell that his guests enjoy opening up to him by the way that each one tells their stories. Thank you for such a wonderful program. I can't wait to hear the next story!</p></div>
+          <div class="comment-foot">
+            <span class="comment-date">
+              May. 29 2013 02:47 PM
+            </span>
+            
+  
+  <div class="voting" id="voting443778" style="display: none;">
+      <a href="#" data-vote-url="/comments/443778/upvote"
+          onclick="return voteClick(this, 443778, 'up');">
+        <img src="//media.wnyc.org/static/img/icons/thumbs-up.png"
+            alt="Vote this comment up" title="Vote this comment up" />
+      </a>
+      <a href="#" data-vote-url="/comments/443778/downvote"
+          onclick="return voteClick(this, 443778, 'down');">
+        <img src="//media.wnyc.org/static/img/icons/thumbs-down.png"
+            alt="Vote this comment down" title="Vote this comment down" />
+      </a>
+    Score: 0/0
+  </div>
+
+            <div class="flagformod" id="flagformod443778">
+              <a href="#" class="flaglink" id="flag_for_mod443778">
+                <img src="//media.wnyc.org/static/img/icons/flagformod.png"
+                    alt="Flag for moderation" title="Flag for moderation" />
+              </a>
+            </div>
+            <div class="comment-staff-utils">
+                <a data-task="feature"data-url="comments/wnyccomment/443778" class="stf feature_comment">Feature this Comment</a>
+                <a data-url="comments/wnyccomment/443778" class="stf ">Moderate</a>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+        <div class="comment" id=comment443722>
+          <div class="comment-head">
+            
+              <span class="comment-author">
+                dan
+                from Brazil
+              </span>
+          </div>
+          <div class="comment-text"><p>My company has me stationed in Brazil... I loved downloading episodes of the show and listening to them in my car.  Are you going to make the mp3´s available again?</p>
+
+<p>Thanks.</p></div>
+          <div class="comment-foot">
+            <span class="comment-date">
+              May. 29 2013 12:07 PM
+            </span>
+            
+  
+  <div class="voting" id="voting443722" style="display: none;">
+      <a href="#" data-vote-url="/comments/443722/upvote"
+          onclick="return voteClick(this, 443722, 'up');">
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+            alt="Vote this comment up" title="Vote this comment up" />
+      </a>
+      <a href="#" data-vote-url="/comments/443722/downvote"
+          onclick="return voteClick(this, 443722, 'down');">
+        <img src="//media.wnyc.org/static/img/icons/thumbs-down.png"
+            alt="Vote this comment down" title="Vote this comment down" />
+      </a>
+    Score: 0/0
+  </div>
+
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+                <img src="//media.wnyc.org/static/img/icons/flagformod.png"
+                    alt="Flag for moderation" title="Flag for moderation" />
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+                <a data-url="comments/wnyccomment/443722" class="stf ">Moderate</a>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+        <div class="comment" id=comment443603>
+          <div class="comment-head">
+            
+              <span class="comment-author">
+                Celeste 
+                from Los Angeles 
+              </span>
+          </div>
+          <div class="comment-text"><p>I am addicted to Here's the Thing. I love every single one of them and have listened to them all countless times. Alec is so incredibly articulate but also ridiculously bright. What a gem. I just wish there were more. I'm in Eastern Europe shooting and this show keeps me company in the evenings. </p></div>
+          <div class="comment-foot">
+            <span class="comment-date">
+              May. 29 2013 09:16 AM
+            </span>
+            
+  
+  <div class="voting" id="voting443603" style="display: none;">
+      <a href="#" data-vote-url="/comments/443603/upvote"
+          onclick="return voteClick(this, 443603, 'up');">
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+            alt="Vote this comment up" title="Vote this comment up" />
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+        <img src="//media.wnyc.org/static/img/icons/thumbs-down.png"
+            alt="Vote this comment down" title="Vote this comment down" />
+      </a>
+    Score: 0/0
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+
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+                <a data-url="comments/wnyccomment/443603" class="stf ">Moderate</a>
+            </div>
+          </div>
+        </div>
+  </div>
+
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+
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+    
+  <h4 class="noise">
+    <span>About Here's The Thing</span>
+  </h4>
+
+  <p><span>In WNYC&rsquo;s new podcast series, award-winning actor Alec  Baldwin   gives the listener unique entr&eacute;e into the lives of artists,  policy   makers and performers. </span></p>
+<p><span>Alec sidesteps the predictable by taking listeners  inside the   dressing rooms, apartments, and offices of people such as  comedian   Chris Rock, political strategist Ed Rollins and Oscar winner  Michael   Douglas.</span></p>
+
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+      
+
+<a href="/people/alec-baldwin/">Alec Baldwin</a>
+    </p>
+
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+
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+
+  <p class="more-about">  <a class="more" href="/shows/heresthething/about/">More</a></p>
+
+
+    <div id="social-media-chunk">
+      
+
+<div class="clearfix">
+<h4 class="noise"><span>Connect with Here's The Thing</span></h4>
+<div><iframe frameborder="0" scrolling="no" src="//www.facebook.com/plugins/likebox.php?href=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2FWNYCHeresTheThing&amp;width=300&amp;height=62&amp;colorscheme=light&amp;show_faces=false&amp;border_color&amp;stream=false&amp;header=true" style="border: none; overflow: hidden; width: 300px; height: 62px;"></iframe></div>
+<div style="padding:7px 0;"><a class="twitter-follow-button" href="https://twitter.com/heresthething">Follow @heresthething</a>
+<script type="text/javascript">// <![CDATA[
+!function(d,s,id){var js,fjs=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0];if(!d.getElementById(id)){js=d.createElement(s);js.id=id;js.src="//platform.twitter.com/widgets.js";fjs.parentNode.insertBefore(js,fjs);}}(document,"script","twitter-wjs");
+// ]]></script>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+    </div>
+
+    
+  <span style="display:none" id="upcoming-list-heresthething" 
+        data-upcoming="0"
+        data-showupcoming="0"
+        ></span>
+
+
+    
+  
+    <h4 class="noise"><span>Links</span></h4>
+    <ul class="show_features_links">
+        <li><a href="http://www.wnyc.org/shows/heresthething/articles/heres-thing/">Here's The Thing</a></li>
+        <li><a href="http://www.wnyc.org/shows/heresthething/articles/web-extras/">Web Extras</a></li>
+    </ul>
+
+
+      
+<h4 class="noise"><span>Show Archive</span></h4>
+<script type="text/javascript">
+  $(function() {
+    initCalendar("show_calendar",
+                 "/api/monthly_calendar/heresthething/",
+                 dateFromString("2013-06-01"));
+  });
+</script>
+<div id="show_calendar"></div>
+<h5><a class="more" href="/shows/heresthething/archive/">Show Archive</a></h5>
+
+
+        
+<div>
+<h4 class="noise"><span>Feeds</span></h4>
+
+  
+       <div class="latest-podcast">Latest Podcast:
+       
+
+<strong>
+  
+  
+
+<a href="http://www.wnyc.org/shows/heresthething/2013/jun/10/">Here's The Thing: David Simon</a>
+
+</strong>
+
+
+  <div class="article-audioplayer">
+    
+    
+
+<div class="inline_audioplayer_wrapper"><div id="audioplayer_idp30014241e3f6dd7-c713-486f-825b-7e57a53fedb7" class="player_element" data-url="http://www.wnyc.org/audio/xspf/297048/" data-width="300" data-title="" data-thumbnail="" data-download="http://www.podtrac.com/pts/redirect.mp3/audio.wnyc.org/heresthethingpod/heresthethingpod061013_dsimon_pod.mp3" data-may-embed="true"></div></div>
+
+  </div>
+
+
+       </div>
+        
+<div class="feeds clearfix">
+  <div class="feed-list"> </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+    
+<div class="sideblock littlebox_ad ad_container">
+  <p><span class="admessage" style="visibility: visible;">Supported by</span></p>
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+      
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+  googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display("home_littlebox_ad"); });
+</script>
+
+    </div>
+  </div>
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+
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+
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+
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+  </div>
+  
+  
+
+<div class="stfh edit-wrap"><a data-url="/THIS_ADMIN_LINK_IS_BROKEN/TELL_DIGITAL_OPS_YOU_SAW_THIS/" class="stf edit-bucket"></a></div>
+
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+      
+      <div class="nypr_lockup">
+        <ul>
+          <li class="nypr"><a href="http://www.newyorkpublicradio.org/">New York Public Radio</a></li>
+          <li class="wnyc"><a href="/">WNYC</a></li>
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+        </ul>
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+      
+      <ul class="nypr_copyright">
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+<script type="text/javascript">
+var _sf_sections = [];
+if (window.wnyc) {
+  _sf_sections.push(wnyc.section);
+  if (wnyc.series) {
+    for (var i=0,l=wnyc.series.length;i<l;i++) {
+      _sf_sections.push('series-'+wnyc.series[i].slug, wnyc.series[i].section);
+    }
+  }
+}
+var _sf_async_config={
+  uid:4030,
+  domain:"beta.wnyc.org",
+  sections:_sf_sections.join(",")
+};
+
+jQuery(window).bind('load', function() {
+  if (wnyc.current_item && !wnyc.current_item.published) {
+    return;
+  }
+  window._sf_endpt=(new Date()).getTime();
+  jQuery.ajax({
+    url:(("https:" == document.location.protocol)
+         ? "https://a248.e.akamai.net/chartbeat.download.akamai.com/102508/"
+         : "http://static.chartbeat.com/") + "js/chartbeat.js",
+    dataType:'script',
+    async:true,
+    cache:true
+  });
+});
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+
+<script src="//media.wnyc.org/static/js/ga_social_tracking.js"></script>
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+<script type="text/javascript" src="//media.wnyc.org/static/CACHE/js/3e79bb4297e0.js"></script>
+
+
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+<!-- ClickTale Bottom part -->
+<div id="ClickTaleDiv" style="display: none;"></div>
+<script type='text/javascript'>
+  jQuery.ajax({
+    url: ((document.location.protocol=='https:')
+      ? 'https://clicktale.pantherssl.com/'
+      : 'http://s.clicktale.net/')
+      +'WRc9.js',
+    dataType: 'script',
+    cache: true,
+    success: function () {
+      window.ClickTaleSSL=1;
+      if(typeof ClickTale=='function') ClickTale(4942,0.0336,"www09");
+    }
+  });
+</script>
+<!-- ClickTale end of Bottom part -->
+
+<!-- Application OK - health checks look for this string. -->
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_wnyc.json b/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_wnyc.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..d94051c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/tags/test_tags_wnyc.json
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://www.wnyc.org/shows/heresthething/2013/may/27/", 
+    "expected": {
+        "tags": [
+            "Life", 
+            "alec baldwin", 
+            "other desert cities", 
+            "News", 
+            "Music", 
+            "stacy keach"
+        ]
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/title/test_title_opengraph.html b/tests/data/extractors/title/test_title_opengraph.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..6e6c0c64
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/title/test_title_opengraph.html
@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+<html>
+    <head>
+      <meta property="og:site_name" content="TechCrunch"/>
+      <meta property="og:title" content="Good article title | TechCrunch"/>
+      <title>Wrong article title - website</title>
+    </head>
+    <body>
+        <div>
+            <p>
+              TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+            </p>
+        </div>
+    </body>
+</html>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/title/test_title_opengraph.json b/tests/data/extractors/title/test_title_opengraph.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..b4b6cdea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/title/test_title_opengraph.json
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://exemple.com/test_opengraphcontent",
+    "expected": {
+        "title": "Good article title"
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/tweets/test_tweet.html b/tests/data/extractors/tweets/test_tweet.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..0a390dd8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/tweets/test_tweet.html
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+<html>
+    <body>
+        <div>
+            <p>
+              TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. 
+              <blockquote class="twitter-tweet" lang="en"><p>Python-Goose: useful <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/python?src=hash">#python</a> library for extracting body text + metadata from a news article or article-type page: <a href="https://t.co/OGKBvxxunu">https://t.co/OGKBvxxunu</a></p>&mdash; Derek Greene (@derekgreene) <a href="https://twitter.com/derekgreene/status/527783221539643393">October 30, 2014</a></blockquote>
+              <script async src="//platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script>
+              Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+            </p>
+        </div>
+        <div itemprop="articleBody">
+            <p>
+              TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+              <blockquote class="twitter-tweet" lang="en"><p>Python-Goose: useful <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/python?src=hash">#python</a> library for extracting body text + metadata from a news article or article-type page: <a href="https://t.co/OGKBvxxunu">https://t.co/OGKBvxxunu</a></p>&mdash; Derek Greene (@derekgreene) <a href="https://twitter.com/derekgreene/status/527783221539643393">October 30, 2014</a></blockquote>
+              <script async src="//platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script>
+              <blockquote class="twitter-tweet" lang="en"><p>Python-Goose: useful <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/python?src=hash">#python</a> library for extracting body text + metadata from a news article or article-type page: <a href="https://t.co/OGKBvxxunu">https://t.co/OGKBvxxunu</a></p>&mdash; Derek Greene (@derekgreene) <a href="https://twitter.com/derekgreene/status/527783221539643393">October 30, 2014</a></blockquote>
+            <script async src="//platform.twitter.com/widgets.js" charset="utf-8"></script>
+            </p>
+        </div>
+    </body>
+</html>
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/tweets/test_tweet.json b/tests/data/extractors/tweets/test_tweet.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..80986ad6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/tweets/test_tweet.json
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://exemple.com/tweet/", 
+    "expected": {
+        "tweets": 2
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/videos/test_embed.html b/tests/data/extractors/videos/test_embed.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..f5eec9a2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/videos/test_embed.html
@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"><html>
+<html>
+    <head>
+        <title>test video</title>
+    </head>
+
+    <body>
+        <div>
+            <p>
+            TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+            </p>
+            <p>
+                <embed src="https://www.youtube.com/v/M7lc1UVf-VE?version=3&autoplay=1"
+                            type="application/x-shockwave-flash"
+                            allowscriptaccess="always"
+                            width="640" height="390"></embed>
+            </p>
+            <p>
+            Most of our team is using Eclipse as the main IDE, its incrimental compilation in Java with its tight JUnit integration are great for fast TDD programming. Unfortunately the Eclipse Scala plugin is not there yet, it may hangs the IDE and messes up Java compilation - especially in large (more then 1000 source files) Java/Scala projects. Though the plugin is getting better over time some developers would find the plugin as a majore drag on their productivity.
+            For developers who do not write Scala at all or rather edit Scala with other editors, you can use this alternate path which lets them work on their Java or Scala code without messing with the plugin.
+            </p>
+            <p>
+                Paragraph 1 - The Following script is using the Fast Scala Compiler (fsc). The fsc is a compilation server which always run in the background, as in a warm scalac always ready to receive new work. Is will reduce compilation time dramatically.
+            </p>
+            <p>
+                <embed src="https://www.youtube.com/v/M7lc1UVf-VE?version=3&autoplay=1"
+                            type="application/x-shockwave-flash"
+                            allowscriptaccess="always"
+                            width="640" height="390"></embed>
+            </p>
+            <p>
+            TextNode 2 - As you may know, kaChing is an test driven engineering organization. Test driven is not an option, its a must. We move fast and push code to production few dozens of times a day in a five minutes release cycle, so we must have high confidence in our code.
+            In complex systems there is no end to testings, each test system is an another line of defense which eventually gets broken but the more you have, the less chances bugs will reach production. We do not have QA team and do not want to have one, the reasoning is that if a human is involved in testing then there is a higher chance of missing things and you simply can't test all the site dozens of times a day.
+            </p>
+            <p>
+                Paragraph 2 - In the next few weeks we are adding a new rule from the "not critical" list every few days. The goal is to have all the rules we think are important without the common "its to noisy, lets ignore it" approche. Only after we're done with that we're going to add the next static analysis tool to build. The good thing about these tools and hudson is that you can run them in parallel to the unit/integration tests, on another machine, so they won't slow down the overall release cycle.
+            </p>
+        </div>
+    </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/videos/test_embed.json b/tests/data/extractors/videos/test_embed.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..01265f21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/videos/test_embed.json
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://foo.bar/index.html", 
+    "expected": {
+        "movies": [
+            {
+                "src": "https://www.youtube.com/v/M7lc1UVf-VE?version=3&autoplay=1", 
+                "embed_code": "<embed src=\"https://www.youtube.com/v/M7lc1UVf-VE?version=3&amp;autoplay=1\" type=\"application/x-shockwave-flash\" allowscriptaccess=\"always\" width=\"640\" height=\"390\"/>", 
+                "height": "390", 
+                "width": "640", 
+                "provider": "youtube", 
+                "embed_type": "embed"
+            },
+            {
+                "src": "https://www.youtube.com/v/M7lc1UVf-VE?version=3&autoplay=1", 
+                "embed_code": "<embed src=\"https://www.youtube.com/v/M7lc1UVf-VE?version=3&amp;autoplay=1\" type=\"application/x-shockwave-flash\" allowscriptaccess=\"always\" width=\"640\" height=\"390\"/>", 
+                "height": "390", 
+                "width": "640", 
+                "provider": "youtube", 
+                "embed_type": "embed"
+            }
+        ]
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/videos/test_iframe.html b/tests/data/extractors/videos/test_iframe.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..c4d9d1f5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/videos/test_iframe.html
@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"><html>
+<html>
+    <head>
+        <title>test video</title>
+    </head>
+
+    <body>
+        <div>
+            <p>
+            TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+            </p>
+            <p>
+                <iframe frameborder="0" width="480" height="270" src="http://www.dailymotion.com/embed/video/x130bpf"></iframe>
+            </p>
+            <p>
+            Most of our team is using Eclipse as the main IDE, its incrimental compilation in Java with its tight JUnit integration are great for fast TDD programming. Unfortunately the Eclipse Scala plugin is not there yet, it may hangs the IDE and messes up Java compilation - especially in large (more then 1000 source files) Java/Scala projects. Though the plugin is getting better over time some developers would find the plugin as a majore drag on their productivity.
+            For developers who do not write Scala at all or rather edit Scala with other editors, you can use this alternate path which lets them work on their Java or Scala code without messing with the plugin.
+            </p>
+            <p>
+                Paragraph 1 - The Following script is using the Fast Scala Compiler (fsc). The fsc is a compilation server which always run in the background, as in a warm scalac always ready to receive new work. Is will reduce compilation time dramatically.
+            </p>
+            <p>
+                <iframe frameborder="0" width="480" height="270" src="http://www.dailymotion.com/embed/video/x130bpf"></iframe>
+            </p>
+            <p>
+            TextNode 2 - As you may know, kaChing is an test driven engineering organization. Test driven is not an option, its a must. We move fast and push code to production few dozens of times a day in a five minutes release cycle, so we must have high confidence in our code.
+            In complex systems there is no end to testings, each test system is an another line of defense which eventually gets broken but the more you have, the less chances bugs will reach production. We do not have QA team and do not want to have one, the reasoning is that if a human is involved in testing then there is a higher chance of missing things and you simply can't test all the site dozens of times a day.
+            </p>
+            <p>
+                Paragraph 2 - In the next few weeks we are adding a new rule from the "not critical" list every few days. The goal is to have all the rules we think are important without the common "its to noisy, lets ignore it" approche. Only after we're done with that we're going to add the next static analysis tool to build. The good thing about these tools and hudson is that you can run them in parallel to the unit/integration tests, on another machine, so they won't slow down the overall release cycle.
+            </p>
+        </div>
+    </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/videos/test_iframe.json b/tests/data/extractors/videos/test_iframe.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..026fddb0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/videos/test_iframe.json
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://foo.bar/index.html", 
+    "expected": {
+        "movies": [
+            {
+                "src": "http://www.dailymotion.com/embed/video/x130bpf", 
+                "embed_code": "<iframe frameborder=\"0\" width=\"480\" height=\"270\" src=\"http://www.dailymotion.com/embed/video/x130bpf\"/>", 
+                "height": "270", 
+                "width": "480", 
+                "provider": "dailymotion", 
+                "embed_type": "iframe"
+            },
+            {
+                "src": "http://www.dailymotion.com/embed/video/x130bpf", 
+                "embed_code": "<iframe frameborder=\"0\" width=\"480\" height=\"270\" src=\"http://www.dailymotion.com/embed/video/x130bpf\"/>", 
+                "height": "270", 
+                "width": "480", 
+                "provider": "dailymotion", 
+                "embed_type": "iframe"
+            }
+        ]
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/videos/test_object.html b/tests/data/extractors/videos/test_object.html
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..a32b89fd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/videos/test_object.html
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"><html>
+<html>
+    <head>
+        <title>test video</title>
+    </head>
+
+    <body>
+        <div>
+            <p>
+            TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
+            </p>
+            <p>
+                <object width="640" height="390">
+                      <param name="movie" value="https://www.youtube.com/v/M7lc1UVf-VE?version=3&autoplay=1"></param>
+                      <param name="allowScriptAccess" value="always"></param>
+                      <embed src="https://www.youtube.com/v/M7lc1UVf-VE?version=3&autoplay=1"
+                            type="application/x-shockwave-flash"
+                            allowscriptaccess="always"
+                            width="640" height="390"></embed>
+                </object>
+            </p>
+            <p>
+            Most of our team is using Eclipse as the main IDE, its incrimental compilation in Java with its tight JUnit integration are great for fast TDD programming. Unfortunately the Eclipse Scala plugin is not there yet, it may hangs the IDE and messes up Java compilation - especially in large (more then 1000 source files) Java/Scala projects. Though the plugin is getting better over time some developers would find the plugin as a majore drag on their productivity.
+            For developers who do not write Scala at all or rather edit Scala with other editors, you can use this alternate path which lets them work on their Java or Scala code without messing with the plugin.
+            </p>
+            <p>
+                Paragraph 1 - The Following script is using the Fast Scala Compiler (fsc). The fsc is a compilation server which always run in the background, as in a warm scalac always ready to receive new work. Is will reduce compilation time dramatically.
+            </p>
+            <p>
+                <object width="640" height="390">
+                      <param name="movie" value="https://www.youtube.com/v/M7lc1UVf-VE?version=3&autoplay=1"></param>
+                      <param name="allowScriptAccess" value="always"></param>
+                </object>
+            </p>
+            <p>
+                <embed src="https://www.youtube.com/v/M7lc1UVf-VE?version=3&autoplay=1"
+                            type="application/x-shockwave-flash"
+                            allowscriptaccess="always"
+                            width="640" height="390"></embed>
+            </p>
+            <p>
+            TextNode 2 - As you may know, kaChing is an test driven engineering organization. Test driven is not an option, its a must. We move fast and push code to production few dozens of times a day in a five minutes release cycle, so we must have high confidence in our code.
+            In complex systems there is no end to testings, each test system is an another line of defense which eventually gets broken but the more you have, the less chances bugs will reach production. We do not have QA team and do not want to have one, the reasoning is that if a human is involved in testing then there is a higher chance of missing things and you simply can't test all the site dozens of times a day.
+            </p>
+            <p>
+                Paragraph 2 - In the next few weeks we are adding a new rule from the "not critical" list every few days. The goal is to have all the rules we think are important without the common "its to noisy, lets ignore it" approche. Only after we're done with that we're going to add the next static analysis tool to build. The good thing about these tools and hudson is that you can run them in parallel to the unit/integration tests, on another machine, so they won't slow down the overall release cycle.
+            </p>
+        </div>
+    </body>
+</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/extractors/videos/test_object.json b/tests/data/extractors/videos/test_object.json
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..78644adb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/data/extractors/videos/test_object.json
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+{
+    "url": "http://foo.bar/index.html", 
+    "expected": {
+        "movies": [
+            {
+                "src": "https://www.youtube.com/v/M7lc1UVf-VE?version=3&autoplay=1", 
+                "embed_code": "<object width=\"640\" height=\"390\"><param name=\"movie\" value=\"https://www.youtube.com/v/M7lc1UVf-VE?version=3&amp;autoplay=1\"/><param name=\"allowScriptAccess\" value=\"always\"/><embed src=\"https://www.youtube.com/v/M7lc1UVf-VE?version=3&amp;autoplay=1\" type=\"application/x-shockwave-flash\" allowscriptaccess=\"always\" width=\"640\" height=\"390\"/></object>", 
+                "height": "390", 
+                "width": "640", 
+                "provider": "youtube", 
+                "embed_type": "object"
+            },
+            {
+                "src": "https://www.youtube.com/v/M7lc1UVf-VE?version=3&autoplay=1", 
+                "embed_code": "<object width=\"640\" height=\"390\"><param name=\"movie\" value=\"https://www.youtube.com/v/M7lc1UVf-VE?version=3&amp;autoplay=1\"/><param name=\"allowScriptAccess\" value=\"always\"/></object>", 
+                "height": "390", 
+                "width": "640", 
+                "provider": "youtube", 
+                "embed_type": "object"
+            },
+            {
+                "src": "https://www.youtube.com/v/M7lc1UVf-VE?version=3&autoplay=1", 
+                "embed_code": "<embed src=\"https://www.youtube.com/v/M7lc1UVf-VE?version=3&amp;autoplay=1\" type=\"application/x-shockwave-flash\" allowscriptaccess=\"always\" width=\"640\" height=\"390\"/>", 
+                "height": "390", 
+                "width": "640", 
+                "provider": "youtube", 
+                "embed_type": "embed"
+            }
+        ]
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/businessinsider1.txt b/tests/data/statichtml/businessinsider1.txt
deleted file mode 100644
index 18603a35..00000000
--- a/tests/data/statichtml/businessinsider1.txt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,2211 +0,0 @@
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-<head>
-    <meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" />
-    <title>MEANWHILE: Developments In Greece...</title>
-    <link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" media="all" href="http://static5.businessinsider.com/assets/css/min-all.css?1316814144" />
-<link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" media="print" href="http://static5.businessinsider.com/assets/css/min-print.css?1316814144" />
-<script type="text/javascript" src="http://static8.businessinsider.com/assets/js/min.js?1316814144"></script>
-<script type="text/javascript" src="http://scripts.verticalacuity.com/vat/mon/vt.js?1316814144"></script>
-<meta name="author" content="Linette Lopez" />
-<meta name="date" content="2011-09-21" />
-
-<meta name="keywords" content="Economy, Greece, Austerity, Economic Crisis, Eurozone, Euro, Europe, Linette Lopez" />
-<meta name="description" content="More moves to survive." />
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-<meta name="sailthru.title" content="MEANWHILE: Developments In Greece..." />
-<meta property="og:title" content="MEANWHILE: Developments In Greece..." />
-<meta property="og:type" content="article" />
-<meta property="og:url" content="http://www.businessinsider.com/meanwhile-developments-in-greece-2011-9" />
-<meta property="og:site_name" content="Business Insider" />
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-    <meta name="tbi-vertical" content="moneygame" />
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-        var _sf_startpt=(new Date()).getTime();
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-	<script type='text/javascript'>
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-                    <a href="#" onclick="return fb_login()">Login With Facebook</a>
-            <span class="pipe">|</span>
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-<p>The Greek cabinet agreed on yet another round of austerity measures today. The details come to us from <a href="http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/09/21/idUSA8E7JO01A20110921">Reuters</a>:</p>
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-<li>Pensions of more than <span id="articleText">$1,642.913 a month</span> wil be cut by 20%</li>
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-<p>The government also promised to extend a new real estate, intended to end next year, til 2014.</p>
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-<p>An official sign-off from the Troika is still not official AND, according to journalist Matina Stevis, <a href="http://twitter.com/MatinaStevis/statuses/116565454474051584">there still needs to be a parliament vote</a>.</p>
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-						                    Sep 21,  3:29 PM						                    </a>
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-                        buy the dips<br />
-<a href="http://seekingalpha.com/user/926530/instablog/full_index" target="_blank">http://seekingalpha.com/user/926530/instablog/full_index</a>                    </div>
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-                                            zorba the meek
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-						                    Sep 21,  3:38 PM						                    </a>
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-                        the average stavros souvlaki on the street how only two choices 1) leave the country which will soon resemble east germany during the cold war or 2) order the baklava, it's delicious.                    </div>
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-                                            depression
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-						                    Sep 21,  3:56 PM						                    </a>
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-                        these types of cuts are unthinkable ......                    </div>
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-                                            <a href="/commenter?id=4dbe320f49e2ae8260070000">marktheshark</a>
-                                    </b>
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-                    on
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-						                    Sep 21,  4:23 PM						                    </a>
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-                        Greece will blow up right after the next election. Whoever is up against the status quo will demand "hope" and "change", promising to return to the Drachma and preserve social spending. Papandreou is obviously on his way out, no Prime Minister who is rioted against stays in power in a legitimate democracy. If we don't see any difference with the next party in power, Greece will rip itself apart. The birthplace of democracy will be the deathbed of it.                    </div>
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-                                            Jamie Sims
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-						                    Sep 22,  5:00 AM						                    </a>
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-                        Why is it the rich of Greece has still got away without paying as most of them got their fortunes through corruption. We want the government to be punished for their poor behavior towards their country and people but unfortunately it is the people who are paying the price with their lives, jobs, houses. The Government still has not collected taxes from 2009. There is still tax free on boats which the government loses out on 300 million euro per year because of a stupid loop hole and not one politician has taken a pay cut. and yet when people were starving and the markets were in turmoil the government went on their summer hols, now is that the behavior of a government who is determined to make change?                    </div>
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-                        Cover shorts in what? No FED QE3 money - what's exactly going to push the market up higher in the near term, the sputtering U.S. economy - you seen the data recently? International markets in Europe and Asia? U.S. Housing market? Everything has already peaked - commodities, gold, silver, oil. Only emerging bull markets left are in U.S. Dollar and long bonds now.                    </div>
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-                        great FOMC ...it's just like QE2 all over again, so this will lay the groundwork for a strong stock market & commodity rally till may 2012.<br />
-Interest rates never to go up again<br />
-Housing, small biz, and job creation just not that important anymore in this profits, earnings, productivity & exports driven economic boom<br />
-<a href="http://seekingalpha.com/user/926530/instablog/full_index" target="_blank">http://seekingalpha.com/user/926530/instablog/full_index</a>                    </div>
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-                                             r cohn
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-                        sell all banks, insurance companie beause of margin compression.sell all muni ond because all pension funds will have to reduce their assumed rate of return <br />
-sell all companies who cater to the baby boomers as almost all of them will run out of money in 10 years<br />
-<br />
-Good job Fed .Your actions have reduced the incentive to save and you have destroyed your own banking system.One of the most immoral moves in American history outside of slavery and wars                    </div>
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-                        huh? what was that noise? <br />
-Oh it's nothing honey, go back to sleep.<br />
-Alright sweetie...Zzzzzzzz                    </div>
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diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/guardian1.txt b/tests/data/statichtml/guardian1.txt
deleted file mode 100644
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--- a/tests/data/statichtml/guardian1.txt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,7812 +0,0 @@
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-				 class="stand-first-alone"																									>Kristen Wiig's gone from working as a waitress to filming with Robert De Niro and Sean Penn. Emma Brockes hears how the summer's hit film Bridesmaids helped put the actor on the map<br /><br />Click <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/gallery/2011/nov/18/kristen-wiig-fashion-photo-shoot" title="">here for an exclusive fashion shoot</a> with Kristen Wiig</p>
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-				<h1>Kristen Wiig: 'My next movie – it's going to be a Porky's prequel'</h1>
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-										<div class="caption">Kristen Wiig: 'Bridesmaids was definitely the biggest role I’ve ever had.' Photograph: Andrew Yee for the Guardian</div>
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-	    <p><a href="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1325419/" title="">Kristen Wiig</a> has had the kind of summer one might imagine to be life-changing. For four years, she and<a href="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1754239/" title=""> Annie Mumolo</a>, her friend and co-writer, slaved over a comedy script commissioned by <a href="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0031976/" title="">Judd Apatow</a> about a woman whose best friend is getting married. It was the 38-year-old's first lead in a film, and her first full-length script to be produced. As an indication of how it played with audiences, I watched it on a plane last month with a friend who, during the scene in which the bride squats in the street to relieve herself after a bad kebab, laughed so long and hard a woman passing in the aisle leant over and said, "What are you <em>watching</em>?"</p>
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-    <li class="major-heading film-title">Bridesmaids</li>
-            <li><b>Production year:</b> 2011</li>
-                <li><b>Country:</b> USA</li>
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-                <li><b>Cert (UK):</b> 15</li>
-                <li><b>Runtime:</b> 125 mins</li>
-                <li><b>Directors:</b> Paul Feig</li>
-                <li><b>Cast:</b> Chris O'Dowd, Ellie Kemper, Jill Clayburgh, Jon Hamm, Kristen Wiig, Matt Lucas, Maya Rudolph, Melissa McCarthy, Rose Byrne, Terry Crews, Wendi McLendon-Covey</li>
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-                <li><a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/movie/142098/bridesmaids">More on this film</a></li>
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-</div><p>Wiig smiles when I tell her this. "Proud," she says, of the day they filmed the shitting-in-the-street scene. "A proud moment."</p><p>We are in the tearoom of a fashionable hotel in&nbsp;Tribeca, the Manhattan neighbourhood where&nbsp;Wiig lives. Before <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1478338/" title="">Bridesmaids</a>, she was known to US audiences as a long-running cast member of <a href="http://www.nbc.com/saturday-night-live/" title="">Saturday Night Live</a> and elsewhere for scene-stealing cameos in films such as <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0995039/" title="">Ghost&nbsp;Town</a> and <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0478311/" title="">Knocked Up</a>.</p><p>That the film, by midsummer, had grossed more than $150m in the US and outstripped not only all of Apatow's other films, but every "R-rated female comedy" in history, puts Wiig in the zone of woman of the moment, although she chafes against this, with its implication that before <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/movie/142098/bridesmaids" title="More from guardian.co.uk on Bridesmaids">Bridesmaids</a> she was an ingenue.</p><p>"In most ways my life hasn't changed," she says. "I know that's a boring answer. People want to hear that I bought all gold, fur…" She allows a perfectly timed beat. "I would never wear fur."</p><p>But hasn't she had to turn down lots of offers?</p><p>"I mean. Yes, no. It feels weird to say that; you don't want to be like, 'Everyone wants me!' I mean. I guess Bridesmaids was definitely the biggest role I've ever had. And the fact that I co-wrote it and everything. But, um…" Wiig, who is slight, with very straight hair and an eager tilt to her body language, looks mortified. "It's not like I have boxes of scripts arriving at my door."</p><p>Her understatement is fuelled perhaps by the inevitable and awkward comparisons she has gained with other women in her business, as if the culture can sustain only a couple at a time. Wiig has been getting "the new <a href="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0275486/" title="">Tina Fey</a>" quite a lot – Fey was head writer at SNL when Wiig joined – although the comparison is faulty. Wiig is an actor first and a comedian second, and with a film directed by <a href="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000576/" title="">Sean Penn </a>in the pipeline and another, <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1698648/" title="">Imogene</a>, in which she stars alongside <a href="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000906/" title="">Annette Bening</a> and <a href="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000369/" title="">Matt Dillon</a>, wants to develop&nbsp;her career away from comedy. "People always call me a comedian. And I don't really see myself like that. I guess I just consider myself an actor who does comedy. But who wants to do other things as well."</p><p>It took her a long time to get here. After growing up in upstate New York, she went to university in Arizona and studied art before dropping out after the first year and going to LA&nbsp;to try to make it as an actor. Arizona is a notorious party college, but Wiig says all of that was out of her system by the time she left high school, where she had a few shaky years. "I was not that good a student because I was very… social. I cared more about going out with my friends. I&nbsp;didn't quite realise the importance of school. But then when I went to college I took it much more seriously, because I enjoyed it."</p><p>How social was she? Suspended?</p><p>"Um. Not for more than a couple of days. There were suspensions." Her expression fixes. "That's the past." Before the spotlight was so firmly on her, Wiig talked publicly about her minor-league acts of teenage hooliganism, including being caught underage drinking at a <a href="http://www.dead.net/" title="">Grateful Dead </a>gig, skipping school and, what she called the worst of it, smashing pot plants on a neighbour's porch, which she feels terrible about. As she entered her 20s her parents were still worried, she says, and then when she kicked in her degree and told them she wanted to be an actor, "probably the most worried they could be".</p><p>For financial reasons?</p><p>"Yes. Also, they didn't want me to get disappointed. They would always mention the numbers – do you know how many people are trying to do what you're doing? Your chances are really slim. And they're right. Technically. But when you're 20, you're like, why can't you just support me?! Can't you be proud that I'm trying to go after my dream?" She pulls a whiny face and tilts her head. "But they came around quickly when they saw how happy it made me. They would come and see me in the horrible little shows that I was in."</p><p>Wiig hadn't any great sense of being funny when she was growing up. Her dad, she says, tells a lot of jokes. Her mother is funny, but "mom funny, where she isn't trying to be funny, but is". Before retiring, her father ran a marina on one of the lakes upstate in New York (the name Wiig is from his Norwegian heritage). Her mother was an artist. Even after all these years, they haven't quite shed the sense of precariousness around their daughter's life; when she tells them she's in a movie, her mother will say tentatively, "Is that something we can see in theatres?" Wiig smiles and says, "They're still getting used to the idea that I'm working and it's OK."</p><p>With good reason. Wiig was 11 years in LA before she got the call from Saturday Night Live, during which time her income was erratic. She had arrived in the city with no professional contacts and a nagging sense of insurmountable competition. "I was incredibly intimidated and had no experience. I felt very scared and unsure and I didn't have any résumé, and everyone around me was very beautiful and young and I&nbsp;thought, oh, maybe I should work in a store and enjoy the weather. But I started taking improv classes and that's what got me started."</p><p>Improv was something she had never heard of before. But when she turned up to watch a gig one day at <a href="http://www.groundlings.com/" title="">the Groundlings</a>, the famous LA improv troupe with alumni such as <a href="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001435/" title="">Lisa Kudrow</a>, <a href="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0005277/" title="">Conan O'Brien </a>and <a href="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0002071/" title="">Will Ferrell</a>, something resonated. The idea of standing on stage and making up stuff was, she says, less scary to her than the notion of saying lines, with the lurking fear there was a right and a wrong way to say them. With improvisation, there was no right and&nbsp;wrong: "You can't mess it up and you can't forget your lines."</p><p>Her enthusiasm wouldn't pay the bills, however, and Wiig worked at a series of day jobs, including at a floral design studio for a couple of years, and as a waitress in the refectory at Universal Studios. Now and then she'll run into someone on a TV show or a movie, and wonder where she knows them from. "And then I'll remember: oh yeah, I&nbsp;used to serve you Cobb salad."</p><p>There were many long, dark nights of the soul. "Oh my God, every month, yeah, because you don't have a lot of money coming in. When I&nbsp;look back, it was one of the best times of my life, because you're so in it with your friends. But you do have those moments when you're like: have I given it a try, should I stop, should I quit? But, no. You have a family there, you have a space to put shows on. I would rather be doing what I love and living above a garage – which I did – than not."</p><p>The call came in 2005. Wiig flew to New York for the first of several auditions with the Saturday Night Live creators. The audition format was standup, which she had never done before, and in front of a terrifying panel including<a href="http://www.imdb.com/find?q=&amp;s=tt" title=""> Lorne Michaels</a>, the legendary SNL producer, and Tina Fey. Wiig was required to unveil a range of characters of her own creation that might be suitable for the sketch show and, quivering up there alone on stage, she fully expected to be met with silence. When she heard a few laughs, she gathered strength, got through it and was called back for a second audition. After which, nothing. And then the new season started. "So I thought, right, pretty clear – thanks for coming. And then after the third show I got a call saying I was hired, come in…"</p><p>Wiig joined the show at a time when it was undergoing a cultural transition. Fey was the first female head writer and has written about the formally macho culture of the show – men pissing in jars by their desks, etc, which she put to comic use in <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0496424/" title="">30 Rock</a>. It was tough, she says, walking into a workplace where everyone knew each other: "Kind of like going into someone's living room for a party and they are really comfortable and have their shoes off and are sitting on the couch and I walk in and am a little dressed up and don't know where to stand? They were all very welcoming and nice but I knew I wasn't at that place yet where I could take my shoes off."</p><p>She was excited to be working with the likes of&nbsp;Fey, <a href="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0688132/" title="">Amy Poehler </a>and <a href="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0237222/" title="">Rachel Dratch</a>, although&nbsp;Wiig is reluctant to describe the still testosterone-heavy environment at SNL as off-putting. "I mean, I mean, merely by numbers there are more men that work there, but I don't consider it… I don't even think about it. Men work there, women work there, we have a lot of amazing female writers on staff right now… There are more men, but I don't think anyone really…"</p><p>Was she a fan of Fey's before she joined the&nbsp;show?</p><p>"Um. I've watched the show since I was born. I mean I definitely admire all the stuff that she's accomplished, especially coming from SNL and being head writer, and then doing 30 Rock and all&nbsp;these movies and her book, I mean it's definitely something where you go, oh, that can&nbsp;happen. Someone can do that. She's done it. She deserves it."</p>    <span class="inline wide">
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-                <img src="http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-images/Guardian/About/General/2011/11/15/1321373678349/Kristen-Wiig-Bridesmaids-007.jpg" alt="Kristen Wiig Bridesmaids" width="460" height="276" />
-        </a>        			<span class="caption" style="width: 460px;">
-				Wiig (left) and Rose Byrne in Bridesmaids. To date the film has earned in the region of $286m worldwide.
- Photograph: Universal/Everett/Rex
-			</span>
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-<p>To date, Bridesmaids has earned in the region of <a href="http://www.imdb.com/news/ni16271921/" title="">$286m worldwide</a>; it doesn't need the qualifier "best female comedy" since it outgrossed Apatow's entire back catalogue, including <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0357413/" title="">Anchorman</a> and <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0405422/" title="">The 40-Year-Old Virgin</a>. Still, Wiig does not claim feminist dividends for the film – that it allowed women actors to be as gross on screen as men. She says when she and Mumolo were writing the shitting-in-the-street scene ("Can that be the title of the piece?"), it wasn't with an eye on levelling the playing field, nor was there much discussion of whether the market would tolerate that kind of vulgarity from women. No. "I think when you are doing anything&nbsp;creative and you think, 'What are the critics going to think?' instead of what you want to express, it can get a little muddy, and – I'm talking so seriously about this shitting-in-the-street – but with that in particular we were like, oh, this is a fun way to end the scene, and Annie used to do an impression of someone slowly realising they were shitting their pants, kind of&nbsp;slowly going down on to the ground. She&nbsp;would just do it as a joke, and it would always make me laugh really hard. She took it to a whole new level."</p><p>Apatow had approached Wiig and asked her to write a script for him after they worked together on Knocked Up, in which she played a small pivotal role as <a href="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001337/" title="">Katherine Heigl'</a>s bitchy boss. In&nbsp;her five minutes on screen, Wiig managed to communicate brilliantly the gap between what her character was saying and thinking. She and Mumolo first conceived of Bridesmaids not as a wedding movie per se, but as a movie about friendship. "I mean, it's called Bridesmaids, I get that. But it's about women who, when they reach that age, whether it's in their 30s or not, thought they were supposed to be somewhere else. That's where we started from. And the fact that Annie had been to seven weddings in two years. And that she had friends who were marrying money and she'd showed up at the country club for the bridal shower with her wing mirrors duct-taped to her car, and at the end of the night had to crawl through her window because the front door would always swell when it was hot out. But if it's your best friend, you don't want to be&nbsp;complaining…"</p><p>On paper at least, it didn't look too promising, with the generic title and the number of lame wedding movies in a seemingly exhausted genre. Apatow's name raised suspicions, too, about the use to which certain characters would be put, especially that of Megan, played by <a href="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0565250/" title="">Melissa McCarthy</a>, who looked like the inevitable one-fat-girl-in-the-group and the obvious butt of fat-girl jokes. In fact, McCarthy is the other break-out star of the film, and "the character that didn't care what anybody else thought. It was a lesson my character needed to learn. She doesn't care what anyone thinks, she's in her own world, but is generous and sweet. We wanted to have that opposite look on life, the character who seems at first like there was nothing she could say that would help, but…"</p><p>The writing of the dialogue was relatively easy, says Wiig, compared with figuring out what should happen in each scene, and the film went through countless draft versions, crammed in around other work commitments, so that Mumolo, for example, would fly out to Mexico where Wiig was filming, to work on it for a weekend. In early drafts, the women ended up in Vegas, but that got chucked out when, over the four years of writing, it was used up in other wedding films such as <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1119646/" title="">The Hangover</a>.</p><p>Apart from the fact that it is very funny, Bridesmaids ultimately works because it has a kind of sweet sincerity and the friendship between the two lead characters seems real. It bemuses Wiig that the film has widely been described as "raunchy". It's really not raunchy. "Raunchy means like <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0084522/" title="">Porky's</a>," she says and smiles. "Which is my next movie; it's going to be a Porky's prequel."</p><p>After six years in New York, Wiig is finally at home in the city. It was tough in the early days, she says, and when friends came to visit she would burst into tears as they left. ("I was so embarrassed. I thought, oh my God, they're going to go back and say, 'Kristen's not good. She is noooot coping well.'") If accounts are to be believed, she was briefly married to an actor called <a href="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm2510392/" title="">Hayes Hargrove</a> and currently lives with her partner, a film-maker called <a href="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm2693238/" title="">Brian Petsos</a>, but she responds to even the mildest question about her domestic life with a frozen smile. She would, of course, rather talk about acting, and her success in her first lead role – "I felt like I had to do a good job or no one would ever invite me to the party again" – has, despite her scrupulous modesty, been rewarded with the kind of films she always hoped she'd walk into. In the Sean Penn film <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1967614/" title="">The Comedian</a>, which is still in the early stages of production, Wiig will co-star with <a href="http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000134/" title="">Robert De Niro.</a> It will be the real test of whether she is leading lady material, and whether she can carry a film without jokes. "I don't really think about it," says Wiig. "When you're in it, you're in it."</p><p>In the meantime, she has sketches to write and shoot as part of the gruelling schedule of Saturday Night Live. After the interview, she is due in at the office for the weekly writing night, when everyone is required to be in at 4pm and stay until the following morning. Wiig is riding so high at the moment that when, as we leave, I ask her to confirm her age, I'm surprised when she grimaces. Yes, she says, she's 38. Why the face? Under her breath, like a dangerous heresy, she says, "I feel like women are asked their age more than men." And she snaps on a smile and leaves the restaurant.</p>
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-                    <p class="t6 web-publication-date">27 May 2011</p>
-                    <p class="t7">
-                        <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/video/2011/may/27/bridesmaids-comedy-clip?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3487">Bridesmaids: an exclusive clip - video</a>
-                    </p>
-                </li><li>
-                    <p class="t6 web-publication-date">27 Jul 2007</p>
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-                    <p class="t7">
-                        <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/culture/2007/jul/27/1?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3487">First sight: Kristen Wiig</a>
-                    </p>
-                </li><li>
-                    <p class="t6 web-publication-date">21 May 2011</p>
-                    <p class="t7">
-                        <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2011/may/21/hangover-part-ii-bridesmaids?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3487">I've not seen The Hangover Part II yet but I'll bet Bridesmaids is funnier</a>
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-                    </p>
-                </li><li>
-                    <p class="t6 web-publication-date">28 Jun 2011</p>
-                    <p class="t7">
-                        <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/filmblog/2011/jun/28/bridesmaids-uk-box-office?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3487">Bridesmaids first up the aisle</a>
-                    </p>
-                </li>
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-							<p>That's Kristen Wiig? She doesn't look like that in Bridesmaids.</p>
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-<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/user/organicprankster" title="User profile page">organicprankster</a>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 12:44AM</p>
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-                            <strong>Response to <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/comment-permalink/13351551">OffensiveUnsuitable, 18 November 2011 11:31PM</a></strong>
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-							<p>If, at your work, a male "manager" is replaced with a female "manageress" they will presumably be performing the same tasks and duties. Therefore the only thing the <i>-ess</i> tells us is the gender of the person incumbent in the role. This is, at best, redundant - and at worst, condescending. The latter is why words such as manageress (murderess, etc, etc) began to disappear from common usage a couple of decades ago.</p><p>"Actress" has remained a little more sticky. Personally, I believe this is because male actors and female ones tend to perform slightly different tasks, insomuch as actors usually play male characters and actresses female ones. It's rare, one suspects for a producer to seek an actor of non-specific gender for a part, and "We need an actress" is more economic and not much different from "we need a female actor."</p><p>So <i>actor</i> and <i>actress</i> can indeed tell us things about task performed rather than just gender in a way that manageress cannot.</p><p>That said, it's still fairly common to use "actor" in place of "actress" where no ambiguity can be caused through its use (which is actually most of the time). And it's done so with the same reasoning that we discarded the other <i>-ess</i> forms.</p><p>No ambiguity: "My sister is an actor."<br>Potential ambiguity: "My brother is dating an actor."</p>
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-<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/user/strawwdog" title="User profile page">strawwdog</a>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 12:51AM</p>
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-							<p>And 1st prize for this weeks longest winded article goes to...</p><p><b>Emma Brockes!</b></p>
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-<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/user/geronimo" title="User profile page">geronimo</a>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 1:26AM</p>
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-							<p>What a ridiculous pose.</p>
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-<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/user/geronimo" title="User profile page">geronimo</a>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 1:27AM</p>
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-							<p>Oh... sorry, apparently she has hair-lice.</p>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 1:29AM</p>
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-                            <strong>Response to <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/comment-permalink/13352214">strawwdog, 19 November 2011 12:51AM</a></strong>
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-							<p>I couldn't be bothered to read any of it, but she probably gets paid by the word by the PR firm.</p>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 1:42AM</p>
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-							<p>I've had hemorrhoids that made me laugh more than Wiig.</p>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 2:05AM</p>
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-							<p>She's so great! Impeccable in SNL. <br>Loved Bridesmaids in the cinema, doesn't quite work as well on DVD for some reason. <br>That picture of her is from a fashion shoot (link beneath comments).</p>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 2:10AM</p>
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-                            <strong>Response to <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/comment-permalink/13351625">ADJWilson, 18 November 2011 11:38PM</a></strong>
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-							<p>Why on Earth do feminists get upset with gender distinctions? Actor / actress, manager / manageress - so what? Romance languages such as Italian and French habitaully make such gender distinctions, even with objects which have no discernable gender. Does this make Italian and French inherently more sexist than English?</p><p>Please, I absolutely loathe this kind of pedantry.</p>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 2:19AM</p>
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-                            <strong>Response to <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/comment-permalink/13352571">okonomiyaki, 19 November 2011 2:10AM</a></strong>
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-							<blockquote><p>Why on Earth do feminists get upset with gender distinctions?</p></blockquote><p>Yeah, they shouldn't worry their pretty little heads about such things. Right?</p><blockquote><p>Please, I absolutely loathe this kind of pedantry.</p></blockquote><p>If you find it so deeply troubling, you should perhaps choose a different newspaper; non-gender specific words, including "actor" for female performers (where not leading to ambiguity) is in the Guardian's style guide.</p>
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-<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/user/SnakePlissken" title="User profile page">SnakePlissken</a>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 2:45AM</p>
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-							<p>What a ghastly bunch of photos, she looks like Madame Tussaud's version of Florence Welch.... Who did the make up? An embalmer?</p>
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-<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/user/OldBullLee" title="User profile page">OldBullLee</a>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 2:48AM</p>
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-                            <strong>Response to <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/comment-permalink/13351488">ASANISIMASA2, 18 November 2011 11:26PM</a></strong>
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-							<blockquote><p>Bridesmaids. One of the most least funny films ever made. Stereotyped, boring predictable rubbish</p></blockquote><p>Hmmm. I'm going to have to completely disagree with you here. I really wasn't looking forward to watching Bridesmaids, mainly because it was being billed as a female 'The Hangover'. This sent two warning signals. Firstly, being linked to 'The Hangerover'. I think I laughed twice during that film. Secondly, the qualifier of 'female'. This normally signals an hour and a half of period, chocolate and 'aren't men really crap, with small penis's' type jokes. But 'Bridesmaids' was none of the above. It was well written, didn't rely on the usual 'female' fayre for it's jokes, and, most importantly, very, very funny.</p><p>Ok, some of the peripheral characters were a little stereotyped. So what? You show me a mainstream comedy film that doesn't contain stereotyped characters. That's not what's important in a film such as 'Bridesmaids', it's not trying to be a serious attempt at deconstruction of personality. To think it is is seriously missing the point.</p><p>But that's not to say it's a throw away film, because I feel it's more than that in terms of its execution. The very fact it didn't rely on 'girlyness' to elict its laughs is quite an important step in such a mainstream film. I'm sick of Hollywood continually giving us films that are supposed to show 'female behaviour', that appeal to the female sex, as though they are a different species. The fact that 'Bridesmaids' didn't do this is, I think, reflected in it's enormous success. It's amazing the difference not actively setting out to alienate 50% of the audience can have.</p>
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-<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/user/hoopsyloopy" title="User profile page">hoopsyloopy</a>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 2:59AM</p>
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-<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/user/Rumplestiltskin" title="User profile page">Rumplestiltskin</a>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 3:27AM</p>
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-							<p>'most least funny films ever made'</p><p>Great use of English there. Classic!</p>
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-<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/user/wooablackbetty" title="User profile page">wooablackbetty</a>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 4:27AM</p>
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-<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/user/Zakelius" title="User profile page">Zakelius</a>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 4:54AM</p>
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-							<p>I enjoyed parts of Bridesmaids but for me the problem was that I didn't actually like any of the main characters. I find that typical of Apatow humour, his movies are mostly populated by jerks. </p><p>The reason 40 y/o Virgin worked was that Steve Carell's character was sweet. The only character in Bridesmaids who could remotely be called sweet was Megan (the overweight one) and that was pushing it. Kristen Wiig's character Annie was a total cow. Does that matter? </p><p>Maybe I just don't get it. Am I the only one? Am I turning into an old fart? For you flame enthusiasts, that last one was a rhetorical question.</p>
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-<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/user/trevorgoodchild2" title="User profile page">trevorgoodchild2</a>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 4:57AM</p>
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-<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/user/okonomiyaki" title="User profile page">okonomiyaki</a>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 5:15AM</p>
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-                            <strong>Response to <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/comment-permalink/13352601">organicprankster, 19 November 2011 2:19AM</a></strong>
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-							<p>You have made no attempt to engage with my argument, the thrust of which is that gender-specific nouns are not deemed unacceptable in other languages, so why should they be taboo in English?</p><p>Don't bother replying if all you have to offer by way of argument are insults.</p>
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-<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/user/zenithmaster" title="User profile page">zenithmaster</a>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 5:36AM</p>
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-							<p>Yes, it is established, but still rather annoying. What exactly are the negative connotations behind "actress"?</p>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 6:22AM</p>
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-							<p>But what's the point of the distinction? Is the art of male actor any different from the art of a female actor? No. The distinction is false. We don't have terms for male and female writers and directors. There should only be one term: actor. The continued persistence of the gender split is probably down to the awards shows, who stand to loose too much "glamour" by halving the number of awards given to actors.</p>
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-<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/user/volume11" title="User profile page">volume11</a>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 6:59AM</p>
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-							<p>For all those who may consider the use of actor/actress a little redundant, perhaps you may begin by explaining why every spoken language and all of the known dead languages differentiate between male and female? (see i just did it again)<br>Is there some sort of odd conspiracy that means to be female must require the signature of a man to gain respect?</p><p>On topic I did not read the article.</p>
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-<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/user/PriyankaV" title="User profile page">PriyankaV</a>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 7:00AM</p>
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-							<p>Going back to the article, I think the writer was spot-on about Bridesmaids’ appeal lying in the friendship between the two central characters. The portrayal of female friendships is usually very shallow in films. I like that the film captures the wistfulness of Kristen’s character perfectly when she realizes that their friendship, the only constant and dependable thing in her life, seems to be slipping away from her. It is a sincere emotion, one that I’ve personally felt about my closest friends.</p>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 7:13AM</p>
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-							<p>How lovely, you conjure sweet words for a dull film. I wish I could find meaning in films like this(odd films for odd people like me are rare) but there seems at best a hollow resonance for me.</p><p>I do love it when a person finds a film that speaks to them. I judge people on things like this.</p>
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-<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/user/swanstep" title="User profile page">swanstep</a>
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-							<p>Nicole Holofcener's mid '90s female friendship/wedding/bridesmaid comedy <i>Walking and Talking</i> is so much better than <i>Bridesmaids</i> it's, well, not funny. Congrats to Wiig though in getting a piece of dumb-comedies-that-make-megabucks pie, no reason why the boys should hog it all!</p>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 7:36AM</p>
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-							<p>Kristin rocks. I don't find her attractive at all, but she sure is funny. Glad to see her bit-parting is turning into leading roles. <b>GERONIMO</b>, there is more to America to what you have been weened on by TV, but there is no substitute for living out there for a decade like me - changes your perception of them and e'hem of us, and considering how things are in Blighty, I know where I'd rather be. Barcelona'll have to suffice for now.</p>
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-<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/user/davidsouthafrican" title="User profile page">davidsouthafrican</a>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 7:51AM</p>
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-							<p>indeed, and the terms doctress and lawyeress should be instated in the language.</p><p>lets point out gender at every opportunity</p>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 8:07AM</p>
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-							<p>I thought it was hilarious. It did peter out a little when they did the touchy feeley bit. The shitting/vomiting scenes were inspired. I don't know what took Hollywood so long to realise that women burp, fart, vomit, shit etc. too.? I also thought it was interesting how they DIDN'T go to Vegas, which is what happens in male gross out comedies.</p>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 8:18AM</p>
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-							<p>Great article especially considering I knew nothing about her prior to reading this piece, I found it interesting and didn't even register the length.  I thought the film was brilliant, I really enjoyed it and laughed out loud at points.  My boyfriend didn't enjoy it and hardly laughed, such is life.  As for the actor/actress debate, who cares.  The fact that the article is talking about someone called Kristen, accompanied by photos of a very made up lady who is constantly referred to as 'she' or 'her' is enough for me to determine that this is a woman.  </p><p>Also - The reason BrethynDa doesn't find the film funny is BECAUSE YOU DON'T HAVE A SENSE OF HUMOUR and you're still using jokes that my dead great-uncle would find funny.</p>
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-							<p>look, is it me or does this article really need the rather provocative and sexualised photo of the actress? Is it necessary? What message is The Guardian trying to convey about her?</p>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 9:01AM</p>
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-                            <strong>Response to <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/comment-permalink/13352175">organicprankster, 19 November 2011 12:44AM</a></strong>
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-							<p>&gt;If, at your work, a male "manager" is replaced with a female "manageress" they will presumably be performing the same tasks and duties. Therefore the only thing the -ess tells us is the gender of the person incumbent in the role. This is, at best, redundant - and at worst, condescending. The latter is why words such as manageress (murderess, etc, etc) began to disappear from common usage a couple of decades ago.</p><p>I do not dispute what you are saying, nor is my response to you aimed at you but:</p><p>This is the type of petty small mindedness that makes people rebel.</p><p>I do not discriminate on the basis of gender, sexuality or ethnicity but i'm damned if i'm going to be emotionally bullied and dictated to by a few idiots with an uber PC agenda.</p><p>She's a  god-damned ACTRESS, thats all there is to it. If she wants to be an annoying tit and try and tell others how to think and speak then i wish her well in her short career. As it is, i suspect this has more to do with the agenda of the person who wrote this article.</p><p>Eitherway, she is still an ACTRESS!</p>
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-                            <strong>Response to <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/discussion/comment-permalink/13352936">okonomiyaki, 19 November 2011 5:15AM</a></strong>
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-							<p>&gt;You have made no attempt to engage with my argument, the thrust of which is that gender-specific nouns are not deemed unacceptable in other languages, so why should they be taboo in English?</p><p>Don't let people who think like that bother you, they're emotionally stunted and think they're superior by telling others how to think.</p>
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-							<p>"I don't want to play to gender sterotypes, so please call me an actor, now, how would you like me to make my sexual pose, should i expose my cleavage"</p><p>Ridiculous.</p>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 9:42AM</p>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 10:29AM</p>
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-							<blockquote><p>organicprankster</p><p>19 November 2011 2:19AM<br>Response to okonomiyaki, 19 November 2011 2:10AM</p><p>    Why on Earth do feminists get upset with gender distinctions?</p><p>Yeah, they shouldn't worry their pretty little heads about such things. Right?</p></blockquote><p>That's not an answer and not what he meant - stop inventing positions to be offended by.</p>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 10:38AM</p>
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-							<p>she was looking for her epileptic dog</p>
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-                            <p class="date">19 November 2011 10:41AM</p>
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-							<p>Actually, I realise that by referring to Ms Wiig as 'her', I may have inadvertently applied a gender steroeotype. Sorry about that.</p><p>Oh hang on, I just typed 'Ms', thus referring to the person in an inappropriate and genderist manner...</p>
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-							<p>'Why on Earth do feminists get upset with gender distinctions?'</p><p>Okay, let's unpick this a little bit.  I don't see any feminists getting 'upset' anywhere within this article or comments section.  Maybe the feminists are in hiding, like the communists used to in the 50's, but all I see is ADJ Wilson giving a fairly polite and innocuous explanation of why the term is sometimes used. </p><p>In fact, let's look at it a little more closely.  There ARE some people who seem to be getting 'upset' on this thread, or at least referring to their own emotional reactions.  Let's look at who that is:</p><p>Okonomiyaki: 'I absolutely loathe this'</p><p>Zenithmaster: 'still rather annoying'</p><p>citizenx3: 'i'm damned if i'm going to be emotionally bullied and dictated to by a few idiots'...'She's a god-damned ACTRESS, thats all there is to it. If she wants to be an annoying tit...'</p><p>Hmm.  Strange.  Mainly, the people who seem to be having emotional reactions are the ones who, for some reason, don't like the fact that Kristen Wiig is referred to as an 'actor' in this piece.  Couldn't you just shut the computer down and go outside if this sort of thing bothers you that much?  Surely it's not good for you to be getting so worked up.  It's a nice day out where I am.  Couldn't we just say that maybe Kristen Wiig has a right to have a degree of control over what people call her? Shouldn't she be the only person who is bothered either way?  I notice that all three of the commenters above have chosen names which don't give away their gender - which, of course, is absolutely their right.</p><p>Anyway, that aside - good article!  I liked Bridesmaids a lot.</p>
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-							<p>Does her next role involve her being on the run from the FBI? Is that why she's in disguise?</p>
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-							<p>There's a link to a special "Kristen Wiig exclusive shoot for Guardian Weekend magazine".</p><p>What on earth has become of this once fine newspaper? Liberal/left? You must be joking. What kind of utter ponces are interested in fashion shoots?</p><p><br>Thought Bridesmaids was wicked, mind.</p>
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-</script>
-
-  <!------ widget old rhs: film : 2011-11-19 21:52:04.172085 ------>
-  <div class="m-zeitgeist promo-component four-col attention-data">
-
-    <div class="hd">
-    	<h3>On Film</h3>
-    </div>
-
-  	<div class="bd">
-  		<div id="att-toggle">
-  			<ul class="tabs">
-          <li>
-            <a class="active" href="#att-most-viewed">Most viewed</a>
-
-          </li>
-          <li>
-            <a class="inactive" href="#most-zeitgeist">Zeitgeist</a>
-          </li>
-
-          <li>
-            <a class="inactive" href="#att-latest">Latest</a>
-          </li>
-
-        </ul>
-
-
-        <div id="att-panes">
-          <div class="att-tabs att-toggle-pane" id="att-most-viewed">
-            <p class="b2 zg-date">Last 24 hours</p>
-            <ol>
-
-              <li class="l1 thumb">
-
-
-                    <img src="http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-images/Guardian/About/General/2011/11/15/1321373535993/Kristen-Wiig-003.jpg" />
-
-
-                <span class="rank">1.&nbsp;</span>
-
-								<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2011/nov/18/kristen-wiig-bridesmaids">Kristen Wiig: 'My next movie – it's going to be a Porky's prequel'</a>
-
-              </li>
-
-              <li class="l1">
-
-                <span class="rank">2. </span>
-
-								<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2011/nov/18/natalie-wood-case-reopened">Natalie Wood case reopened after new evidence emerges</a>
-              </li>
-
-              <li class="l1">
-
-                <span class="rank">3. </span>
-
-
-								<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/gallery/2011/nov/18/kristen-wiig-fashion-photo-shoot">Kristen Wiig: fashion shoot – in pictures</a>
-              </li>
-
-              <li class="l1">
-
-                <span class="rank">4. </span>
-
-								<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/filmblog/2011/nov/18/directors-filming-in-3d-titanic">On the heels of Avatar, directors turn increasingly to 3D</a>
-              </li>
-
-              <li class="l1">
-
-
-                <span class="rank">5. </span>
-
-								<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2011/nov/18/natalie-wood-death-investigated-police">Natalie Wood's death to be reinvestigated by Los Angeles police</a>
-              </li>
-
-              <li class="more-most-viewed l1 footer">
-
-									<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/most-viewed/film">More most viewed</a>
-
-              </li>
-            </ol>
-
-          </div>
-
-          <div class="att-tabs att-toggle-pane initially-off" id="most-zeitgeist">
-            <p class="b2 zg-date">Last 24 hours</p>
-            <ol>
-
-              <li class="l1 film fade-1">
-                <div class="zeit-link"><a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/gallery/2011/nov/18/kristen-wiig-fashion-photo-shoot">Kristen Wiig: fashion shoot – in pictures</a></div>
-              </li>
-
-              <li class="l1 film fade-2">
-
-                <div class="zeit-link"><a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2011/nov/18/kristen-wiig-bridesmaids">Kristen Wiig: 'My next movie – it's going to be a Porky's prequel'</a></div>
-              </li>
-
-              <li class="l1 film fade-3">
-                <div class="zeit-link"><a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2011/nov/18/natalie-wood-case-reopened">Natalie Wood case reopened after new evidence emerges</a></div>
-              </li>
-
-              <li class="l1 film fade-4">
-                <div class="zeit-link"><a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/gallery/2011/nov/17/twilight-breaking-dawn-premiere-pictures">The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1, the UK premiere - in pictures</a></div>
-
-              </li>
-
-              <li class="l1 film fade-5">
-                <div class="zeit-link"><a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/video/2011/nov/17/robert-pattinson-twilight-breaking-dawn-video">Robert Pattinson on Breaking Dawn: 'The Twilight movies are like Marmite' - video</a></div>
-              </li>
-
-              <li class="l1 footer about-zeit">
-                <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/zeitgeist">More zeitgeist</a>
-                <img class="what-is" alt="What is Zeigeist?"  title="" src="http://static.guim.co.uk/microapps/zeitgeist/about-zeitgeist.gif" />
-                <div id="zeit-popup" class="zeit-popup">
-
-                 <strong>What is Zeitgeist?</strong>
-                  <p>Zeitgeist is an experiment in showing trending news, topics and articles from the Guardian. Find out more in <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/help/insideguardian/2010/feb/03/zeitgeist">our blog post</a>.</p>
-                </div>
-              </li>
-            </ol>
-          </div>
-
-
-          <div class="att-tabs att-toggle-pane initially-off" id="att-latest">
-
-            <p class="b2 zg-date">Last 24 hours</p>
-            <ol>
-
-              <li class="l1 thumb">
-
-
-                    <img src="http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-images/Guardian/Pix/pictures/2011/11/17/1321529241998/5050-003.jpg" />
-
-
-                <span class="rank">1.&nbsp;</span>
-                <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2011/nov/19/50-50-death-can-get-lots-of-laughs">New film 50/50 shows that death can get a lot of laughs</a>
-              </li>
-
-
-              <li class="l1">
-
-                <span class="rank">2. </span>
-                <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2011/nov/19/this-weeks-new-dvd-blu-ray">This week's new DVD &amp; Blu-ray</a>
-              </li>
-
-              <li class="l1">
-
-                <span class="rank">3. </span>
-
-                <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2011/nov/19/this-weeks-new-film-events">This week's new film events</a>
-              </li>
-
-              <li class="l1">
-
-                <span class="rank">4. </span>
-                <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2011/nov/19/this-weeks-new-films">This week's new films</a>
-              </li>
-
-              <li class="l1">
-
-
-                <span class="rank">5. </span>
-                <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2011/nov/19/eddie-redmayne-marilyn-monroe">Eddie Redmayne: the loneliness of being a hot young actor</a>
-              </li>
-
-              <li class="more-latest l1 footer">
-                <a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/all">All today&#39;s stories</a>
-              </li>
-            </ol>
-
-          </div>
-
-
-        </div>
-      </div>
-    </div>
-  </div>
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-<div id="guardianfilm" class="promo-component twitter-container" data-fetch-url="http://resource.guim.co.uk/twitter/jsonlist/guardianfilm.jsonp" data-latest-tweet="138003639292801024">
-	<div class="hd">
-    	<h3>Guardian film on Twitter</h3>
-
-    </div>
-
-<div class="bd">
-
-	<p class="l2">Latest news, reviews and links from the Guardian's film team</p>
-
-
-
-
-	<ul>
-
-
-		        <li class="l1 tweet">
-					<a href="http://twitter.com/AnneBillson"><img src="http://a0.twimg.com/profile_images/230413720/noir_lipstick_crop_normal.jpg" alt="AnneBillson"  height="40" width="40" /></a>
-
-					<p><a href="http://twitter.com/AnneBillson"><strong>AnneBillson:</strong></a> Other good things in BODY HEAT: Mickey Rourke as "rock n roll arsonist" (thanks <a href='http://twitter.com/splendorcinema)' target='_new'>@splendorcinema)</a> Ted Danson as dancing lawyer. Great stuff.</p>
-					<span><a href="http://twitter.com/AnneBillson/statuses/138003639292801024">about 30 minutes ago</a></span>
-		        </li>
-
-		        <li class="l1 tweet">
-					<a href="http://twitter.com/AnneBillson"><img src="http://a0.twimg.com/profile_images/230413720/noir_lipstick_crop_normal.jpg" alt="AnneBillson"  height="40" width="40" /></a>
-
-					<p><a href="http://twitter.com/AnneBillson"><strong>AnneBillson:</strong></a> When I first saw BODY HEAT in 1981, I dismissed it as a pastiche film noir. But the more I watch it, the more I enjoy it. Great screenplay!</p>
-					<span><a href="http://twitter.com/AnneBillson/statuses/138000587974385664">about 43 minutes ago</a></span>
-		        </li>
-
-		        <li class="l1 tweet">
-					<a href="http://twitter.com/AnneBillson"><img src="http://a0.twimg.com/profile_images/230413720/noir_lipstick_crop_normal.jpg" alt="AnneBillson"  height="40" width="40" /></a>
-					<p><a href="http://twitter.com/AnneBillson"><strong>AnneBillson:</strong></a> Lawrence Kasdan's last film was Dreamcatcher, 2003. He has a new film coming out in 2012, but I wonder what he's been up to in the meantime.</p>
-
-					<span><a href="http://twitter.com/AnneBillson/statuses/137998248215453696">about 52 minutes ago</a></span>
-		        </li>
-
-
-	</ul>
-</div>
-
-<div class="ft">• <a href="http://twitter.com/guardian/film-staff">Follow our film team on a Twitter list</a></div>
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-<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
-<head>
-        <title>TixDaq</title>
-
-
-</head>
-<body>
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-        .g-tickets img {
-												float: left;
-												margin-right: 10px;
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-												margin-left: 70px;
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-												display: block;
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-												margin: 20px 0;
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-												margin-bottom: 0;
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-        .news-grid .g-tickets .bd {
-												float: left;
-												background-color: #ededed;
-												padding: 0 5px 20px;
-												width: 290px;
-								}
-        .news-grid .g-tickets .strapline {
-												margin-bottom: 10px;
-												margin-top: 0;
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-        .news-grid .g-tickets .event-name {
-												width: 219px;
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-								.news-grid .g-tickets .browse-tickets {
-												width: 100%;
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-												overflow: hidden;
-								}
-    </style>
-
-    <div class="g-tickets promo-component">
-        <div class="hd"><h3>Buy tickets for top music events</h3></div>
-
-    <div class="bd">
-        <p class="strapline">Compare and buy tickets for thousands of events</p>
-        <ol>
-            <li>
-                <a href="http://www.guardiantickets.co.uk/stone-roses-tickets/?INTCMP=ILCCULTXT3411"><img src="http://maxcdn.tixdaq.com/theme/img/metadata/attraction/120x120/21871.png" alt="Stone Roses" height="60" width="60" class="image" /></a>
-                <p class="event-name"><a href="http://www.guardiantickets.co.uk/stone-roses-tickets/?INTCMP=ILCCULTXT3411">Stone Roses</a></p>
-                <p><a href="http://www.guardiantickets.co.uk/stone-roses-tickets/?INTCMP=ILCCULTXT3411">Friday, 29 Jun, 2012</a></p>
-
-                <p><a href="http://www.guardiantickets.co.uk/stone-roses-tickets/?INTCMP=ILCCULTXT3411">Heaton Park - Manchester</a></p>
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-            </li><li>
-                <a href="http://www.guardiantickets.co.uk/paul-mccartney-tickets/?INTCMP=ILCCULTXT3411"><img src="http://maxcdn.tixdaq.com/theme/img/metadata/attraction/120x120/2179.png" alt="Paul McCartney" height="60" width="60" class="image" /></a>
-                <p class="event-name"><a href="http://www.guardiantickets.co.uk/paul-mccartney-tickets/?INTCMP=ILCCULTXT3411">Paul McCartney</a></p>
-                <p><a href="http://www.guardiantickets.co.uk/paul-mccartney-tickets/?INTCMP=ILCCULTXT3411">Monday, 5 Dec, 2011</a></p>
-
-                <p><a href="http://www.guardiantickets.co.uk/paul-mccartney-tickets/?INTCMP=ILCCULTXT3411">O2 Arena - London</a></p>
-																<form action="http://www.guardiantickets.co.uk/paul-mccartney-tickets/?INTCMP=ILCCULTXT3411" method="GET">
-																				<input value="Book" type="submit" />
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-            </li><li>
-                <a href="http://www.guardiantickets.co.uk/coldplay-tickets/?INTCMP=ILCCULTXT3411"><img src="http://maxcdn.tixdaq.com/theme/img/metadata/attraction/120x120/3693.png" alt="Coldplay" height="60" width="60" class="image" /></a>
-                <p class="event-name"><a href="http://www.guardiantickets.co.uk/coldplay-tickets/?INTCMP=ILCCULTXT3411">Coldplay</a></p>
-                <p><a href="http://www.guardiantickets.co.uk/coldplay-tickets/?INTCMP=ILCCULTXT3411">Saturday, 3 Dec, 2011</a></p>
-
-                <p><a href="http://www.guardiantickets.co.uk/coldplay-tickets/?INTCMP=ILCCULTXT3411">SECC &amp; Clyde Auditorium - Glasgow</a></p>
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-</html>
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-	<iframe src="http://sofacinema.co.uk/visitor/iframe/top5.html" height="320" frameborder="0" scrolling="no" style="margin-bottom: 6px;"></iframe>
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-	        <h4>This week's bestsellers</h4>
-	        <ol>
-
-	            <li class="l1 thumb">
-
-
-
-						<img src="http://resource.guim.co.uk/books/gubookshop/thumbnail/images.bertrams.com/ProductImages/services/GetImage?Source=BERT&amp;Quality=WEB&amp;EAN13=9780571281909&amp;Component=FRONTCOVER" title="Mother, Brother, Lover" />
-
-
-					<span class="rank">1.&nbsp;</span>
-					<a href="http://www.guardianbookshop.co.uk/BerteShopWeb/viewProduct.do?ISBN=9780571281909" class="book-title">Mother, Brother, Lover</a>
-	                <p>
-
-	                        by Jarvis Cocker
-
-
-                        <span class="price">£14.99</span>
-
-	                </p>
-	            </li>
-
-
-	            <li class="l1">
-
-					<span class="rank">2.&nbsp;</span>
-					<a href="http://www.guardianbookshop.co.uk/BerteShopWeb/viewProduct.do?ISBN=9780500515938" class="book-title">Verdi and/or Wagner</a>
-	                <p>
-
-	                        by Peter Conrad
-
-
-                        <span class="price">£24.95</span>
-
-	                </p>
-	            </li>
-
-
-	            <li class="l1">
-
-					<span class="rank">3.&nbsp;</span>
-					<a href="http://www.guardianbookshop.co.uk/BerteShopWeb/viewProduct.do?ISBN=9781856697521" class="book-title">Saul Bass</a>
-	                <p>
-
-	                        by Jennifer Bass
-
-
-                        <span class="price">£48.00</span>
-
-	                </p>
-	            </li>
-
-
-	            <li class="l1">
-
-					<span class="rank">4.&nbsp;</span>
-					<a href="http://www.guardianbookshop.co.uk/BerteShopWeb/viewProduct.do?ISBN=9780470977996" class="book-title">Ukulele For Dummies</a>
-	                <p>
-
-	                        by Al Wood
-
-
-                        <span class="price">£15.99</span>
-
-	                </p>
-	            </li>
-
-
-	            <li class="l1">
-
-					<span class="rank">5.&nbsp;</span>
-					<a href="http://www.guardianbookshop.co.uk/BerteShopWeb/viewProduct.do?ISBN=9781419702204" class="book-title">George Harrison: Living in the Material World</a>
-	                <p>
-
-	                        by Olivia Harrison
-
-
-                        <span class="price">£26.99</span>
-
-	                </p>
-	            </li>
-
-
-	        </ol>
-		</div>
-	    <div class="search">
-	        <p>
-	            Search the Guardian bookshop
-	        </p>
-	        <form method="POST" action="http://www.guardianbookshop.co.uk/BerteShopWeb/search.do" name="QuickSearchForm">
-	            <input type="text" class="searchBox" value="" name="keyword">
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-
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-	            <input type="hidden" value="" name="author">
-	        </form>
-	    </div>
-    </div>
-</div>
-
-
-
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-
-
-		<div class="reader-offers promo-component">
-
-					<div class="hd">
-													<h3>DVDs from the Guardian shop</h3>
-							</div>
-
-			<div class="bd">
-				<ul>
-											<li class="inline-pic"><a href="http://www.guardianoffers.co.uk/mall/productpage.cfm/GuardianOffers/64644/149566" class="link-image">
-							<img src="http://www.guardianoffers.co.uk/mall/GOMoviemail/customerimages/products/t_64644.jpg" alt="The Great White Silence on DVD and Blu-ray" />
-						</a></li>
-
-											<li><p class="t6"><a href="http://www.guardianoffers.co.uk/mall/productpage.cfm/GuardianOffers/64644/149566">The Great White Silence on DVD and Blu-ray</a></p></li>
-
-
-											<li><p>The stunning official and original record of Captain Scott's journey to the South Pole, newly restored.</p></li>
-
-											<li><p class="price">From: &pound;12.99</p></li>
-
-				</ul>
-
-			</div>
-			<div class="ft">
-									<ul>
-																					<li><a href="http://www.guardianoffers.co.uk/mall/departmentpage.cfm/GuardianOffers/_149566/1/DVD">Shop for more DVDs</a></li>
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-
-																					<li><a href="http://www.guardianoffers.co.uk/">Browse the Guardian reader offers shop</a></li>
-																		</ul>
-							</div>
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-<div class="find-a-film wide promo-component">
-			<div class="hd">
-			<h3>Film and cinema search</h3>
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-		<div class="searchFilm">
-			<h4>Find a film</h4>
-		</div>
-		<div class="searchFilmForm">
-			<form action="http://www.guardian.co.uk/search" method="get" >
-				<label>Film title:</label>
-				<p>
-
-					<input type="hidden" name="tag" value="tone/reviews"/>
-					<input type="hidden" name="section" value="film"/>
-					<input name="q" type="text" class="text" /> <input type="submit" value="Find" />
-				</p>
-				<a href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/index/movies/a">Films A-Z</a>
-			</form>
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-	<form action="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/cinemasearch" method="GET" id="cinema-search">
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-			<h4>Cinema listings</h4>
-
-		<div id="searchByCinema">
-			<div class="searchCinema">
-				<label for="tbx-location">UK place name or postcode:</label>
-				<input id="tbx-location" type="text" name="location" class="text" />
-												<input type="submit" value="Find" />
-
-				<a href="http://guardianlistings.press.net/venues.php">Cinemas A-Z</a>
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-	</form>
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-
-		<p class="soulmates-strap">Search Soulmates profiles and find a date today</p>
-	</div>
-	<div class="bd">
-
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-<form action="https://soulmates.guardian.co.uk/find" method="GET">
-	<input type="hidden" name="page" value="1" id="id_page" />
-	<input type="hidden" name="num_per_page" value="15" id="id_num_per_page" />
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-		<li><label for="id_my_gender">I am a</label><select name="my_gender" id="id_my_gender">
-
-<option value="Woman">Woman</option>
-<option value="Man" selected="selected">Man</option>
-</select></li>
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-
-		<li>
-			<label for="id_age_min">Aged</label><select name="age_min" id="id_age_min">
-<option value="18">18</option>
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-<option value="22">22</option>
-<option value="23">23</option>
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-<option value="24">24</option>
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-<option value="26">26</option>
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-<option value="32">32</option>
-
-<option value="33">33</option>
-<option value="34">34</option>
-<option value="35">35</option>
-<option value="36">36</option>
-<option value="37">37</option>
-<option value="38">38</option>
-<option value="39">39</option>
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-<option value="41">41</option>
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-<option value="42">42</option>
-<option value="43">43</option>
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-<option value="45">45</option>
-<option value="46">46</option>
-<option value="47">47</option>
-<option value="48">48</option>
-<option value="49">49</option>
-<option value="50">50</option>
-
-<option value="51">51</option>
-<option value="52">52</option>
-<option value="53">53</option>
-<option value="54">54</option>
-<option value="55">55</option>
-<option value="56">56</option>
-<option value="57">57</option>
-<option value="58">58</option>
-<option value="59">59</option>
-
-<option value="60">60</option>
-<option value="61">61</option>
-<option value="62">62</option>
-<option value="63">63</option>
-<option value="64">64</option>
-<option value="65">65</option>
-<option value="66">66</option>
-<option value="67">67</option>
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-<option value="69">69</option>
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-<option value="72">72</option>
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-<option value="77">77</option>
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-<option value="78">78</option>
-<option value="79">79</option>
-<option value="80">80</option>
-<option value="81">81</option>
-<option value="82">82</option>
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-<option value="87">87</option>
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-<option value="91">91</option>
-<option value="92">92</option>
-<option value="93">93</option>
-<option value="94">94</option>
-<option value="95">95</option>
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-<option value="96">96</option>
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-<option value="22">22</option>
-<option value="23">23</option>
-<option value="24">24</option>
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-<option value="26">26</option>
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-
-<option value="28">28</option>
-<option value="29">29</option>
-<option value="30">30</option>
-<option value="31">31</option>
-<option value="32">32</option>
-<option value="33">33</option>
-<option value="34">34</option>
-<option value="35">35</option>
-<option value="36">36</option>
-
-<option value="37">37</option>
-<option value="38">38</option>
-<option value="39">39</option>
-<option value="40">40</option>
-<option value="41">41</option>
-<option value="42">42</option>
-<option value="43">43</option>
-<option value="44">44</option>
-<option value="45" selected="selected">45</option>
-
-<option value="46">46</option>
-<option value="47">47</option>
-<option value="48">48</option>
-<option value="49">49</option>
-<option value="50">50</option>
-<option value="51">51</option>
-<option value="52">52</option>
-<option value="53">53</option>
-<option value="54">54</option>
-
-<option value="55">55</option>
-<option value="56">56</option>
-<option value="57">57</option>
-<option value="58">58</option>
-<option value="59">59</option>
-<option value="60">60</option>
-<option value="61">61</option>
-<option value="62">62</option>
-<option value="63">63</option>
-
-<option value="64">64</option>
-<option value="65">65</option>
-<option value="66">66</option>
-<option value="67">67</option>
-<option value="68">68</option>
-<option value="69">69</option>
-<option value="70">70</option>
-<option value="71">71</option>
-<option value="72">72</option>
-
-<option value="73">73</option>
-<option value="74">74</option>
-<option value="75">75</option>
-<option value="76">76</option>
-<option value="77">77</option>
-<option value="78">78</option>
-<option value="79">79</option>
-<option value="80">80</option>
-<option value="81">81</option>
-
-<option value="82">82</option>
-<option value="83">83</option>
-<option value="84">84</option>
-<option value="85">85</option>
-<option value="86">86</option>
-<option value="87">87</option>
-<option value="88">88</option>
-<option value="89">89</option>
-<option value="90">90</option>
-
-<option value="91">91</option>
-<option value="92">92</option>
-<option value="93">93</option>
-<option value="94">94</option>
-<option value="95">95</option>
-<option value="96">96</option>
-<option value="97">97</option>
-<option value="98">98</option>
-<option value="99">99</option>
-
-<option value="100">100</option>
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-
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-
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-
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-<option value="Cuba">Cuba</option>
-<option value="Cyprus">Cyprus</option>
-<option value="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</option>
-<option value="Democratic Republic of Congo">Democratic Republic of Congo</option>
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-<option value="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</option>
-<option value="East Timor">East Timor</option>
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-<option value="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</option>
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-<option value="Georgia">Georgia</option>
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-            </p>
-
-            <p class="t6 related-content-publication-date">18 Jun 2011</p>
-
-            <p class="related-content-trail-text">He plays a cartoonish alpha male alongside Kristen Wiig and co but the Mad Men star says he's 'down with the strong ladies'</p>
-
-
-        </div>
-
-         <div class="two-col">
-            <ul class="l1d">
-                <li>
-                    <p class="t6 related-content-publication-date">21 Jan 2010</p>
-                    <p class="t7">
-                        <a class="related-content-headline" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2010/jan/21/sundance-film-festival-2010?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3487">Sundance gears up to open with a Howl</a>
-                    </p>
-
-                </li><li>
-                    <p class="t6 related-content-publication-date">17 Jan 2009</p>
-                    <p class="t7">
-                        <a class="related-content-headline" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/stage/2009/jan/17/flight-conchords-kristen-schaal-comedian?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3487">The girl can't help it</a>
-                    </p>
-                </li><li>
-                    <p class="t6 related-content-publication-date">3 Dec 2004</p>
-
-                    <p class="t7">
-                        <a class="related-content-headline" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2004/dec/03/art?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3487">Two go mad in Margate</a>
-                    </p>
-                </li><li>
-                    <p class="t6 related-content-publication-date">26 Sep 2001</p>
-                    <p class="t7">
-                        <a class="related-content-headline" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/culture/2001/sep/26/artsfeatures?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3487">'I'd have loved to play every part. I'd have been brilliant'</a>
-
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-                </li>
-            </ul>
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-
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-            </a>
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-                (5 pictures)
-                <a class="related-content-headline" href="http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/gallery/2011/nov/18/kristen-wiig-fashion-photo-shoot?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3487">Kristen Wiig: fashion shoot – in pictures</a>
-            </p>
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-
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diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/issue_24.txt b/tests/data/statichtml/issue_24.txt
deleted file mode 100644
index 760268dd..00000000
--- a/tests/data/statichtml/issue_24.txt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,22 +0,0 @@
-<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd"><html>
-<html>
-	<head>
-		<title>Paragraph Order Test</title>
-	</head>
-
-	<body>
-		<div>
-			TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies.
-
- Most of our team is using Eclipse as the main IDE, its incrimental compilation in Java with its tight JUnit integration are great for fast TDD programming. Unfortunately the Eclipse Scala plugin is not there yet, it may hangs the IDE and messes up Java compilation - especially in large (more then 1000 source files) Java/Scala projects. Though the plugin is getting better over time some developers would find the plugin as a majore drag on their productivity.
- For developers who do not write Scala at all or rather edit Scala with other editors, you can use this alternate path which lets them work on their Java or Scala code without messing with the plugin.
-			<p>Paragraph 1 - The Following script is using the Fast Scala Compiler (fsc). The fsc is a compilation server which always run in the background, as in a warm scalac always ready to receive new work. Is will reduce compilation time dramatically.
- The classpath for compilation is taken from the Eclipse project .classpath file. You may take the source directory from there as well if you wish (exercise to the reader).
- The params are not passed to the fsc in the command line since in my project's case the line is too long for the OS to handle. The alternative is to put it into a file and let fsc handle it for you.</p>
-
-			TextNode 2 - As you may know, kaChing is an test driven engineering organization. Test driven is not an option, its a must. We move fast and push code to production few dozens of times a day in a five minutes release cycle, so we must have high confidence in our code.
- In complex systems there is no end to testings, each test system is an another line of defense which eventually gets broken but the more you have, the less chances bugs will reach production. We do not have QA team and do not want to have one, the reasoning is that if a human is involved in testing then there is a higher chance of missing things and you simply can't test all the site dozens of times a day.
-			<p>Paragraph 2 - In the next few weeks we are adding a new rule from the "not critical" list every few days. The goal is to have all the rules we think are important without the common "its to noisy, lets ignore it" approche. Only after we're done with that we're going to add the next static analysis tool to build. The good thing about these tools and hudson is that you can run them in parallel to the unit/integration tests, on another machine, so they won't slow down the overall release cycle.</p>
-		</div>
-	</body>
-</html>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/issue_24_result.txt b/tests/data/statichtml/issue_24_result.txt
deleted file mode 100644
index 7556fe5f..00000000
--- a/tests/data/statichtml/issue_24_result.txt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,7 +0,0 @@
-TextNode 1 - The Scala supported IDE is one of the few pain points of developers who want to start using Scala in their Java project. On existing long term project developed by a team its hard to step in and introduce a new language that is not supported by the existing IDE. On way to go about it is to hid the fact that you use Scala from the Java world by using one way dependency injection. Still, if you wish to truly absorb Scala into your existing java environment then you'll soon introduced cross language dependencies. Most of our team is using Eclipse as the main IDE, its incrimental compilation in Java with its tight JUnit integration are great for fast TDD programming. Unfortunately the Eclipse Scala plugin is not there yet, it may hangs the IDE and messes up Java compilation - especially in large (more then 1000 source files) Java/Scala projects. Though the plugin is getting better over time some developers would find the plugin as a majore drag on their productivity. For developers who do not write Scala at all or rather edit Scala with other editors, you can use this alternate path which lets them work on their Java or Scala code without messing with the plugin.
-
-Paragraph 1 - The Following script is using the Fast Scala Compiler (fsc). The fsc is a compilation server which always run in the background, as in a warm scalac always ready to receive new work. Is will reduce compilation time dramatically. The classpath for compilation is taken from the Eclipse project .classpath file. You may take the source directory from there as well if you wish (exercise to the reader). The params are not passed to the fsc in the command line since in my project's case the line is too long for the OS to handle. The alternative is to put it into a file and let fsc handle it for you.
-
-TextNode 2 - As you may know, kaChing is an test driven engineering organization. Test driven is not an option, its a must. We move fast and push code to production few dozens of times a day in a five minutes release cycle, so we must have high confidence in our code. In complex systems there is no end to testings, each test system is an another line of defense which eventually gets broken but the more you have, the less chances bugs will reach production. We do not have QA team and do not want to have one, the reasoning is that if a human is involved in testing then there is a higher chance of missing things and you simply can't test all the site dozens of times a day.
-
-Paragraph 2 - In the next few weeks we are adding a new rule from the "not critical" list every few days. The goal is to have all the rules we think are important without the common "its to noisy, lets ignore it" approche. Only after we're done with that we're going to add the next static analysis tool to build. The good thing about these tools and hudson is that you can run them in parallel to the unit/integration tests, on another machine, so they won't slow down the overall release cycle.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/tests/data/statichtml/msn1_result.txt b/tests/data/statichtml/msn1_result.txt
deleted file mode 100644
index b756c738..00000000
--- a/tests/data/statichtml/msn1_result.txt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,5 +0,0 @@
-"Head to the supermarket an hour before closing time. Some stores mark down prepared foods and bakery items then because they can't sell them the following day. You could get a rotisserie chicken or freshly baked cookies for 50 percent off, or nab two sushi meals for the price of one. If you're planning to host a party or some other gathering, it's worth your time to ask the deli or bakery manager for a 5 to 10 percent discount off your catering order. Also, keep an eye out for online coupons: Some grocery stores accept coupons printed out from sites like TheGroceryGame.com, ShopAtHome.com, and CouponMom.com, even though they rarely publicize the fact. (Find out your store's policy at the customer-service counter.) It also pays to check the market's own website. You could find weekly deals there that it doesn't advertise anywhere else, including its in-store flyers.
-
-"And even though it's convenient to do all your shopping in one place, avoid going to a grocery store for kitchen supplies, like measuring cups and cookie sheets, or seasonal items, like holiday decorations and gift bags. These products will have inflated prices. Buy them at a big-box chain, like Target or Walmart, instead."
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-          Microfinance and Poverty Reduction
-Susan Johnson and Ben Rogaly
-
-Oxfam
-(UK and Ireland)
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-First published by Oxfam (UK and Ireland) and ACTIONAID in 1997 Reprinted by Oxfam GB 1997, 1999 © Oxfam (UK and Ireland) and ACTIONAID 1997 Oxfam GB, 274 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7DZ ACTIONAID, Hamlyn House, Macdonald Road, Archway, London N19 5PG ISBN 0 85598 369 8 A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library. All rights reserved. Reproduction, copy, transmission, or translation of any part of this publication may be made only under the following conditions: • • • • With the prior written permission of the publisher; or With a licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd., 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 9HE, UK, or from another national licensing agency; or For quotation in a review of the work; or Under the terms set out below.
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-This publication is copyright, but may be reproduced by any method without fee for teaching purposes, but not for resale. Formal permission is required for all such uses, but normally will be granted immediately. For copying in any other circumstances, or for re-use in other publications, or for translation or adaptation, prior written permission must be obtained from the publisher, and a fee may be payable. Available from the following agents: USA: Stylus Publishing LLC, PO Box 605, Herndon, VA 20172-0605, USA tel: +1 (0)703 661 1581; fax: + 1(0)703 661 1547; email: styluspub@aol.com Canada. Fernwood Books Ltd, PO Box 9409, Stn. 'A', Halifax, N.S. B3K 5S3, Canada tel: +1 (0)902 422 3302; fax: +1 (0)902 422 3179; e-mail: fernwood@istar.ca India: Maya Publishers Pvt Ltd, 113-B, Shapur Jat, New Delhi-110049, India tel: +91 (0)11 649 4850; fax: +91 (0)11 649 1039; email: surit@del2.vsnl.net.in K Krishnamurthy, 23 Thanikachalan Road, Madras 600017, India tel: +91 (0)44 434 4519; fax: +91 (0)44 434 2009; email: ksm@md2.vsnl.net.in South Africa, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland: David Philip Publishers, PO Box 23408, Claremont 7735, South Africa tel: +27 (0)21 64 4136; fax: +27(0)21 64 3358; email: dppsales@iafrica.com Tanzania: Mkuki na Nyota Publishers, PO Box 4246, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania tel/fax: +255 (0)51 180479, email: mkuki@ud.co.tz Australia: Bush Books, PO Box 1958, Gosford, NSW 2250, Australia tel: +61 (0)2 043 233 274; fax: +61 (0)2 092 122 468, email: bushbook@ozemail.com.au Rest of the world: contact Oxfam Publishing, 274 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7DZ, UK. tel. +44 (0)1865 311 311: fax +44 (0)1865 313 925; email publish@oxfam.org.uk Designed and printed by Oxfam GB, 274 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7DZ, UK Printed by Litho and Digital Impressions Ltd. OX410/RB/96 Oxfam GB is a registered charity, no. 202 918, and is a member of Oxfam International.
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-This book converted to digital file in 2010
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-Contents
-Acknowledgements vii Introduction 1 1 Current debates in microfinance 5 1.1 Subsidised credit provision 5 1.2 The move to market-based solutions 5 1.3 Making use of social collateral 7 1.4 Savings 8 1.5 Can microfinance interventions reduce poverty? 10 1.51 Poverty as powerlessness 10 1.5-2 Credit for micro-enterprises 11 1.53 Reaching the poorest 12 1.6 Financial interventions and social change 13 1.7 Treading carefully in microfinance interventions 14 2 Informal financial services 16 2.1 Introduction 16 2.2 User-owned informal financial services 17 2.2.1 Some examples of user-owned financial services 18 2.3 Informal financial services for profit 19 2.31 Some examples of informalfinancial services providedfor profit 20 2.4 Turning the informal into the formal 22 2.5 What can be learned from informal finance? 23 2.6 Deciding when and how to intervene 25 2.6.1 Research questions on existing informal financial services 27 2.7 Filling the gaps 29 2.7.1 Some examples of innovative services 29
-in
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-2.8 Promotion: an alternative strategy for NGOs 30 2.8.1 Formation of savings groups and development of internal credit facilities 30 2.8.2 Promotion of small-scale formalised approaches 31 2.8.3 Linking groups to the formal system 32 2.8.4 Linking with specialised financial service NGOs 33 2.8.5 Advocacy 33 2.9 Summary and conclusions 34 3 The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people 35 3.1 Introduction 35 3.2 Targeting savings and credit to poor people 35 3.3 Women as users of financial services 38 3.4 Lending through groups 38 3-4.1 Functions of the group in microfinance schemes 39 3.4.2 Including the poorest 41 3-4.3 Other examples ofgroup-based schemes 42 3.5 Savings 43 331 The value of a savings facility 44 3-5.2 Compulsory or voluntary savings? 45 3-5-3 Linking savings to credit 46 3.6 Forms of loan 47 3.6.1 Credit in cash or kind? 47 3-6.2 Directed or undirected credit? 48 3.7 Loan disbursement and repayment schedules 50 3.8 Interest rates 51 3.9 Integrating financial services with other activities 52 3-9.1 Savings and credit for group formation and institution-building 53 3-9.2 Social development programmes 54 3-9.3 Economic development activities 54 3.10 Summary and conclusions 56 4 Financial performance and sustainability 58 4.1 Introduction 58 4.2 Managing and assessing financial performance 58 4.2.1 The repayment rate 59 4.2.2 Arrears and default 59
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-IV
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-4.3 Financial sustainability 60 4.3-1 The pros and cons of 'scaling up 6l 4.3-2 Issues in sustainability: the experience of 'village banking' 62 4.3-3 Sustainability through extending coverage 63 4.3-4 Measuring financial sustainability 64 4.4 Managerial and organisational sustainability 68 4.4.1 The role of staff in microfinance interventions 68 4.4.2 Organisational sustainability and change 69 4.5 Summary and conclusions 71 5 Assessing impact 72 5.1 Introduction 72 5.2 The difficulties of assessing impact 72 5-2.1 Establishing loan use 14 5-2.2 Measuring change-, controls and baselines 74 5-2.3 Proving causality 75 5.3 Innovations in impact assessment 76 5-3-1 Researching usefulness.- a case study 11 5-3-2 Assessing impact on social relationships 78 5-3-3 Impact assessment as a dynamic process 79 5-3-4 Validating qualitative data 80 5-3-5 Using quantitative data in impact assessment 81 5.4 Learning and adaptability 82 5.5 Summary and conclusions 84 6 Case studies 85 6.1 Introducing the case studies 85 6.2 Union Regional de Apoyo Campesino (URAC), Mexico 89 6.2.1 Background 89 6.2.2 Design 90 6.2.3 Financial performance and sustainability 92 6.2.4 Impact assessment 93 6.2.5 Conclusions 96 6.3 SUNGI Development Foundation, Pakistan 96 63-1 Background % 6.3.2 Design 97 6.3-3 Financial performance and sustainability 98 6.3-4 Impact assessment 98 6.3-5 Conclusions 101
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-6.4 Ladywood Credit Union, UK 101 6.4.1 Background 101 6.4.2 Design 102 6.4.3 Financial performance and sustainability 104 6.4.4 Impact assessment 104 6.4.5 Conclusions 107 6.5 ACTIONAID in The Gambia 107 6.5.1 Background 107 6.5.2 Design 108 6.5-3 Financial performance and sustainability 109 6.5.4 Impact assessment 110 6.5-5 Conclusions 113 6.6 Casa Campesina Cayambe, Ecuador 113 6.6.1 Background 113 6.6.2 Design 114 d. 6.3 Financial performance and sustainability 115 6.6.4 Impact assessment 116 6.6.5 Conclusions 117 7 Conclusions 118 Annex 1 Table 1 Six microfinance institutions 125 Annex 2 Repayment rate and arrears rate 126 References 128
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-VI
-
-Acknowledgements
-The authors wish to acknowledge the major inputs of Farah Batool (Pakistan case study), Martha Romero, Stephen Fogarty and Ofelia Guttierez (Mexico case study),Helen Derbyshire and Aggie Kent (UK case study), Ousman Cham and the staff of ACTIONAID The Gambia (The Gambia case study), Juan Serrano, Emilia Ferraro and Javier Herran (Ecuador case study). Stuart Rutherford provided a major and much appreciated contribution in the form of a background paper, A Critical Typology ofFinancial Servicesfor the Poor, as well as making comments on the text. Thanks are also due to the following: Shahin Yaqub, for a background paper, Macroeconomic Conditionsfor Successful Financial Servicesfor Poor People, Alfonso Castillo, and Md. Mumtaz Tanoli for additional assistance in planning and undertaking the case studies as well as commenting on the text; David Norman, Barbara Thomas and Helen Yanacopulos for research assistance. The following read and made valuable comments on the full text: Audrey Bronstein, James Copestake, Ros David, Helen Derbyshire, Heather Grady, Dot McCall, Amitava Mukherjee, Ravi Narayanan, Chris Roche, William Smith, Ines Smyth, and Ton van Zutphen. The authors are also grateful for the help and encouragement of Kirat Randhawa, Simran Rogaly, Deborah Eade, Pat Conaty, Carlos Ling, Michael Semple, Ceci Lopez, Pauline Wilson, and Nigel Twose. Any errors or omissions remain the responsibility of the authors. Susan Johnson and Ben Rogaly
-
-vu
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-Introduction
-During the 1990s, the provision of financial services dealing with very small deposits and loans — microfinance — and particularly the provision of microcredit, have been increasingly acclaimed as effective means of poverty reduction. There is continuing and quite rapid improvement in understanding how financial services for poor people can best be provided. This book sets out to draw together some of the most important lessons learned to date, as a useful resource for those considering financial interventions as well as those already involved. However, rather than setting out a single model of 'good practice', the book recommends an overall approach. In doing this, and in order to counteract the idea that credit alone can be a panacea for eradicating poverty, it reports on continuing debates about and different approaches to the provision of financial services to poor people. Private sector non-profit organisations (referred to in this book as nongovernmental organisations — NGOs) aiming to bring about reductions in poverty have become increasingly involved in providing financial services. Of those NGOs, most have experience of savings and credit, often linked to programmes of income generation. Very small deposits and loans are referred to together as 'microfinance'. This book focuses on microfinance and only briefly discusses its relationship to other development activities. The book does not cover financial service provision during complex emergencies or natural disasters, or for particular marginal or vulnerable groups, such as pastoralists or people with AIDS/HIV. Before going further, the term 'financial services' needs explanation. Financial services are about enabling people to amass usefully large sums of cash (Rutherford, 1996). They can be divided into two main types: first, those that build up cash reserves through forgoing income. Saving does this by making deposits out of income now and so forgoing its current use in order to draw a sum from these savings in the future. Insurance performs a similar
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction function: it allows the client to buy access to a future lump sum. Loans work in a similar way, but in reverse: they are lump sums which are given now in return for income forgone in the future. The second main type of financial service allows assets to be converted into and out of lump sums of cash. Mortgages and pawns are the main examples of such services. A further type of service which poor people may need, but which is rarely discussed, is cash-handling, especially to allow the transmission of cash from one place to another. This is essential for long-term migrants, for example, wishing to send cash back to their relatives.
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-The elements of an effective approach to microfinance
-The approach to microfinance proposed here has five main points. First, that NGOs should investigate existing financial services; who uses them and to what effect. Second, that before intervening directly, NGOs should assess whether they have the specialist knowledge and skills required to provide financial services themselves. Third, in order to design services which are relevant and useful to poor people, NGOs should understand local social and economic structures, and also macro-level trends. Fourth, NGOs should consider how the provision of services can be sustained in the long term. Lastly, the impact on poverty reduction should be continually assessed rather than taken for granted, which tends to happen if a microfinance intervention is covering its costs and has many low-income users.
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-The structure of this book
-The book begins by setting out the main debates surrounding interventions to provide financial services, to provide a background to the rest of the book. Much of the discussion in this initial chapter is based on Rogaly (1996a). In any situation there is likely to be an array of informal financial services which people are making use of. An overview of these is given in Chapter 2. There is now much greater understanding of the characteristics of such services and how they operate. The first task for an NGO proposing to intervene is to find out which services are already available to people and which additional ones they would find most useful. To do this the NGO must understand for whom, under what circumstances, and to what degree these services support or undermine livelihood strategies. This background information allows the design of financial services to be connected to an analysis of poverty and well-being, and at the same time establishes which existing services poor people may wish to retain, and which should therefore
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-Introduction not be undermined by any new intervention. This chapter draws heavily on a background paper commissioned for the book: A Critical Typology of Financial Services/or the Poor, by Stuart Rutherford, November 1996. The next step suggested for an NGO is to critically and honestly assess whether it is best placed to become a provider of financial services. In the past NGOs have not always achieved success in this area, and have failed to appreciate that specific skills are required. Alternative approaches which enable the NGO to utilise its skills in mobilising, training, and working with poor people to promote rather than to provide services should be seriously considered. Another possible role for NGOs is in advocacy with governments, to persuade them to make the necessary legislative changes, and with national banking systems to encourage bankers to work with poor people. Recent microfinance interventions have made use of a range of design features, which are discussed in Chapter 3- They have focused on reaching the poor by keeping loan sizes small, targeting women, adopting groupbased lending systems, and mobilising small and frequent savings deposits, and have tended to set interest rates at higher levels than in the past. Such interventions have demonstrated that poor people can and do repay loans, that they have the ability to save, and that they can pay higher interest rates. The discussion in Chapter 3 explores the assumptions behind these design elements of microfinance schemes, and the ways that they operate in practice. It emphasises the fact that different combinations of design features suit particular macro-economic, socio-economic, and political circumstances. This suggests that interveners must continuously and critically assess the effects that elements of the design of their programme are having in practice. To do this, it is advisable to start slowly in order that growing understanding of people's uses for microfinance can lead to adaptations in design. The fourth element of the approach set out in this book is a focus on sustainability, and this is discussed in Chapter 4. Microfinance initiatives have increasingly reported high repayment rates and the ability to cover part of the costs of providing the service. This has raised the possibility that organisations providing these services may be able to become self-sustaining, and so ensure the long-term provision of financial services to their users. NGOs involved in (or seeking to start) the provision of financial services need to take the issue of financial sustainability seriously, and ways of measuring financial self-sustainability are discussed in the chapter. However, financial sustainability is only one necessary condition for NGOs to be able to continue to provide services in the long term. The organisational structure, management, and staffing of the NGO are equally vital components. In discussing the forms of organisation that might be sustainable, some have argued that NGOs should turn themselves into banks. There is unlikely to be a single answer:
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction some NGOs may prefer instead to put groups in touch with existing banks so that they are no longer needed. The final element — the assessment of impact — is explored in Chapter 5. This is an area in which there are many methodological difficulties. However, for those interested in poverty reduction, changes in users' livelihoods as a result of microfinance provision are of central importance. The approach proposed is one in which organisations continuously investigate and assess the usefulness and relevance of their services, and adapt their ways of working in response to the results they find. It is suggested that NGOs involved in microfinance should be modest and honest about their aims. Qualitative data gathering which involves users as well as the staff of the microfinance institution can help to clarify how different groups of people — poor, poorest, men, women — are able to make use of the services and with what effect. This information is a vital adjunct to quantitative information on performance, such as numbers of users reached and number and amount of deposits, or volume and size of loans dispersed. The book makes use of five case studies of financial service schemes connected to or funded by ACTIONAID or Oxfam. In Chapter 6 these schemes are described and used to illustrate issues discussed in earlier chapters in a practical context. Chapter 7 then draws overall conclusions.
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-1
-Current debates in microfinance
-1.1 Subsidised credit provision
-From the 1950s, governments and international aid donors subsidised credit delivery to small farmers in rural areas of many developing countries. It was assumed that poor people found great difficulty in obtaining adequate volumes of credit and were charged high rates of interest by monopolistic money-lenders. Development finance institutions, such as Agricultural Development Banks, were responsible for the delivery of cheap credit to poor farmers. These institutions attempted to supervise the uses to which loans were put, and repayment schedules were based on the expected income flow from the investment. Returns were often overestimated. For example, calculations would be based on agricultural yields for good years (Adams and Von Pischke, 1992). As a result, loans were often not repaid. The credibility and financial viability of these subsidised credit schemes were further weakened by the use of public money to waive outstanding and overdue loans at election time (Adams and Von Pischke, 1992; Lipton, 1996; Wiggins and Rogaly, 1989)- A dependence on the fluctuating whims of governments and donors, together with poor investment decisions and low repayment rates made many of these development finance institutions unable to sustain their lending programmes. Credit provision for poor people was transitory and limited.
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-1.2 The move to market-based solutions
-This model of subsidised credit was subjected to steady criticism from the mid-1970s as donors and other resource allocators switched attention from state intervention to market-based solutions. Policy-makers were reminded
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction that credit could also be described as debt and that the over-supply of subsidised credit without realistic assessment of people's ability to repay could result in impoverishment for borrowers. At the same time the concept of 'transaction costs', and the notion that full information about borrowers was not available to lenders, were used by the opponents of subsidised credit to justify the high interest-rates charged by money-lenders. Lending money carries with it the risk of non-repayment. In order to know who is creditworthy and who is not, and so reduce this risk, the lender screens potential borrowers. This involves gathering information on the circumstances of individuals, which may not be easy to obtain. Then enforcement costs are incurred to ensure repayment. Through this process risks are reduced, though not eliminated. Where a loan is disbursed on condition that it is used for a particular purpose, supervision costs also arise. Using these tools of analysis it was argued that private money-lenders charged interest rates which were higher than formal bank-rates because of the high costs they faced in terms of risk, particularly when lending without physical collateral. At the same time, it was argued that money-lenders were an efficient source of credit because their greater knowledge of the people to whom they were lending lowered screening costs. Moreover, potential borrowers faced high transaction costs when they sought loans from formal-sector finance institutions. These costs included the time, travel, and paperwork involved in obtaining credit, and were often prohibitive for poor clients, especially those most geographically isolated. On the basis of this analysis, a group of economists based at Ohio State University (USA), notably Dale Adams and J D Von Pischke, put forward the view that the provision of credit should be left almost entirely to the private sector. In concentrating on the problems of publicly subsidised credit, these economists ignored the social ties, power relations, and coercion associated with the activities of money-lenders. However, detailed micro-level research has demonstrated the widespread use of 'interlocked' contracts to force exchange to the disadvantage of poor people (Bhaduri, 1981). Powerful local people, including landlords, employers, and traders, are able to influence the terms of loans made to tenants, workers, and small producers via conditions set in transactions involving land, labour, or crops. For example, traders frequently lend working capital to small farmers on condition that their crops are sold to that trader at a pre-determined price. Similarly, loans are made to workers against the promise of labour to be provided at below the going rate at a set future date (Rogaly, 1996b). Against the background of these debates, recent developments in the design of microfinance schemes have generated an understandably high degree of excitement. This is because innovative features in design have
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-Current debates in microfinance reduced the costs and risks of making loans to poor and isolated people, and made financial services available to people who were previously excluded.
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-1.3 Making use of social collateral
-There was little knowledge among formal-sector financial intermediaries of alternatives to physical collateral, until the 1970s, when the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh began using 'peer-group monitoring' to reduce lending risk. The model for credit delivery in the Grameen Bank is as follows: • Groups of five self-select themselves; men's and women's group are kept separate but the members of a single group should have a similar economic background. • Membership is restricted to those with assets worth less than half an acre of land. • Activities begin with savings ofTaka 1 per week per person and these savings remain compulsory throughout membership. • Loans are made to two members at a time and must be repaid in equal instalments over 50 weeks. • Each time a loan is taken the borrower must pay 5 per cent of the loan amount into a group fund. • The group is ultimately responsible for repayment if the individual defaults. • Between five and eight groups form a 'development centre' led by a chairperson and secretary and assisted by a. Grameen Bank staff member. • Attendance at weekly group and centre meetings is compulsory. • All transactions are openly conducted at centre meetings. • Each member may purchase a share in the Bank worth Taka 100 Through this system the Grameen Bank has provided credit to over 2 million people in Bangladesh (94 per cent women) with a very low default rate. (Source: Khandker, Khalily and Khan, 1995.) However, peer-group monitoring has not proved necessary to other institutions seeking to do away with physical collateral. In Indonesia, governmentsponsored banks have successfully used character references and locallyrecruited lending agents (Chaves and Gonzales Vega, 1996). The peer-group
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction method of Grameen and the individual-user approach of the Bank Rakyat Indonesia (see 1.4) can both be seen as attempts to lower screening costs by using local 'insider' information about the creditworthiness of borrowers. The degree to which Grameen Bank employees themselves implement peer-group monitoring has recently been questioned. It is argued that the reason for the Grameen Bank's high repayment rates is the practice of weekly public meetings at which attendance is compulsory, for the payment of loan instalments and the collection of savings. The meetings reinforce a culture of discipline, routine payments, and staff accountability (Jain, 1996). Another means of improving loan recovery is to insist on regularity of repayment. This is likely to reflect the actual income-flow of the borrower much better than a lump-sum demand at the end of the loan period. Borrowers can make repayments out of their normal income rather than relying on the returns from a new—often untested —mini-business. Nevertheless, where seasonal agriculture is the main source of income, and borrowers face seasonal hardship, regular repayment scheduling may cause problems. Microfinance specialists have argued that the prospects for scheme's stability are improved by innovations such as social collateral and regular repayments instalments. Indeed, financial sustainability has become an important goal in itself. To achieve sustainability, microfinance institutions, be they NGOs, government agencies, or commercial banks, need to ensure that the costs of providing the service are kept low and are covered by income earned through interest and fees on loans (see Havers, 1996). As microfinance deals, by definition, with small loans, the income generated through interest payments is also small in comparison with administration costs. To generate profits, therefore, it is necessary to increase scale — in other words, to lend to a large number of people (Otero and Rhyne, 1994).
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-1.4 Savings
-The regular repayments on loans required by large non-governmental microfinance institutions in Bangladesh (including BRAC, ASA and Grameen) provide evidence that poor people can save in cash (Rutherford, 1995a). These intensive repayment regimes are very similar to those of rotating savings and credit associations: steady weekly payments, enforced by social collateral, in return for a lump sum. Loans made are, in reality, advances against this stream of savings. By insisting on regular savings, microfinance institutions can screen out some potential defaulters, build up the financial security of individuals, increase funds available for lending, and develop among members a degree of identification with the financial health of the institution. People involved in
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-Current debates in microfinance such schemes may previously have been unable to reach formal-sector banks, complete their procedures, qualify for loans or open savings accounts. 'A savings facility is an extremely valuable service in its own right, which often attracts many more clients than a credit programme, particularly from among the poorest' (Hulme and Mosley, 1996, pl47). This evidence that poor people can save in cash has opened up further debate. A distinction is made between schemes in which borrowers must save small and regular amounts in order to obtain loans (termed 'compulsory' saving) and those which offer flexible savings facilities. In the latter case people can deposit and withdraw cash in whatever amounts, and as often, as they wish. This distinction is made especially strongly by Robinson (1995) in her account of the Bank Rakyat Indonesia. The BRI local banking system has about six times as many deposit accounts as loans. On 31 December 1993, BRI's local banking system had $2.1 billion in deposits. These were all voluntary savings. By 31 December 1995, there were 14.5 million savings accounts. Savers with BRI have access to savings whenever they want. BRI deals with individuals rather than groups. Its savings programme was designed specifically to meet local demand for security, convenience of location, and choice of savings instruments offering different mixtures of liquidity and returns. BRI's local banking system has a loan limit of about $11,000. The idea is that good borrowers should not be forced to leave until they can qualify for the loans provided by ordinary commercial banks. In addition, BRI has a system which gives its borrowers an incentive to repay on time. An additional 25 per cent of the interest rate is added to the monthly payment. This amount is paid back to borrowers at the end of the loan period if they have made every payment in full and on time. There is a corresponding in-built penalty for those who have not. (Source: Robinson, 1994.) Robinson argues that there is an enormous unmet demand for flexible savings services. However, she also warns that managing a savings system of this type is much more complex than running a simple credit programme. Schemes which operate under these 'new' savings and credit technologies are an improvement on the old model of subsidised agricultural and microenterprise finance. The story of how they have succeeded in reaching poor people is now the subject of a large literaaire (for example, Rutherford, 1995b; Hulme and Mosley, 1996; Mansell-Carstens, 1995). That many more poor people can now obtain financial services is a major achievement of these
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction schemes. However, the questions of which poor people have been reached, and of whether poverty has been reduced, still remain.
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-1.5 Can microfinance interventions reduce poverty?
-If poverty is understood as low levels of annual income per household, reducing poverty is about raising average income levels. If a particular level of annual income per head is used as a poverty line, poverty reduction could be measured by counting the number or proportion of people who cross that line — who are promoted out of poverty. Providers of financial services who aim to enable people to cross such a poverty line have focused on credit, in particular credit for small enterprises, including agricultural production. However, attention to annual income can obscure fluctuations in that income during any given year. Poverty can also be understood as vulnerability to downward fluctuations in income. Such fluctuations can be relatively predictable, such as the seasonal decline in employment for agricultural workers, or a shortage of income and trading opportunities in the dry season or before harvest. Alternatively, fluctuations in income may result from unexpected shocks such as crop failure, illness, funeral expenses or loss of an asset such as livestock through theft or death, or a natural disaster such as a cyclone (Montgomery, 1996). Vulnerability can be heightened by the lack of saleable or pawnable assets and by debt obligations. Interventions which reduce such vulnerability and protect livelihoods also reduce poverty. 1.5.1 Poverty as powerlessness A further dimension of poverty which is often the focus of NGO interventions is powerlessness, whether in an absolute sense or in relation to others. Economic inequality between and within households is likely to be associated with concentrations of political and social power. Inequality can increase whenever better-off people are able to improve their incomes faster than others. Even if the absolute level of material well-being of the worst-off people does not change, relative poverty (Beck, 1994) may increase, and with it a sense of powerlessness among very poor people. Power relations are partly determined by norms of expected behaviour. Neither the relations nor the norms are static; they are contested and change over time. Powerlessness can be experienced in a variety of situations: within the household, as a result of differences in gender and age; and within the community, between socio-economic groups, as a result of caste, ethnicity, and wealth. Defining poverty in terms of power relations implies that assessment of the impact of microfinance interventions should focus on their
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-Current debates in microfinance influence on social relations and the circumstances which reproduce them. Even in a similar geographical and historical context, it is important to distinguish between the ways in which specific groups of poor people (women and men, landed and landless, particular ethnic groups) are able to benefit from financial services or are excluded from doing so. 1.5.2 Credit for micro-enterprises While there are methodological difficulties involved in measuring increases in incomes brought about by the provision of credit (see further discussion in Chapter 5), studies have demonstrated that the availability of credit for microenterprises can have positive effects. A recent survey collected data from government, NGOs, and banks involved in providing financial services for poor people. Twelve programmes were selected from seven countries (six of these are included in Table 1, Annex 1). Households which had received credit were compared with households which had not. The results demonstrated that credit provision can enable household incomes to rise. However, taking the analysis further, Hulme and Mosley demonstrated that the better-off the borrower, the greater the increase in income from a microenterprise loan. Borrowers who already have assets and skills are able to make better use of credit. The poorest are less able to take risks or use credit to increase their income. Indeed, some of the poorest borrowers interviewed became worse off as a result of micro-enterprise credit, which exposed these vulnerable people to high risks. For them, business failure was more likely to provoke a livelihood crisis than it was for borrowers with a more secure asset base. Specific crises included bankruptcy, forced seizure of assets, and unofficial pledging of assets to other members of a borrowing group. There have even been reports of suicide following peer-group pressure to repay failed loans (Hulme and Mosley, 1996, ppl20-122). A much smaller survey comparing micro-enterprise programmes in El Salvador and Vanuatu found that the development of successful enterprises and the improvement of the incomes of very poor people were conflicting rather than complementary objectives. By selecting those most likely to be successful for credit and training, the programmes inevitably moved away from working with the poorest people (Tomlinson, 1995). Reviews of Oxfam's experiences with income-generating projects for women raised serious questions about the profitability of such activities. Full input costings, which would have revealed many income-generating projects as lossmaking, were not carried out. Omissions included depreciation on capital, the opportunity cost of labour (the earnings participants could have had through spending the time on other activities), and subsidisation of income-
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction generating projects with income from other sources. Market research and training in other business skills had often been inadequate (Piza Lopez and March, 1990; Mukhopadhyay and March, 1992).
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-1.5.3 Reaching the poorest
-Whether income promotion is based on loans for individual micro-enterprises or on group-based income generation projects, its appropriateness as a strategy for poverty reduction in the case of the poorest people is questionable. Other evidence suggests that self-selected groups for peer-monitoring have not been inclusive of the poorest people (Montgomery, 1995). People select those with whom they want to form a group on the basis of their own knowledge of the likelihood that these people will make timely payment of loan and savings instalments: X will only have Y in her group if she believes Y is capable of making regular repayments and has much to lose from the social ostracism associated with default. This system might well be expected to lead to the exclusion of the poorest (Montgomery, op.cit.). Even the low asset and land-holding ceiling which the big microfinance institutions in Bangladesh have successfully used to target loans away from better-off people has not necessarily meant that the poorest, who are often landless, are included (Osmani, 1989). So while the innovations referred to earlier appear to have made loans more available to poor people, there is still debate over the design of appropriate financial services for the poorest. Hulme and Mosley's study strongly suggests that providing credit for micro-enterprises is unlikely to help the poorest people to increase their incomes. However, detailed research with users has found that some design features of savings and credit schemes are able to meet the needs of very poor people. For example, it was found that easy access to savings and the provision of emergency loans by SANASA (see 3.4.2) enabled poor people to cope better with seasonal income fluctuations (Montgomery, 1996). Microfinance specialists increasingly, therefore, view improvements in economic security — income protection rather than promotion (Dreze and Sen, 1989) — as the first step in poverty reduction, '...from the perspective of poverty reduction, access to reliable, monetized savings facilities can help the poor smooth consumption over periods of cyclical or unexpected crises, thus greatly improving their economic security.' It is only when people have some economic security that 'access to credit can help them move out of poverty by improving the productivity of their enterprises or creating new sources of livelihood' (Bennet and Cuevas, 1996, authors' emphasis).
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-Current debates in microfinance
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-1.6 Financial interventions and social change
-Interventions have an impact on social relations partly through their economic effects. In many instances implementors of credit schemes have claimed that the work will lead to progressive social change, for example by empowering women and changing gender relations in the household and in the community (Ackerly, 1995). In five out of the six schemes summarised in Table 1 (Annex 1), over half of the borrowers were women. Much of the work that has been done in assessing the impact of credit programmes on women has been in Bangladesh. One approach was to look at the control women retained over loans extended to them by four different credit programmes: the Grameen Bank, BRAC, a large government scheme (the Rural Poor Programme RD-12), and a small NGO (Thangemara Mahila Senbuj Sengstha) (Goetz and Sen Gupta, 1996). Results suggested that women retained significant control over the use to which the loan was put in 37 per cent of cases; 63 per cent fell into the categories of partial, limited or no control over loan use. Goetz and Sen Gupta found single, divorced, and widowed women more likely to retain control than others. Control was also retained more often when loan sizes were small and when loan use was based on activities which did not challenge notions of appropriate work for women and men. The question of whether women were empowered is not answered: even when they did not control loans, they may have used the fact that the loan had been disbursed to them as women to increase their status and strengthen their position in the household. However, in some cases women reported an increase in domestic violence because of disputes over cash for repayment instalments. A second major piece of research has assessed the effect of Grameen and BRAC programmes on eight indicators of women's empowerment: mobility, economic security, ability to make small purchases, ability to make larger purchases, involvement in major household decisions, relative freedom from domination by the family, political and legal awareness, and participation in public protests and political campaigning (Hashemi et al, 1996). The study concludes that, on balance, access to credit has enabled women to negotiate within the household to improve their position. However, unlike the Goetz and Sen Gupta study, which is based on 275 detailed loan-use histories, Hashemi et al attempted to compare villages where Grameen or BRAC were present with villages where they were not. Because of difficulties inherent in finding perfect control villages (which the authors acknowledge), the conclusions of the study do not signify the end of the debate. It has also been argued that focusing on women is much more to do with financial objectives than with the aim of empowerment. According to
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction Rutherford (1995b) the real reasons for targeting women in Bangladesh are that they are seen as accessible (being at home during working hours); more likely to repay on time; more pliable and patient than men; and cheaper to service (as mainly female staff can be hired). Thus the process of loan supervision and recovery may be deliberately internalised inside the household (Goetz and Sen Gupta, op. cit.). Goetz and Sen Gupta do not use this as an argument against the provision of finance for women in Bangladesh, but rather suggest that to avoid aggravating genderbased conflict, loans should be given to men directly as well as to women and, at the same time, that efforts should be made to change men's attitudes to women's worth.
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-1.7 Treading carefully in microfinance interventions
-This brief summary of evidence and argument suggests that microfinance interventions may increase incomes, contribute to individual and household livelihood security, and change social relations for the better. But that they can not always be assumed to be doing so. Financial services are not always the most appropriate intervention. The poorest, in particular, often face pressing needs in terms of primary health care, education, and employment opportunities. Lipton has recently argued for anti-poverty resources to be allocated across sectors on the basis that a concentration on a single intervention mechanism, say credit, is much less effective in poverty reduction than simultaneous credit, primary health, and education work, even if this entails narrowing geographical focus (op. cit.). The particular combinations which will be most effective will depend on the nature of poverty in a specific context. Although microfinance provision appears to be evolving towards greater sustainability, relevance, and usefulness, there are few certainties and the search for better practice continues. Decisions on whether and how to intervene in local financial markets should not be taken without prior knowledge of the working of those markets. If the intervention is intended to reduce poverty, it is especially important to know the degree to which poor people use existing services and on what terms. Only then can an intervening agency or bank make an informed decision on whether their work is likely to augment or displace existing 'pro-poor' financial services. If the terms of informal financial transactions are likely to work against the interests of poor people (cases in which the stereotype of 'the wicked money-lender' corresponds to reality) the intervention may attempt to compete with and possibly replace part of the informal system. However, making such an informed assessment is not straightforward, as one study of the power relations between informal financial
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-Current debates in microfinance service providers and agricultural producers in Tamil Nadu demonstrated. Grain merchants based in the market town of Dindigul were found to dictate the terms of product sale when lending working capital to very small-scale farmers, but to be much the weaker party when lending to larger-scale farmers (Rogaly, 1985). The structure of a credit market can change, partly under the influence of outside intervention. Rutherford has studied the changing market in financial services for poor people in Bangladesh. Competition between NGOs is leading to users being less subservient to NGO staff and protesting about unpopular financial obligations, such as the 5 per cent deducted from loans by Grameen for a 'group fund'. Private individuals have set up offices imitating the Grameen style but charging higher interest rates on loans than the big NGOs, and also offering higher rates on savings deposits. Private urban finance companies have expanded. Despite the tendency for NGOs to become more like banks, other formal-sector lenders are still reluctant to lend to poor people (see also McGregor, 1994). The expansion of NGO credit in Bangladesh has been made possible by the flood of donor money to that country. One study of BRAC showed that loan disbursal and recovery had become more important than group formation (Montgomery, 1996). In 1992, Grameen Bank and BRAC employees were found to be offering 'immediate loans' to women in villages where smaller NGOs had been attempting longer-term group-based finance (Ebdon, 1995). Ebdon attributed this behaviour to fairly strict targets for loan disbursal in the case of BRAC, and in both cases to an imperative for job security for staff and a desire on the part of the organisations to expand their influence and strengthen their reputations (p52). This anxiety to increase the number of users can undercut the very basis of the new model: the creation of sustainable financial institutions. Studies of credit schemes have consistently demonstrated that unless borrowers and savers believed they would benefit from the long-term survival of the institution, and have a sense of ownership, repayment rates would decline (Rogaly, 1991; Copestake, 1996a). The sense of ownership is weakened by attempts by large microfinance institutions in Bangladesh to claim territory by encroachment. In India, in the absence of equivalent flows of external finance, thrift and credit co-operatives based much more on borrowers' requirements have emerged (Rutherford, 1995b, pl36). An understanding of the way in which the institutions themselves change and respond to incentives is therefore necessary for the design of relevant anti-poverty interventions, including financial services.
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-Informal financial services
-2.1 Introduction
-In recent years research into informal financial services and systems has significantly deepened understanding of the way they operate and their strengths and weaknesses. A simplistic belief that local money-lenders charged extortionate interest rates lay behind the provision of subsidised finance in the past. More thorough investigation has highlighted a range of savings, credit, and insurance facilities accessible to poor people. The apparently usurious interest charges reportedly made by private money-lenders may be explainable in terms of transaction costs, lack of information, and high risk. Informal financial services may be well-equipped, because of local 'insider' knowledge, and lower overheads, to respond to the requirements of poor people; they may also be exploitative. This chapter starts with a brief overview of the types of informal services that have been found to exist in a wide variety of countries and social contexts.1 Some of the broad characteristics of these services are identified, and lessons drawn for the design of NGO or semi-formal systems. In describing informal financial services it is useful to distinguish between those which are owned by their users and those which are offered by an individual, usually on a profit-making basis. The distinction can be a helpful one in analysing the ways in which financial services enable or exploit poor people. NGOs considering microfinance interventions need first to find out what informal financial services are available, and how they operate. Such services are capable of supporting poor people's livelihoods as well as perpetuating l This chapter draws heavily on a background paper commissioned for the purposes
-of this book: A Critical Typology ofFinancial Servicesfor the Poor, Stuart Rutherford, November 1996. Examples are drawn from Rutherford's own experience unless otherwise stated.
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-Informal financial services structures which undermine them. It is necessary, therefore, to understand under what circumstances and to what degree these services are enabling or exploitative for poor people. On the whole, user-owned services are likely to be more enabling than services provided for profit. Investigating the scope and nature of existing services is an essential preliminary before considering whether an intervention is necessary. However, NGOs themselves may not have the right skills to become direct providers of financial services. Furthermore, financial services are needed by poor people on a permanent basis to enable them to plan and manage their finances; NGO programmes which might be here today and gone tomorrow may be an inappropriate means through which to provide them. Therefore NGOs should seriously consider whether direct intervention is in fact the best response for them to make. The chapter closes by discussing alternative strategies NGOs might employ.
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-2.2 User-owned informal financial services
-Systems which facilitate financial transactions and are owned by their users are many and varied, and range from simple reciprocal arrangements between neighbours, savings clubs and rotating savings and credit associations (ROSCAs), to forms of insurance, building societies, and systems of cooperative business finance. An example of each of these types is described below. All of these systems can be found in a variety of country settings. Rotating savings and credit associations (ROSCAs) in particular, are an extremely common phenomenon. They exist in almost every country (for example, 'partners' in Jamaica and Britain, hui in Vietnam, and njangi in Cameroon). (See Bouman, 1995; Ardener and Burman, 1995 for detailed and extensive surveys of ROSCA operations in a range of settings.) The principle is very simple: a number of people agree to save a fixed amount of money at regular intervals; at each meeting, for example weekly, each member contributes an agreed amount, resulting in a single lump sum becoming available, which is then allocated to one of the members. There are three basic variations in the way in which this lump sum or 'prize' is allocated. First, it can be allocated on the basis of strict rotation between members of the group; second, on the basis of a lottery of members; third, it may be auctioned to the member who is willing to accept the biggest discount. The group will usually meet (but does not always need to) and undertake this transaction on as many occasions as there are members of the group, thus ensuring that each member gets the 'prize' once. The ROSCA demonstrates the basic principle of financial intermediation: collecting many small savings from many people, turning this into a lump sum for one person, and repeating this procedure over time.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction ROSCA finance is used for many purposes. Some ROSCAs operate to enable an asset to be purchased, such as a rickshaw or fishing equipment for each member, and may have been set up specifically for the purpose. 'Merrygo-rounds', as ROSCAs are called among Kikuyu women in Kenya, are sometimes used by women as a means of accumulating enough money to buy new household utensils or clothes. The technology of the ROSCA is not unique to poor communities but is also used by salaried professionals to purchase major consumption items or assets such as refrigerators or cars. A further example of a user-owned device is the insurance fund which makes pay-outs conditional on certain circumstances occurring. These are intended to cover large expenses such as those connected with marriage or death.
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-2.2.1 Some examples of user-owned financial services Neighbourhood reciprocity in Southern India
-Reciprocal lending may be extended to involve several or even all the members of a community. Among Moslems in Kerala State in southern India kuri kalyanam are invitations to a feast to which the guest is expected to bring a cash gift. When the host in his turn is invited to a feast by one of the guests he is expected to return double the amount (less if he is perceived as poor). In Vietnam one kind o/hui (a generic name for various financial devices) involves a similar pooling of resources for one person on one occasion to be reciprocated later by others, at different times.
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-Rickshaw ROSCAs in Bangladesh
-Very poor men driven by poverty from their home villages to the Bangladesh capital, Dhaka, often earn a living there by driving hired rickshaws. In the last ten years they have begun to run ROSCAs. A group of drivers forms, and each driver saves a set amount from his daily takings. When the fund is large enough (this usually takes about 15 days) a rickshaw is bought and distributed by lottery to one of the members. In between prizes' the cash is held by a trustworthy outsider, usually a local shopkeeperfrom whom the members buy their tea or cigarettes. In a further adaptation, those who have already received their rickshaw double their daily contribution. This progressively reduces the time-gap between prizes, and is seen as a fair way of rewarding those members who win the lottery late in the cycle, because their gross contribution is smaller than earlier winners. The extra payment made by the winners is roughly equivalent to what they save by no longer having to hire a rickshaw.
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-Informal financial services
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-An accumulating savings club in Mexico
-In towns and villages in Mexico neighbours place frequent but irregular savings with trusted shopkeepers, fust before Christmas, the cash is returned to the saver. No interest is paid, but the saver has a lump sum to spend, and the shopkeeper has had the use of 'themoney over the year and can now look forward to a good sales season.
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-Building societies for the middle classes in Bangladesh
-In a lower-middle-class area of Dhaka, 165 employees in the Public Works Department belong to their own 'building society' which was started over 16 years ago. Each saves 200 taka ($5) a month out of his wages. As the cash accumulates it is lent out to members, who buy land and building materials. Interest rates are high and interest on the outstanding balance has to be paid each month, to encourage modest loans and rapid repayment. But loan sizes are generous and such workers would have few or no alternative sources for loans of this kind.
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-Popular insurance: funeral funds (id&ir) in Ethiopia
-Originally burial societies, iddir have extended to provide a wide range of insurance services in urban Ethiopia. Aredo (1993), studying these in Addis Ababa, estimated that 50per cent of urban households were members of some kind q/"iddir. Groups of people come together on the basis of location, occupation, friendship or family ties. Each iddir sets its own rules and regulations but usually pays outfor funeral expenses orfinancial assistance to families of the deceased, and sometimes to cover other costs, such as medical expenses and losses due to fire or theft.
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-2.3 Informal financial services for profit
-Those offering informal financial services for profit fall into two groups: deposit takers (often also called money-guards) and lenders. What is most interesting about the situation of deposit takers is that, as in the Nigerian example below, savers usually pay for the service by obtaining a negative interest rate on their funds. This demonstrates the pressing need that people have for places to put their savings which are safe and secure not only from physical risks such as theft, fire or flood, but also from the demands of their family. For women, in particular, the ability to save small amounts in places to which their husbands and families cannot gain access (although they might know about them) has been shown to be particularly important. It may enable them to meet obligations in the family or household, such as the payment of children's school fees, for which they have particular responsibility.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction Forms of lending also operate in a variety of ways, such as money-lenders; pawnbrokers, who take collateral in the form of physical assets; and forms of trade credit and hire purchase. The term 'money-lender' can cause confusion because it conjures up the image of a class of people whose main source of income is usury. In reality, many small farmers, for example, obtain credit from employers, landlords, traders, relatives, and other people who combine a number of economic activities. In some places money-lenders may be a more professionalised class, such as the 'Tamilians' in Cochin described below, but even in this case it is not necessarily their main source of income. Lending money can be exploitative oft, as well as enablingfor, poor people. People facing seasonal shortages may have only one source of credit, for example, an employer. The employer may agree to provide a loan, but only if the borrower promises to work when required at below the going wage-rate. As described below for Indonesia, crop traders may provide producers with seasonal credit on the understanding that the crop is sold through the same trader at low post-harvest prices. Tied credit of this type, whether in cash or kind, may be the only means of survival for poor people. But arrangements such as these can maintain and even exacerbate inequalities in power and position. In contrast, user-owned devices are likely to be more supportive and enabling, because the profits made are pooled, and shared or fed back into the system, and ownership and control of the funds are in the hands of the users. Such devices are unlikely to be exploitative of those involved, although they may widen inequalities between users and non-users. The comparison with services for profit is clear. However, loans from private lenders after harvest may enable small traders to make the most of the increased liquidity in the local economy. This emphasises the need for interveners to understand the workings of real markets and to question untested assumptions. It is essential to find out for which groups of poor people — women, men, landless labourers, subsistence farmers, migrant workers — and under what circumstances these arrangements may be no more than a means of survival, while supporting wealth creation for others.
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-2.3-1 Some examples of informal financial services provided for profit Deposit takers: a mobile alajo in Nigeria
-One consequence of Nigeria's current political difficulties is a drop in public confidence informal banks, according to Gemini News. This has allowed an old tradition to flourish again — alajos, or peripatetic deposit takers. Idowu Alakpere uses a bicycle to go
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-Informalfinancial services door-to-door round the outer suburb of Lagos where he lives. He has 500 customers who each save about 10 or 15 naira with him (about 50 to 75 cents US) at each daily visit. Customers withdraw money whenever they like, and Idowu charges them one day's savings per month, which he deducts from the withdrawal. Since deposits are made evenly over the month, the negative interest rate for one-month deposits is 1/15, or 6.6per cent a month, an Annual Percentage Rate (APR) of 80per cent. Some alajos, including Idowu, store the cash in a reliable bank, others use it to make loans. The Gemini News reporter was told by many local people that they trusted these alajos more than banks. When it was pointed out that some alajos are dishonest, they retorted that so are many banks.
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-Professional money-lenders in Cochin, India
-'Tamilians'provide a money-lending service to poor slum dwellers on a daily basis. They have set terms, which are well-known all over Cochin. For each 100 rupees lent, 3 rupees are deducted at source as a fee. Thereafter, 12.50 rupees per week must be repaid for ten weeks. This works out at an APR of 300per cent (28 rupees paid on an average size loan of 48.50 rupees [97/2]for 10/52 of a year). Most non-poor observers regard this rate as outrageously exploitative. However, poor users of the service tend to take a favourable view of it. The 'Tamilians' do not needlessly harass their clients over repayment but take an 'understanding' view which includes a willingness to accept loan losses. These money-lenders know their clients well and (out of self-interest) will not lend more than they think the client can repay out of normal income over the next ten weeks.
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-Lending against collateral-pawnbrokers in Western India
-Residents of the slums of Vijayawada use their local pawnbroker when they need money quickly. He is reliably available at his goldsmithing shop and he charges 3 per cent a month for loans pledged against gold, 5 per centfor silver and 9 per centfor brass. The inclusion of brass means that even the very poor can get a small advance by pawning kitchen pots and pans. He lends up to two-thirds the value of the pawn. He gives a receipt, and because the borrower can be sure ofgetting her pawn back when she repays the loan, she can risk pawning objects of sentimental value. Unlike those who lend without collateral the broker does not need to know his clients well: the unambiguous collateral provided by the pawn means that the broker can lend to more or less anyone at any time.
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-Advance crop sales in Indonesia
-A practice common in many countries is known as ijon in some areas of Indonesia. Farmers often need cash to get them through the 'hungry' season when their main crop is in the ground and there is not much else to do except sit and wait. They are forced to make an advance sale of the crop, usually to a grain buyer or his agent. Ijon transactions of this sort, if seen as loans, show an interest rate of anything from 10 to 40 per cent a month.
-(Source: Bouman and Moll in Adams and Fitchett, 1992.)
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-Two examples of trade credit
-In many markets it is common to see poor people squatting on the ground with a small amount of fertiliser spread out on a mat. The fertiliser doesn't necessarily belong to the man or woman (or, often, child). Lacking capital themselves to buy stock, such people obtain the fertiliser on credit from a nearby shop. At the close of the market they return the money from sales and any balance of the stock to the shopkeeper, retaining a small proportion of the money. The system allows people to trade (safely if not profitably) without capital, and gives the shopkeeper a cheap extra outlet. Tfredadon credit system used to finance prawn cultivation in Bangladesh is an example of a trading system in which credit is passed on through a chain of intermediaries between the prawn farmer and exporters to Europe. The prawn market is a highly competitive business in which everyone in the chain is short of capital. The 'commission agent' at the port buys prawns on behalf of the exporters in the capital. To ensure their share of the market they provide credit early in the season which finds its way through a number of intermediaries before reaching the hands of the farmer. The intermediaries are 'depot' owners, then farias', or merchants, and finally local traders, who in turn lend to the farmers. In accepting the credit the farmer commits himself to selling exclusively to this particular trader.
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-2.4 Turning the informal into the formal
-In some countries such informal systems have evolved into formal systems which have had a major impact on their users. In the UK, for example, 'mutual' or friendly societies which began as small thrift groups in the nineteenth century turned into building societies in the first half of the twentieth, and have been the main source of housing finance for 50 years.
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-Informal financial services There are further examples of such informal systems becoming increasingly formalised. Aredo (1993) reports that the iddir'm Addis Ababa run by the Ethiopia Teachers' Association is of the scale of a medium-size insurance business. In Cameroon some of the traditional ROSCAs known as njangi have evolved into small banks offering finance for small businesses which have difficulty using formal banks (Haggblade, 1978). ROSCAs may thus be a transitional phenomenon. Chit funds in India are a formalised version of a ROSCA, for which government legislation exists. In contrast to the ROSCA, members of the chit fund do not normally know each other and are merely customers of the chit companies. The company advertises for and selects members, makes arrangements for collection of subscriptions, and holds auctions for the prizes. However, such funds are of limited use to poor people, who lack both the income to pay subscriptions and the social position to gain the confidence of the company. The transition to formalised services is not inevitable. Informal and formal arrangements continue to exist side-by-side even in industrialised countries. In Oxford, UK,ROSCAs have enabled people with very limited capital of their own to increase their chances of obtaining a small business loan (Srinivasan, 1995). A detailed comparative study of credit use among low-income Pakistani, Bangladeshi, and Carribean immigrants in the UK revealed enormous differences in their use of financial services. In all cases sources of credit were classified into high-street credit, local commercial credit, mail order, social fund, community-based credit, and 'miscellaneous' (including friends, family, and employer). Unlike the Bangladeshis, the Pakistani and Carribean respondents reported community-based, ROSCA-like arrangements. Bangladeshi respondents made much more use of formal bank credit than the others, although they had at least as high a proportion of applications rejected, apparently on racial grounds (Herbert and Kempson, 1996). Abugre (1994) points out that transition and change can be rapid, discontinuous, and turbulent rather than smooth and linear. There is therefore likely to be a multiplicity of arrangements, some of which become formalised, while others die out, and yet others are initiated. The implication for those interested in providing financial services is that such a role must be carefully thought through, and beflexibleand responsive to changing circumstances.
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-2.5 What can be learned from informal finance?
-Having briefly explored the range of financial services which may exist, it is clear that informal finance is a regular feature of poor people's lives. What can be learned from this? The continuation of a large number of different forms suggest the following points (partly adapted from Adams, 1992).
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-There is clearly a demand for financial services
-The range of informal financial services available partly reflects the varied requirements which people, both rich and poor, have for financial services. They may also be explained in terms of the actions of people with excess cash seeking to earn income from lending. In some cases, especially where there is a monopoly, or collusion among providers, this can be exploitative for the borrower. Informal services available include savings facilities, provision of credit for consumption, and funding for predictable but expensive events such as marriages and funerals. This is in significant contrast to the services that NGOs have generally offered, which have usually been limited to the provision of credit for production.
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-Transaction costs are low.
-Transaction costs are the costs, other than interest payments, which are incurred in making a deposit or taking a loan. They include travel, time away from other activities, related 'gifts' which might have to be offered to bank or government officials, costs in obtaining documentation required, such as land certificates, and so on. Compared to formal services, local informal services generally require very little form-filling or travel. However, the advantage to the borrower of low transaction costs may be more than counterbalanced by their lack of power in setting the terms of a loan, which may be exploitative.
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-Informal services impose their own discipline
-The flow of information locally and the small number of providers of informal finance often act as powerful incentives to users to repay loans or save in a disciplined way. A ROSCA member failing to pay their instalment risks social ostracism from neighbours, friends, and relatives; they may be less likely to receive help from these people in times of severe difficulty in future.
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-Poor people are capable of saving
-The evidence of informal systems disproves the assumption that poor people cannot save. Saving 'in kind' has long been a recognised part of people's livelihood management: saving in cash is a necessity of interaction with the cash economy. Indeed it is often the poorest, who are landless or for other reasons dependent on casual, poorly-paid jobs, who gain a large proportion of their incomes in cash and therefore have most need of savings facilities. The evidence shows that poor people are not only willing to save but at present often pay highly for savings facilities.
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-Informal financial services Informal systems are adaptable. The variety of forms and functions of informal finance demonstrates the adaptability of these systems to different economic conditions and changing circumstances. This contrasts with formal systems which often have to be based on a uniform delivery model. There is thus much to be learned from informal financial systems. Indeed aspects of these systems have found their way into the design of NGO and semi-formal financial services programmes. In particular, both group-based and individual-based schemes have made use of the 'insider knowledge' of other local people: individual-based schemes, such as BRI, through personal references from local representatives, and groupbased schemes, such as Grameen, through self-selecting groups of borrowers (see Chapter 1). This brief overview has not identified for whom these services exist — women and men, poor or poorest. The poorest people may find it difficult to save the amount that a ROSCA requires and hence find participation a burden or are excluded. Even if there are a number of people in similar situations, they are often marginalised or isolated and lack the social networks to create their own ROSCA with a lower fee. Indebtedness may also make it difficult for the poorest to save and build up a small asset base — a situation that will be illustrated in the case of low-income and unemployed members of the Ladywood Credit Union in the UK, a case-study scheme described in Chapter 6. There are therefore limitations to the extent to which savings-based userowned facilities can be of use to very poor people. However, systems that allow flexible amounts to be deposited are more likely to be appropriate.
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-2.6 Deciding when and how to intervene
-Before going on to discuss ways of intervening which are useful and relevant to poor people (see Chapter 3), it is necessary to issue some warnings. Several commentators, among them NGO practitioners, have questioned the appropriateness of NGOs acting as providers of financial services. Abugre (1992) identifies a range of dangers, and points to the dire consequences of the job being done badly: • NGOs remain averse to charging positive real interest rates and may, consciously or otherwise, undermine traditional financial systems. • NGOs do not submit themselves to the discipline required for the provision of sustainable financial services.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction • Schemes are managed by entirely unprofessional and untrained staff and are often carelessly conceived, designed, and implemented. • There are cases where NGOs have flooded the market with credit, resulting in indebtedness on the part of borrowers, and potentially regressive effects on income and wealth distribution. By extending loans which poor people are unable to pay due to factors beyond their control, or which may have simply been inappropriate in the first place, NGOs can cause a level of indebtedness which may result in the borrower having to liquidate assets in order to repay. Abugre therefore warns against the hasty introduction of new financial services by NGOs and concludes that they should concentrate on what they do well, such as providing social services and acting as confidence brokers in communities. Direct provision may be a risky and problematic strategy for an NGO, particularly as the NGO may not have the range of skills required to develop microfinance interventions, nor experience of the financial skills and responsibility required to ensure funds are properly safeguarded and accounted for. A further range of managerial skills are also necessary in managing a portfolio of financial assets such as loans and deposits. NGOs with experience of welfare and relief have more experience of channelling funds than managing them (Bouman, 1995). An NGO must ask itself whether it has the skills to become a banker. An organisation lacking the relevant skills may consider acquiring them either through recruitment or staff development. Such a strategy itself has important consequences. These skills may be in short supply and recruitment prove difficult; they take time to develop and are acquired through experience as well as training. There is often a strong impetus to start work even if the skills of staff are still weak. This can endanger the intervention itself since it is at this early stage that users gain an impression of the nature of the operation, and inexperienced staff are likely to make mistakes. Embarking on direct intervention also raises questions about the long-term sustainability of the service on offer. Financial services should not be provided on a transient or temporary basis. There needs to be a degree of permanence to enable people to plan for their future financial needs. Consideration of the long-term future for a system of financial service provision is therefore important at the outset. Direct provision by an NGO which expects to move away from the area would seldom be appropriate.
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-Informal financial services There is a further range of issues at the level of the macro-economy which should also be considered when deciding whether to intervene. Macroeconomic stability is an important pre-requisite for getting a scheme off the ground.2 Hyper-inflation and economic instability do not encourage individuals to save, and loans under such circumstances are difficult to manage. (However, in Mexico, while formal-sector banks were reeling from massive default caused by the high interest rates and high inflation of 1995, URAC, one of the case-study institutions discussed in Chapter 6, continued to thrive.) Political stability is also needed, since without it there is unlikely to be much confidence in the long-term future of new financial institutions. Before considering scheme design an NGO must also investigate the formal legal regulatory requirements for organisations involved in financial service provision, especially for savings (see Chapter 3).
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-2.6.1 Research questions on existing informal financial services
-In carrying out research into the services available, and how they are used, an intervener should try to find answers to a wide range of questions, such as:
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-How do people manage their savings deposits?
-Are there savings banks, or deposit takers, insurance salesmen, or savings clubs? Do poor people have access to them? If not, how do they save (for example, gold, livestock). Who among the poor uses them (men, women, landless labourers, subsistence farmers etc)? (Extensive use of expensive deposit takers might indicate that the NGO should look first at the reasons why alternatives are not in place: and second at whether there is any possibility for the NGO to get involved, either as promoter or as provider, in savings collection.)
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-How do people temporarily realise the value of assets they hold?
-Are there pawnbrokers or are there schemes that allow them to pawn land or other major assets (eg jewellery) safely? Who uses these services? (If such devices exist, are they exploitative or enabling? If they are clearly exploitative, there might be a case for an NGO to try to provide or promote an alternative.)
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-How do people get access to the current value of future savings?
-Are there money-lenders willing to advance small loans against future savings? Are there ROSCAs or managed or commercial chits, or co-operative
-2 In a background paper commissioned for the purposes of this book, Shahin Yaqub examined the 'Macroeconomic Conditions for Successful Microfinance for Poor People'. The paper is available from the Policy Department, Oxfam (UK and Ireland).
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction banks? Do poor people have access? Which poor people use them? (If money-lenders appear to be exploiting users, for example by imposing very high interest rates or linking loans to disadvantageous deals over land, labour or commodities, then there might be a case for the NGO to introduce ROSCAs or annual savings clubs, or work as a promoter of self-help groups or credit unions.)
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-How do people make provision for known life-cycle expenses?
-Do they provide for daughters' marriages, their own old age and funeral, for their heirs? Are there clubs that satisfy these needs, or general savings services or insurance companies that will do as well? Are there government or employer-run schemes? Are there particular expenses for which women have responsibility?
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-How do people cope with emergencies?
-What happens when a breadwinner is ill, or when a flood or drought occurs? Does the government have schemes that reach poor people in these circumstances? If not, what local provision do people make?
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-How do small-scale entrepreneurs get access to business finance?
-If so, in what amounts and at what cost? Do women entrepreneurs have access? During the exploratory work done to answer these questions another set of information will come to light — the absolute quantities of cash involved in local financial intermediation. This can be of immense value to scheme designers in cases where a decision is made to intervene. For example, information about amounts repaid regularly to money-lenders will be useful in setting loan sizes and repayment schedules for loan schemes. (Source: Rutherford, 1996.) Much can be learned from the way in which people are already managing their finances. A further aspect is the social relations involved — the groups of people who get together to form ROSCAs, those from whom loans are taken, and those with whom deposits are lodged. Tierney's work on the Oxfamfunded Youth Employment Groups in Tabora Region of Tanzania demonstrates that the design of the intervention, which was based around groups of people with the same occupational background, did not correspond to the pattern of existing financial intermediation, which was organised around small kin-based groups, each including diverse enterprises. Tierney argues that 'the formation of development groups can, ironically, divert people's energy away from improving their lives, because forming the kind of groups which are eligible for financial assistance is a time-consuming activity involving skill
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-Informal financial services in manipulating and maintaining public relations' (Tierneyforthcoming).This illustrates the value of understanding how indigenous financial systems operate, before designing a new microfinance initiative.
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-2.7 Filling the gaps
-As well as alerting people to the potential pitfalls of intervention, research to answer the kind of questions suggested above is likely to identify gaps in existing services. There are many ways in which such gaps can be filled and below are some examples of financial service interventions in insurance and hire purchase which can be of use to poor people. For those agencies whose motivation is poverty reduction it is important to link the identification of gaps with a poverty analysis to determine who is excluded from existing services and how such exclusion perpetuates poverty.
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-2.7.1 Some examples of innovative services Hire-then-purchase for the poor in Bangladesh
-ACTIONAID found, through the experience of running a groupbased lending programme similar to that of the Grameen Bank, that many very poor people were nervous of taking a large loan — the 5,000 taka ($125) needed to buy a rickshaw, for example— in case they were not able to repay it. AA therefore devised a hire-thenpurchase scheme for such people. AA bought its own rickshaws and hired them out to group members. A rickshaw driver could hire a rickshaw from AA instead of hiring one from a local 'mohajan'. If he then decided to convert his contract with AAfrom hiring to buying, a proportion of the total hiring fees he had already paid was denoted as his down-payment, and he took a regular (smaller) AA loan to pay off the rest.
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-Door-step insurance agents, Cuttack, Orissa
-In Cuttack, insurance agents from the Peerless company visit households in low-income areas. They offer simple endowment schemes, which from the point of view of the customers are like accumulating fixed deposit schemes: the customer puts in a fixed amount regularly and then on maturity gets it back plus profits. Life insurance cover is included in the contract.
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-'Bankassurance': group-based insurance for the rural poor
-In Bangladesh, one insurance company is pioneering an attempt to match, in the field of insurance, Grameen Bank's success in lending.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction Delta Life Insurance has been experimenting since 1988 with cutprice basic life-insurance for rural people. Customers are arranged in groups, there is no medical examination and no age-bar, and premiums are tiny and collected weekly. Agents are also involved in Grameen-Bank-style lending and earn an extra commission for the insurance work. In fact the insurance premiums are invested directly in lending (on which healthy interest may be earned). In 1996 Delta was looking for a big NGO partner which could offer the two services — lending and insurance — side by side. Experience so far has shown that demand for such a service is high. Delta is exploring how it can extend this initiative beyond life insurance.
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-2.8 Promotion: an alternative strategy for NGOs
-Having identified the gaps in existing financial service provision, an NGO might involve itself in promotion rather than provision. The main alternatives to direct provision of financial services are ones which involve the NGO in a transitional or support role whereby activities such as mobilisation, training, and making links to other organisations are provided. A range of possible approaches are outlined.
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-2.8.1 Formation of savings groups and development of internal credit facilities
-Where ROSCAs do not exist or have limited coverage, the NGO might act as a facilitator of their formation or enable them to develop slightly more sophisticated systems of internal on-lending which allows savings and loans to take on more flexible formats. This approach has been used by Friends of Women's World Banking in India. In this case the NGO is mainly involved in training and organising the groups. Self-help groups (SHGs) are NGO-led attempts to promote savings clubs, or simple forms of credit union. Those initiated by Friends of Women's World Banking in India are aimed at poor rural women. FWWB (or its partner NGOs) persuades women from the same neighbourhood and from similar backgrounds to form small groups of 12 to 15 members. NGO workers encourage the women to meet regularly and frequently and during these meetings the women discuss their financial problems and ways of solving them. The solution they are steered towards involves regular small savings and the immediate conversion of those savings into small loans taken by one or two members at each meeting. Care is taken to
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-Informal financial services involve all group members in the discussion and formulation of rules (how often to meet, the interest to be charged on loans, and repayment arrangements) and then to ensure that every member experiences for herself the activities of saving and of taking and repaying a loan. The group is asked to choose leaders who are trained to manage the group's affairs: if illiteracy or very poor educational levels are a problem then rules are kept deliberately simple (fixed equal savings, and annual dividends rather than monthly interest on savings, for example). These preparations are intended to equip the group for independent survival after the NGO stops sending workers regularly to the meetings. Groups which perform well over several months are able to obtain small bulk loans made by FWWB to the group as a collective. Where there are a number ofgroups in an area, FWWB may help them form a federation' ('apex body') to help with liquidity problems: groups with excess savings deposit them with the federation which on-lends to groups with a strong demand for loans. (Source: WWB, 1993.) However, although this type of intervention can succeed with agency help, it has yet to be proved whether savings and credit groups which are promoted by outsiders can achieve long-term independence (Rutherford, 1996). A range of questions remain: can they save sufficient funds among themselves to satisfy their own demand for loans? Can external funds be introduced into these groups without destroying their independence?
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-2.8.2 Promotion of small-scale formalised approaches
-National legislation may allow for credit unions (the World Council of Credit Unions has national and regional affiliates all over the world) or thrift and credit co-operatives (as in Sri Lanka, see 3.4.2). Another approach an NGO might adopt could be the linking up of people interested in establishing such services for themselves with other credit unions or umbrella and apex bodies that are able to promote and advise on particular financial services. Oxfam Hyderabad worked with the Federation of Thrift and Credit Associations in Andhra Pradesh, encouraging exposure visits to flourishing thrift and credit societies by potential members from other areas. The members now have a source of consumption credit based on their own savings. Oxfam Hyderabad saw its support for linking potential groups with an existing thrift and credit structure as a move away from direct funding q/NGOs to provide credit.
-(Source: Oxfam (India) Trust, 1993-)
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-2.8.3 Linking groups to the formal system
-Existing savings groups or ROSCAs may already have bank savings accounts but are unable to take loans because the bank does not understand their operations or believe them to be creditworthy. The NGO might work with groups to encourage them to build up savings and deposit them in formal institutions. The NGO may then be able to work with a local bank to encourage it to extend its services to groups. In Ghana, rural banking legislation was designed to create semiautonomous local banks which would serve people cut off from financial services. However, the banks have experienced a range of problems which led to only 23 out of a total of 123 being classified as operating satisfactorily in 1992 (Onumah, 1995). In 1991 the Garu Bank, a small rural bank set up in 1983 in Ghana, was near to collapse as a result of embezzlement and bad loans. The people of Garu persuaded a member of their own community who was working in Accra to come back to the area and become themanager. The Bank is a unit bank and operates relatively autonomously. Share capital of the Bank is owned by the local community, the Catholic Mission, the local Agricultural Station and a Disabled Rehabilitation Centre. Helped by an additional capital injection of $30,000 received from overseas donors via the Catholic Mission the manager transformed the situation, and expected to report a profit for the first time. The bank has a range of clients, including local salaried workers such as teachers and government employees. These people are good customers because they take loans which are easily recoverable in the form of deductions made from their salaries at source. Alongside these customers, the Bank provides services to some 300 farmers' groups. Some of these groups were originally formed by the local Agricultural Station and the Catholic Mission and bought shares in the Bank when it was first set up. The manager went to meet the groups to discuss their needs with them. He has developed his own approach to the groups, and stresses that they should be concerned with working together rather than just obtaining credit. He has set up his own criteria for lending to the groups-, savings balances of at least 10 per cent of the loan amount; regularity of savings as an indicator ofgroup cohesion; and that the group should have been operating for at least six months. Repayment of the loan on time results in almost automatic qualification for a new loan the following year (although he had refused loans to a number of groups the previous year due to poor performance). (Source: Abugre, Johnson et al, 1995)
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-Informal financial services This bank manager may be exceptional. However, NGOs could provide an important bridge between these banks and savings groups and help to negotiate facilities and services for the groups by, for example, helping to gain access to funds which are used as a line of credit by the bank itself to such groups. In some cases as in the example below, such business turns out to be more profitable than the bank's existing portfolio! In Northern Bangladesh, the International Fund for Agricultural Development has since 1989 been financing the German Technical Assistance Agency, GTZ, to bring an NGO (RDRS: Rangpur Dinajpur Rural Services) into partnership with four banks including a government owned one (RAKUB). The NGO promotes and trains groups to the point where the groups go to the banks for loans. The banks bear all the lending risk. So far some 1,800 groups, of 10 to 20 members, have been trained. Repayment is good, and has probably been influenced by the ethos of the Grameen Bank and its imitators, so numerous in rural Bangladesh. The banks claim they are making a profit (of something like six per cent on each taka loaned) whereas they make a loss on most of their normal business. About US$1.8 million had been lent up to mid-1995- (Source: Chauduri, 1994.) A further example is a formal-sector bank in Sri Lanka, which has developed a concept of 'barefoot banking'. Its staff take their services to people in their homes, and the bank works with NGOs to make links to groups of microentrepreneurs, relying on NGOs to address the social needs of the entrepreneurs (Wijesundera, 1996).
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-2.8.4 Linking with specialised financial service NGOs
-If an NGO decides that direct provision of financial services is the best way forward, it may still not be necessary for that NGO to provide the services. A number of NGOs, local and international, have developed skills and experience in financial service provision and may be interested in starting work in a new area. It may prove more effective for these specialised NGOs to manage such an intervention separately from the existing NGO's activities.
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-2.8.5 Advocacy
-Another strategy for NGOs experienced in advocacy may be to persuade banks to extend financial services to hitherto unserved areas and to poor people in general (WWB, 1994).
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-2.9 Summary and conclusions
-While the overview of informal financial services given here has been brief, there is ample evidence to demonstrate that there is usually a range of such services in existence which poor people are already using. This is the background against whichany plan to provide financial services should be considered. Exploring the array of existing informal services available to different groups in an area can provide a wealth of information. Talking to users and assessing how existing financial intermediation interacts with other local markets and social and economic structures can help to establish the degree to which it is enabling or exploitative, and for whom. Where an NGO is considering intervention, an understanding of existing informal services may provide useful indicators for design, in terms of size, timing, and volume of savings and loans. However it cannot be assumed that NGOs should intervene directly. Indeed, experience suggests that NGOs may lack the ability to manage funds (rather than simply channel them). NGOs may inadvertently damage existing satisfactory financial services by charging interest rates that are too low (and therefore artificially divert demand) or may create indebtedness. There are alternatives to direct provision by NGOs which might involve promotion of services rather than provision. For example, an NGO might make use of its strengths in community mobilisation and training to link up with existing or potential suppliers of financial services in more sustainable ways. • The NGO should investigate the nature and characteristics of financial services already available in order to establish how, for whom, and under what circumstances these services enable or exploit the livelihoods of poor people; understand the services which people value and how they use them, in order to avoid undermining those aspects they find beneficial and would wish to retain; collect information on loan and deposit sizes, types, terms and conditions, which can contribute to the design of new services; and, where poverty reduction is the aim, relate proposals to an analysis of how poverty would be reduced by the intervention. • The NGO should carefully consider whether its staff have the appropriate skills and experience to provide financial services before embarking on a path of direct provision. • The NGO should consider alternatives to direct provision of financial services and explore the range of options that might exist, such as building relations with banks, developing internal credit facilities within groups, or linking groups to the formal sector.
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people
-3.1 Introduction
-In the preceding chapter, the role of informal financial services, and how this can be taken into account when deciding whether and how to intervene, has been discussed. This chapter and the two subsequent ones discuss the design, performance, sustainability, and impact of interventions to provide financial services. In the recent past, the best-known microfinance institutions (such as Grameen Bank, Bangladesh, Bank Rakyat Indonesia, and Banco Sol, Bolivia) have achieved high repayment rates, yet most of the people who use them would not have been able to make use of the financial services provided by the formal sector. The design of such schemes has increasingly involved the use of innovative forms of loan collateral, and higher interest rates on loans. Little attention has been given to monitoring the uses to which loans are put, and much more attention has been paid to savings, including their use as a form of collateral. Table 31 summarises the rationale behind some of these design features, which are discussed in more detail below. However, a particular combination of design features will have different outcomes under different circumstances. As a result implementors need to look critically at this combination in understanding the results they see in practice.
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-3.2 Targeting savings and credit to poor people
-A major concern of NGOs involved in credit provision has always been how to reach poor people, and in the late 1980s and 1990s the rhetoric that NGOs are able 'to reach the poorest' has remained powerful. Some organisations target the poor by defining the criteria which users have to meet in order to be eligible for loans; but 'self-targeting' is increasingly becoming a feature of the design 35
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-Table 3.1 Design features for ensuring high repayment rates on loans and enabling poor people to access credit
-Design Feature Intended Effect
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-Access methods
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-(Means of ensuring that relatively well-off people do not crowd out others' access to loans)
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-Maximum Direct exclusion of better-off through eg land-holding ceiling income/assets Small loan size Loans are small enough that better-off are not interested in them Regular meetings Indirect exclusion of better-off through eg compulsory attendance at weekly meetings or contributions of physical labour to which the wealthy will not agree (Mechanisms for screening out bad borrowers and projects)
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-Screening
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-techniques
-Market interest rates Self-selected Encourages loan taking on basis of prospective returns not to capture subsidies Prospective members are asked to form groups themselves and hence screen in favour of those they believe will repay, they also screen proposed loan use Alternatively local officials or power structures may be used to approve loan applications
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-Character reference
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-B
-Incentives to repay
-Intensive supervision Peer group monitoring Borrower incentives Agency staff incentives Progressive lending Compulsory Savings
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-(Mechanisms for giving borrowers who have no collateral incentives to repay, or failing this, forcing them to repay) Regular meetings with extension staff in or near the homes of borrowers Repayment is made in public in front of the group with consequent loss of face if payment is not made For example, rebates of interest on loans repaid early Agency staff may receive financial bonuses directly related to the repayment performance of their clients Borrowers are able to gain repeated access to loans if they repay and these may also increase in size A small amount contributed regularly into a group savings fund provides insurance or collateral for the loans of all group members (Source: Adapted from Hulme and Mosley, 1996.)
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people of interventions, with members choosing to join the scheme as a result of the services on offer rather than the implementors of the scheme choosing them. NGOs have often implemented a first stage of targeting when they decide the geographical area in which to work, since they may have selected this on the basis of a range of poverty indicators. But geographical targeting alone may be imprecise. There are degrees of poverty in all communities. The next step may be to exclude those with whom the NGO does not wish to work. This can be done in various ways, for example, by defining an asset or landholding ceiling for members; many of the well-known schemes in Bangladesh impose a land-holding ceiling of half an acre. However, while it may act as a guide when field staff are recruiting new members, Rutherford (1995b) points out that NGO workers do not usually seek proof of the size of land-holding, and it is easy to disguise or conceal the amount held; as a result the rule is not strictly enforced. In a number of ACTIONAID programmes, direct exclusion is practised through the use of wealth-ranking exercises (see Pretty etal, 1995). On the basis of the results, project staff identify those in the lower part of the ranking whom it wishes to target; staff may approach these individuals directly to form groups as a basis for a range of development activities, including savings and credit. An alternative to directly targeting a particular group is to use design features which result in the better-off excluding themselves. Two such design features have been used by many schemes: small loan sizes and the holding of compulsory regular meetings to qualify for loans and to make repayments. Richer people are less likely to be interested in very small loans or in attending regular meetings, whereas repayment at weekly or fortnightly meetings may be attractive to poorer people who feel able to manage small, regular cash repayments out of their normal income. In practice, schemes often combine several methods of targeting. For example, having initially selected a relatively poor area to work in, the design of the scheme may include maximum loan sizes and regular meetings with a group who may have been selected using wealth-ranking techniques. Some organisations have assessed the proportion of 'non-target' households in their membership. Figures from BRAC's 1995 impact study (Mustafa et al, 1996) indicate that 10 per cent of members were from 'nontarget' households. Targeting is rarely an exact science and can be a timeconsuming, and therefore costly, activity. Indirect mechanisms which promote 'self-selection' are able to lower these costs. However, as the scale of operations increases, so these mechanisms are less easy to monitor and there is likely to be an increase in the proportion of non-target households involved. Some organisations regard this as an inevitable but acceptable trade-off.
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-3 3 Women as users of financial services
-Making women the beneficiaries of NGO credit schemes is also a targeting technique. Women — whether poor or not — suffer discrimination in the market (Kabeer, 1996). It is thus important to ensure that women can obtain loans provided by intervention agencies. It was pointed out in Chapter 1 that women can be targeted for reasons of efficiency in implementation rather than because of a concern for women's empowerment. This emphasises the need for clarity as to the reason for targeting women, the means of doing it, and the likely outcome in terms of gender relations. Microfinance interventions may lead to empowerment for women by increasing their incomes and their control over that income, enhancing their knowledge and skills in production and trade, and increasing their participation in household decision-making. As a result, social attitudes and perceptions may change, and women's status in the household and community may be enhanced. A useful distinction to be made is between receiving a loan and using it. The investigation carried out in Bangladesh by Goetz and Sen Gupta, demonstrated that, even when it was women who received the loans, gender relations within the household affected how loans were used, and the degree of control the woman borrower retained over their use. It is therefore important to understand what happens to a loan beyond its disbursement to a female borrower. In addition, attendance at regular meetings can involve a heavy cost in terms of time for women, especially for poorer women, who in many socioeconomic environments have heavier workloads than better-off women or men. There may, on the other hand, be circumstances in which the group approach and regular meetings have empowering outcomes for women (Hashemi etal, 1996; Osmani, 1996). One rationale for using groups is that where programmes are intended to reach women, group-based activities mean that women are able to defend their attendance as a social role and obligation. In addition, where women are socially isolated, for example as a result of purdah restrictions on their mobility, meeting other women at the home of a friend or neighbour may be of intrinsic value. The role of the group meeting is thus likely to vary in different social contexts; women borrowers themselves should be involved in determining the role and organisation of group meetings.
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-3.4 Lending through groups
-The well-known microfinance schemes in Bangladesh, such as those of BRAC and the Grameen Bank, tend to work through groups. Indeed, such
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people schemes are often referred to as 'group-based finance' or 'solidarity-group lending' schemes. Because group members are jointly liable for each individual's loans, this represents a form of'social collateral'. This contrasts to the physical collateral of land or assets which formal-sector services usually require and which poor people are unable to offer. The rationale of groupbased lending is that if a member is having difficulty with repayments, others in the group will put pressure on that member to repay. Further, that if this pressure fails and the member defaults on the loan, the whole group will repay the loan on behalf of the member. Despite the popularity of group-based lending as a design feature, the function which groups play in the scheme can vary: as we have seen, women may find meetings time-wasting, or an important social event, depending on their circumstances. Recent research into the way in which group solidarity operates in practice is illuminating in this respect. First, it is worth clarifying what is meant by 'groups'. Some microfinance schemes have small groups of five or six members, called 'solidarity groups'. A number of these small groups may then come together as 'development centres' or village organisations. Alternatively, a group of some 20 or so people may operate without subgroups. Weekly meetings for saving and loan repayment are usually organised at the level of the larger group. Staff of the scheme are thus able to meet more clients at one time and hence reduce the costs of providing the service. The ratio of costs to loan size is very high when loans are for small amounts. Of course, NGOs often have other motives for working with groups: they use them to implement other activities, such as literacy classes and health education; they may also see them as a means for further organisationbuilding in the area. 3.4.1 Functions of the group in microfinance schemes The role which groups play in the operation of microfinance schemes can be analysed as follows: Targeting: regular compulsory group meetings may serve to discourage better-off people from taking part, increasing the funds available for lending to poor people. Transparency: the openness and accountability which meetings can bring to the process of taking and repaying credit can also prevent certain members of the group colluding with field workers or bank staff over the allocation of credit. Screening of potential borrowers: where groups are formed through self-selection, the individual members effectively screen each other,
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction initially selecting those of their neighbours and friends whom they believe to be capable of repaying the loans. This is especially true in the case of small 'solidarity groups'. Incentives to repay: if repayments are made at group meetings it is immediately obvious to everyone involved if someone is falling behind with their repayments. Social pressure may then be exerted on these members to repay by other members and by staff of the scheme. Viewed negatively this is a form of public humiliation for those who start to fall behind with repayments. The social pressure is then expected to act as an incentive to them to either work harder or obtain the repayments from another source. Enforcing repayment: the group as a whole may be penalised by being refused further loans if a member defaults or falls behind with repayments. The policy may then be that the group's savings balances will be used to repay the loan if necessary. Two recent studies have looked at what happens in practice when members fall behind with repayments. Jain (1996) reports that, in the case of Grameen Bank, the concept of joint responsibility was much discussed, but when members fell behind with repayments they were in fact followed up on an individual basis by bank staff in household visits. Moreover, other group members were not penalised by having to make payments on behalf of defaulting members or through forfeiting further loans. Jain goes on to point out that the functioning of the Grameen Bank's development centres as autonomous groups is relatively limited. The leaders of the group have a minor role in credit management and it tends to be Bank staff who actually develop relationships with group members. Jain judges the importance of group meetings to lie in the fact that all transactions are open and staff are thus accountable to group members. This has the important effect of limiting the ability of staff to undermine the system by favouring particular individuals or using their position to further their own objectives. The routine of regular meetings also serves to enforce repayment discipline. In the case of BRAC, it was found that in the early stages of a borrower finding difficulty with repayment, she would first approach relatives and close friends for assistance (Montgomery, 1996). If the situation continued, it was the village-level group that was approached by the BRAC fieldworker rather than the five or six-member solidarity group. The most forceful sanction was the withdrawal of further loans from the larger village group as a whole, and it appears that the effect of this sanction was for the defaulting member to drop out of the scheme. The evidence from BRAC also 40
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people demonstrates that, while groups can be a source of social pressure on borrowing members to repay, it does not appear to be the case that group members always pay for an individual borrower's loans in the event of default.
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-3-4.2 Including the poorest
-A major concern in connection with the use of self-selecting solidarity groups for financial service provision is that, given the way in which members screen each other, it is the poorest who are least likely to be able to join the scheme. This concern appears to be supported by Montgomery's research on BRAC which showed that those who dropped out after repayment difficulties tended to be the poorer members. However, by contrast SANASA in Sri Lanka demonstrates how people with different levels of relative wealth can be included by operating a range of financial services which respond to the circumstances which poorer households face: SANASA has a three-tier structure of primary societies, district unions, and a national federation which accommodates 8,000 village-level thrift and credit co-operatives with 800,000 members. Village-level groups are highly heterogeneous and vary in size from 20 to 700 members, with the larger ones having turned themselves into small-scale banks. The second and third tiers of this pyramidal structure provide financial and technical support to the village-level co-operatives. SANASA has a strong ideology of self-reliance, savings mobilisation, and the profitable provision of financial services to its members. In practice the upper levels of the structure are strongly dependent on donor funds. Village-level co-operatives have an open and participatory structure with monthly meetings of the general membership, and are run by a small elected management committee. The financial statements of the co-operative and member's business are discussed at the monthly meetings. Financial information is in some cases also written on the wall of the book-keeping room. Such transparency at meetings reduces the likelihood of malpractice and take-over by elites, which has caused failure of co-operatives in Sri Lanka in the past. The financial services offered by the co-operatives are varied and flexible. A village group is autonomous and decides its own range of loan types and savings facilities, which evolve in relation to members' needs and local economic circumstances. A society of 60 members may have as many as ten different types of credit facility. SANASA has attempted to convince primary societies of the viability
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction of bringing poorer members into the co-operatives, and providing services which will meet their needs. One way of making it possible for poor people to join is to allow the member's share to be purchased in monthly instalments rather than as a single payment. Of particular interest to poorer members are 'instant loans', and facilities with interest rates varying according to type of access and length of deposit. Instant loans, even at high interest-rates but with overnight access, enable those facing a crisis to respond to it without further endangering their livelihoods. Such facilities act as protection mechanisms reducing the vulnerability of households to shocks and enhancing their coping strategies. Data from SANASA shows that poorer people tend to take smaller loans, because they do not wish to expose themselves to the additional risks that a debt burden represents. SANASA has come to understand the importance of 'hot' money. This is money generated from savings and member's shares, and default on loans from these funds constitutes 'stealing 'from other members. This is a further factor for enhancing peer pressure, and shows the importance of limiting the amount of 'cold' money (i.e. funds supplied by banks and external donors) in the system, which may encourage members not to repay.
-(Sources: Montgomery, 1996; Hulme and Montgomery, 1994.)
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-3.4.3 Other examples of group-based schemes
-The dynamics of groups, once in place, need to be carefully observed to ensure that the results are as intended. The case studies examined in Chapter 6 further demonstrate the different ways in which the group concept can be employed in practice. In three cases the groups involve more or less everyone in the locality and are therefore very large, upwards of 30-40 people and sometimes as many as 100. The sanction of refusing new loans if there is nonpayment is the main mechanism used to enforce repayment. In two of the schemes studied, Casa Campesina Cayambe (CCC) and ACTIONAID in the Gambia, groups are closely related to local institutional structures, which can present dilemmas for implementors. Groups of this nature tend to cut across socio-economic divisions and there is the potential for relatively better-off members to abuse the scheme by ensuring that they themselves get loans. They might also justify not allocating loans to poorer members by arguing that they are not creditworthy and will not repay. The use of joint liability and social collateral mechanisms can improve repayment performance. There are other ways of building a sense of identity
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people with the scheme and encouraging reliable repayment. Participation in the operation and decision-making structures of the scheme is likely to promote a sense of ownership on the part of users. In three of the case studies in Chapter 6, URAC, Ladywood Credit Union, and CCC, members are involved in committees which review performance, allocate new credit, and advise on policies and practice. Repayment is likely to be enhanced by the use of 'hot' rather than 'cold' money, as explained in the account of SANASA above. There is supporting evidence for this from India in the case of MYRADA, Community Development Fund, and ASSEFA (Bennett, Goldberg and Hunte, 1996, Copestake, 1996a). Members' sense of ownership of the scheme is less when loan funds are from external sources than when they are from members' savings. This has been compounded by the prevalence of cheap externallyprovided credit in the past, coupled with a lack of concern about repayment. While many schemes use groups, Hulme and Mosley concluded from their study of 12 microfinance institutions (1996) that groups are not always a crucial feature of scheme design. There are examples of institutions successfully providing financial services to poor people by dealing directly with individuals. Bank Rakyat Indonesia (BRI) (see Chapter 1) and BAAC in Thailand are two such examples. BRI makes use of the local knowledge of village-based agents in deciding whether to approve loans to new borrowers. The case study of Ladywood Credit Union in Chapter 6 provides another example of lending on an individual basis; in fact, credit union legislation in the UK stipulates that the privacy of the individual must be preserved.
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-3.5 Savings
-Poor people hold savings in many forms, including assets such as animals, grain or jewellery. The account of informal services presented in Chapter 2 demonstrates that, given the opportunity, people will save in cash. In discussing the design of a savings component, the purposes for which people save, and the characteristics that savings services need to have in order to meet their requirements, must first be clarified. Saving in the form of assets has limitations. Grain can deteriorate in storage or be lost to pests; animals require looking after and can die; moreover, when they are held as insurance against crises such as drought, they are often sold at a loss if the crisis occurs, because of deteriorating terms of trade or the need for a quick sale. Holding a visible and available form of savings, such as grain or assets, can make it hard to resist demands and claims from other relatives. Jewellery is relatively illiquid as an asset unless it can easily be pawned at times of need. When people save in cash, they often keep it in their homes,
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction where it is at risk of theft and loss in case of fire. Small amounts of accessible cash are always needed for emergencies, ranging in scope from unexpected guests to death or illness in the family. The purposes of saving can be summarised as follows: • daily financial management: the need to keep cash safely in order to manage and deal with day-to-day expenses and occurrences, including emergencies; • consumption smoothing: dealing with seasonality or unemployment by holding over income from one time period to another; • accumulation: building up savings balances in order to undertake future large expenditures, such as the purchase of housing materials or agricultural implements, or payment of school fees; • insurance: building up savings balances to deal with irregular events such as illness, marriages, and funerals.
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-3.5.1 The value of a savings facility
-People are well aware of the risks involved in saving and as a result value safe places to keep their cash. They may look for a range of attributes in a savings facility, including: • safety: will their savings be held safely by the bank or other depositor? • ease of withdrawal: can they get quick access to their money when they need it? • proximity to home or workplace: ease of access in terms of distance and time; • prizes or bonuses for good saving; • high interest rates: worthwhile monetary return on saving; • informality of procedures and polite treatment when making deposits or withdrawals. The above list is the result of a ranking exercise undertaken with BRI customers (BRI, no date). It is notable that safety and ease of access come very near the top of this list and that monetary returns in the form of interest rates and prizes are lower priorities. It is also likely that women and men will rank these attributes differently, since they may have different purposes in saving.
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people Until recently, savings services have been a relatively neglected component of microfinance debate and practice. Definitions of poverty based on the inadequacy of income focus on the shortage of capital available for investment, and many financial interventions attempt to alleviate this constraint by using external funds to make capital available. However, studies of informal financial services (see Chapter 2) show that poor people value a savings facility as a contribution to economic security. For NGOs and other donors, part of the emphasis on credit may have resulted from the fact that delivery of credit utilises donor funds whereas mobilising savings does not.
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-3.5.2 Compulsory or voluntary savings?
-A distinction is often made between 'compulsory' and 'voluntary' savings. In a compulsory system, saving is either required as a condition of membership or in order to receive loans. In contrast, voluntary savings schemes allow members to make deposits whenever they wish. Compulsory and voluntary savings are characteristic of two fundamentally different philosophies (Robinson, 1995). Compulsory savings schemes 'assume that the poor must be taught to save, and that they need to learn financial discipline. [Voluntary savings schemes] assume that the working poor already save, and that what is needed are institutions and services appropriate for their needs.'(p.6) It appears that people always need savings accounts but that loans are needed only occasionally. The fact that BRI has 14.5 million deposit accounts and only 2.3 million loan accounts supports such an argument. When compulsory savings schemes are tied to borrowing, very poor people may decide not to participate, because they are reluctant to take on debts; or they may be excluded by existing members who fear such people will be unable to repay the loans out of regular income. Rutherford (1995a) argues that savings facilities that are flexible and voluntary, and which allow people to build savings balances independently of debt, are an unmet demand of poor people in many of these schemes. It is this kind of service which can effectively reduce poverty by enabling people to protect their incomes. There is now, therefore, growing appreciation of the demand for flexible savings facilities for poor people. Saving small amounts regularly, and feeling a sense of obligation to do this, are positive features for many people, for whom the discipline involved is important. This realisation is resulting in new designs for savings accounts. Buro Tangail, for example, a financial services NGO in Bangladesh, is introducing a range of accounts allowing users to choose one which meets their needs. These include a fully flexible savings account, and accounts which involve a fixed weekly deposit over a number of years.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction Drawing on the successful experience of BRI in mobilising savings, Robinson has suggested some of the conditions which need to be in place in order to launch voluntary savings services. Thefirstof these is an enabling macroeconomic environment, with relatively low and stable levels of inflation, and an appropriate legal and regulatory environment, together with political stability and suitable demographic conditions. As she points out 'Beginning savings mobilization in the midst of hyperinflation, civil war or in a sparsely populated desert are not recommended!' (1995, p.2). However, few economic environments are as 'enabling' as Robinson would like. Indeed, in this context the meaning of the word is unclear (Yaqub, 1996). Moreover, the work of URAC in Mexico (one of the case studies) shows that voluntary savings schemes can work well even in the presence of high inflation. The second condition concerns government supervision arrangements for institutions taking deposits. In order to protect users, deposit-taking institutions must be regulated. Existing legislation in many countries is a constraint on NGOs' mobilising savings and taking deposits themselves. Organisations which are not formally registered as banks may face restrictions on their ability to take deposits. If the NGO facilitates the opening of savings accounts in local banks on behalf of its depositors, it cannot use funds from this source for on-lending to other members. There are good reasons for such regulations; NGOs are not necessarily suitable institutions to hold deposits. Third, Robinson stresses the history, capability, and performance of the institution. She emphasises the responsibility that taking savings entails (it is easier to learn to manage your own funds through credit first) and the complexity of operating a savings scheme properly.
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-3.5-3 Linking savings to credit
-Whether savings are compulsory or voluntary, there is often a link between the savings component and access to credit. The link can be formed in a variety of ways: • The amount of the loan may be a fixed multiple of the amount deposited (savings flow) over a given period. By making savings deposits of a certain level, the client demonstrates his or her ability to repay a loan with similar repayments out of regular income. • The amount of the loan may be a fixed multiple of the amount saved (savings stock). • Once a loan has been taken, the savings in the account may be retained as collateral for the loan, and withdrawals taking the balance below a certain level not permitted.
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people In these ways savings can act as part of the lender's screening process. By observing the savings behaviour of borrowers, the lender can judge whether borrowers are good risks, and their capacity to manage debt. This also helps to prevent the lender indebting a borrower by being over-optimistic about the borrower's ability to repay. The case studies in Chapter 6 illustrate the way in which these mechanisms have been applied in practice. In the case of SUNGI in Pakistan, compulsory minimum monthly savings are a criterion for receiving a loan, although the loan amount is assessed in relation to the purpose proposed. In Mexico, URAC operates a system by which an applicant for a loan must be making regular savings with the scheme, and the maximum loan amount is five times the savings balance. In the case of Ladywood Credit Union in the UK, loan size is a maximum of twice the savings balance, and the repayment plan is drawn up in discussion with the borrower and in relation to their savings record. In this way the scheme attempts to set instalment levels just below the amounts previously deposited in order to ensure that the savings balance continues to rise so that the borrower's financial security is not being eroded by taking the loan.
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-3.6 Forms of loan
-Some microfinance institutions make loans in kind as well as in cash; many require applicants to specify what they are going to use the loan for, with cash credit being 'directed' to particular uses, because lenders often prefer loans to be used for production rather than consumption. This sub-section considers the advantages and disadvantages of loans 'in kind' and directed credit. (Loans which are both given in kind and repaid in kind are not discussed here; see Fall (1991), Strachan and Peters (forthcoming) for accounts of cereal banks and similar schemes.)
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-3.6.1 Credit in cash or kind?
-Credit is sometimes provided 'in kind' by schemes, in the form of seeds, tools, fertilisers, larger agricultural tools such as ploughs and weeders, or as inputs for construction and home improvement. The main arguments given for such provision usually relate to the local unavailability of the goods supplied. The NGO may supply the goods directly or provide vouchers for redemption against specified items in particular retail outlets. Of our case studies, URAC provides vouchers for the purchase of building material through local suppliers under the terms of its construction loans.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction Direct supply by an NGO lender can lead to a range of problems: • It makes the borrower dependent on the NGO for inputs and the NGO will tend to be blamed if the tool or other input is in some way faulty or does not arrive on time. • It can prevent the development of a local market for the inputs if they are supplied from outside the area, making it unviable for suppliers to set up locally. An alternative is for the NGO to ensure that inputs are obtained from local suppliers. • The NGO is likely to incur large costs which are not usually included in the amount of the loan. In effect borrowers receive an additional grant in the form of transport costs, and they may not be able to afford to pay these costs when the NGO stops supplying. Most NGOs prefer to issue loans in cash rather than kind. The borrower is then able to use the credit as he or she sees fit and to purchase any materials required. The borrower then takes full responsibility for the result so cannot allege sub-standard and inappropriate inputs as an excuse for not repaying the loan. Furthermore, the costs of transporting cash tend to be lower than those of transporting seed, fertiliser or machinery, thus reducing the operating costs of the NGO. Local suppliers are likely to respond to the local demand generated and this in the longer run will reduce transport costs for everyone. Nevertheless, if the lending institution has proven integrity in supplying goods of high quality, it may work to the advantage of the borrower. An example in the case of URAC is the vet who provides animals instead of cash loans and with them a short-term guarantee of the animal's health.
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-3.6.2 Directed or undirected credit?
-In schemes where cash loans are given, credit may be 'directed' to certain purposes. It is often specified that loans should be for productive purposes, because lenders fear that if the loan were used for other purposes it would be less likely to be repaid. It is assumed that repayments need to come out of additional'income, accruing from productive investment. An alternative view is that the household economy has a range of production and consumption activities which are related in complex ways, so that a distinction between them is artificial. The borrower should be allowed to make use of the cash credit as she or he sees fit. Attempting to direct the credit to a particular purpose is inefficient, because it is very difficult for the lender to monitor the exact use to which loans are put. If loans are specified as
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people being for productive purposes only, the household may state such a purpose in the loan application but may not use the money in this way in practice. Evidence suggests that loans are likely to be split up and used to cover a range of household needs and expenditure. Therefore the lender should not be concerned with what the loan is used for as long as it is repaid. Demonstration of the interconnectedness of consumption and production activities can be illustrated using the case of pre-harvest loans in seasonal agriculture. In land-abundant areas, loans to make food for consumption available at this time can also be viewed as production loans, as they might enable farmers to continue to work on their fields and hence represent an investment in productive capacity. Farmers may no longer need to spend time undertaking casual labour on other people's farms to earn money to buy food; or loans may simply ensure that nutritional requirements are met so that farmers are able to carry out work on their own farm. Clearly these arguments do not necessarily apply where a scheme is lending to micro- or small-scale enterprises. Loans for such purposes tend to be larger in size and usually involve a more direct relationship between the lender and borrower. In the course of this relationship it is likely that the lender will undertake an appraisal of the investment with the borrower before approving the loan. (This is not an area examined in detail in this book; see Barrow and Barrow, 1992.) However, once undirected cash loans are in place, loan facilities directed to specific purposes have a role. In two of the case studies, URAC and Casa Campesina Cayambe (CCC), there are a range of loan facilities available. The 'normal' cash loans can be used for any purpose and carry no restrictions. But larger loans are available for specific purposes, such as house-building, constructing bathrooms, or for productive enterprises. The advantage of such directed loans are that the repayment schedules can be tailored to suit the type of investment being made. Housing loans, for example, tend to have longer repayment terms than other loans. Schemes which offer emergency loans are usually concerned to protect their members from the potentially impoverishing effects of events such as illness or death in the family. A loan which is easily available at short notice in response to such events might prevent the borrower having to sell valued assets such as livestock or jewellery. Of the case studies, CCC has this kind of loan facility, which provides special credit in the case of illness or domestic emergency. Loan approval in such cases by-passes the usual process but requires a doctor's certificate in the case of illness or endorsement by a member of the Community Committee in the case of other domestic emergencies. Similar procedures to enable quick disbursement of loans in emergencies are also available to members of URAC and Ladywood Credit Union.
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-3.7 Loan disbursement and repayment schedules
-The model of loan scheme that has become dominant in Bangladesh involves members holding loans on a more or less continuous basis. For example, in the Association for Social Advancement, disbursement follows a very strict schedule: once the member has saved for a certain number of weeks, usually 12, she or he is eligible for a loan which is repaid in fixed amounts over the following 50 weeks. As soon as this loan is repaid the borrower becomes eligible for another one. While this system can be seen as helpful in terms of its simple and mechanical rules, it has been criticised for its lack of flexibility; members take on loans when they are available rather than when the borrowers want them. It is a system which requires people to go into debt in order to make use of their capacity to save: the loan is a lump sum to be received now and repaid by saving over the next 50 weeks. Such a system can force people to adopt complicated strategies to manage the funds until they actually need them, if they do not wish to miss their turn to obtain a loan. This helps to explain the myriad of on-lending arrangements that usually exist between group members (Rutherford, 1995a). This problem is not encountered in systems where members can take loans at times appropriate to them. The case study scheme in Pakistan, run by SUNGI, which is most closely modelled on the Bangladesh schemes, also operates a system of loan applications to be made via the village organisations' credit committees, but there is no pressure to take a loan once a member is eligible. Flexibility in amounts and timing of disbursement seem to be significant factors in providing a credit mechanism which poor people can manage in relation to their livelihood strategies. An approach based on small cash-loans with simple and easily verifiable criteria, such as attendance at meetings, and appropriate savings deposits or balances, enables greater decentralisation in decision-making over loan applications. This, in turn, means that the lead time between application and disbursement is likely to be reduced, which is more convenient to the borrower. The timeliness of loan disbursement is crucial when loans are being used for seasonal activities such as agriculture. If a programme of seasonal loans is in place which farmers utilise to buy inputs or prepare land then complicated appraisal and approval procedures which might delay disbursement are unhelpful. Fanners will not be able to undertake farming activities when they would wish to, and the usefulness of the credit to them is much reduced. This can in turn worsen the prospects of repayment if they are highly dependent on agriculture for income. Repayment schedules involving small and frequent instalments are one of the principal features of the 'new' design of credit. As mentioned above, it has
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people been demonstrated that in a variety of circumstances, borrowers are able to repay loans out of regular income and need not rely on the income generated from a specific and identifiable investment. In the past, repayment schedules linked to income streams on investments have often been over-optimistic in their expectations and hence borrowers have not been able to keep up repayments. Loans for micro-enterprises are rather different in nature, but 'little and often' may also be a good rule of thumb for loan repayment instalments in these cases. However, in some areas where seasonality is a highly significant factor and cash is virtually unavailable at certain times of year, there is also a need for flexibility in repayment schedules. In these circumstances, lower levels of repayment could be arranged during particularly difficult months and higher ones at times when market activity and incomes revive. Even here, the principle of repayment of loans out of regular income can be retained.
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-3.8 Interest rates
-Interest rates are an issue over which there has been much debate among microfinance practitioners (see Chapter 1). Along with the diagnosis of the problem as a shortage of investment capital available to poor households goes the assumption that credit obtainable from local informal sources carries too high an interest rate. Before continuing this discussion it is important to understand what an interest rate is. Put simply, the interest rate is the price of money. As a price it is made up of a number of components as far as the lender is concerned. It is the means through which the lender: • pays for the cost of the funds that are being lent (cost of capital); if these are from savers then the savers are likely to expect a return which will at least cover inflation and so maintain the value of their savings; • recovers the costs of providing the service (costs of administration): the costs of the staff employed to give and recover loans, and the costs of the offices, vehicles and stationery that are necessary to provide that service; • covers losses as a result of those who default on their loans (costs of default). The interest rate which is charged to borrowers is usually called the 'nominal' interest rate. This may be different from the 'real' interest rate, which is roughly calculated as the nominal interest rate minus the rate of inflation in the country (this approximation works best at low rates of inflation). The rate of inflation indicates the degree to which money is
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction declining in value over time. If the nominal interest rate is higher than the rate of inflation, then the real interest rate is positive. For borrowers, a positive real interest rate means that they have actually paid something for the benefit of using the money that they have borrowed; and for savers, that the money they receive back will buy more than their original deposit would have done. In recent years many NGOs have accepted the need to charge interest rates which cover inflation and make a contribution to costs. This means interest rates which are positive in real terms and comparable to those charged by formal-sector banks (sometimes termed 'market' interest rates). As discussed in Chapter 1, this differs from earlier practice when the provision of credit by NGOs and state banks was usually at subsidised rates. This 'cheap' credit was attractive to borrowers outside the target group, and was diverted away from its intended purposes; and loans were often not repaid. This combination of 'cheap' credit and widespread default resulted in the rapid erosion of loan funds. The importance of charging a rate of interest which covers the costs of inflation, administration, and default is that the loan fund is able to revolve and maintain its value. In the past, revolving funds have often dwindled as a result of these costs. Where the loan fund is generated out of members' savings rather than given as a grant by donors, it is even more essential to ensure that its value is maintained. However, the ability to cover all of the administrative costs through the interest charged to borrowers is only likely to develop over a period of time, as the system of lending becomes more efficient and a greater number of borrowers are receiving loans. Attempting to recover costs in the early stages of a scheme is likely to result in interest rates which are excessively high. When comparing interest rates with those of formal-sector banks it is also important to recognise the hidden costs that poor borrowers face when they approach banks. They may be charged loan fees, have to organise 'gifts' for bank staff, and incur transport costs to get there. Worse, they may be treated with disdain and even contempt — not a monetary cost, but a cost all the same. The actual price that the borrower is paying for loans from these sources is therefore higher than the interest rate alone; and the attitude of bank staff can make the transaction even more burdensome. This is why loans which carry interest rates comparable to the formal sector are still likely to be positively regarded by clients.
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-3.9 Integrating financial services with other activities
-Few NGOs provide savings and credit services without getting involved in related development activities. For ACTIONAID and Oxfam an integrated approach is usually seen as essential in addressing the causes of poverty
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people identified in a particular area or by a particular group of people; it is rarely the case that savings and credit activities alone will reduce poverty. A range of other constraints are likely to exist, especially in making use of credit for production purposes. For example, numeracy may be a need for women who want to embark on petty trading and keep records to find out if they are actually making money; preventive health programmes may be the best way to reduce the need for credit to meet health-care expenses. NGOs may have a number of objectives in integrating savings and credit into their other activities, and a range of ways of doing so. Here we will distinguish between three approaches: first, where the NGO's objective is to form groups which will function as social organisations in their own right rather than being solely for the purposes of providing credit; second, where groups are an effective means of delivering related development activities, such as literacy and health education; third, where savings and credit activities overlap with other services, such as business and skills training, to promote economic activities. An integrated approach does not necessarily mean that staff are involved in delivering all aspects of the programme and are therefore generalists. Interventions may be operationally distinct, involving several specialist staff. We have argued for the need for strong staff skills in Chapter 2, and will suggest in Chapter 4 the benefits of keeping programme accounts entirely separate.
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-3.9-1 Savings and credit for group formation and institutionbuilding
-In some cases, forming groups is not simply a means of delivering savings and credit services but of building up group skills as part of a wider strategy of 'empowerment'. An analysis of poverty which holds that powerlessness rather than low income is the main problem may lead to the view that collective action has an important role in bringing about change. The NGO is likely to work with the group to enable it to develop its own analysis of the situation, and plan and implement solutions to problems, which might range from building a water supply to campaigning for land rights. In this context, savings and credit is sometimes used as an early intervention to create a sense of identity and shared interest among group members. The analysis of poverty may result in a design for savings and credit provision which concentrates on developing the group's own resources, in terms both of capital, through savings and management, and of group control of the rules and regulations governing the savings and credit systems. As in the case of SANASA (see 3.4.2), the internal services provided by the group to its members can be quite extensive. This approach promotes
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction internal control over savings and loan funds and is likely to bring about stronger identification with the scheme. Among the case studies discussed in Chapter 6, URAC in Mexico and ACTIONAID in The Gambia have made institution-building a core component of their approach. URAC is a peasant union whose agenda is economic self-sufficiency in order to reduce the dependency and exploitation which members have experienced in economic relationships. In the course of achieving this the involvement of members in the decision-making structures of the union is vital. ACTIONAID in the Gambia, on the other hand, sees its credit activities as a means of building up financial resources which village development groups (VDGs) can use to further their own development agenda. Alongside the credit programme there is a programme of training for groups to develop their management and organisation skills.
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-3.9.2 Social development programmes
-Even where the focus is not on enabling groups to manage their own development projects, savings and credit schemes often run alongside programmes of health and literacy. The need for transparency and accountability in financial transactions in such schemes is crucial, but not possible unless members can ensure that records are being properly kept. Sometimes training in literacy and numeracy are a necessary adjunct for a savings and credit programme if there are not enough group members who can fill in their own pass books or keep records. But many literacy programmes in the past have only added numeracy as an afterthought, and failed to provide adequate skills to enable participants to maintain records and ensure accountability. This is part of a wider failure of literacy programmes in general terms. Some new approaches to literacy have succeeded in shifting the balance to more relevant and practical numeracy and literacy skills (Archer and Cottingham, 1996).
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-3.93 Economic development activities
-In the past, NGOs have often used savings and credit as part of incomegeneration programmes. Such interventions have seldom been particularly successful (Mukhopadhyay and March, 1992; Piza Lopez and March, 1990; Riddell and Robinson, 1995). Like savings and credit programmes, this aspect of development work has also been undergoing some re-examination. Income-generation activities promoted by NGOs have usually concentrated on activities carried out by groups. Problems often resulted from difficulties of organisation and management within the group, as well as from
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people over-optimistic expectations of the income to be generated from the enterprise. This is not to say that there are no successful examples: rather, that these serve to underline the need for internal group cohesion and strong leadership and management, which not all groups possess. People coming together with a common interest of securing a service, such as savings and credit, or working on a common agenda of collective action, can still encounter problems but these are significantly different from the demands of time and energy, often with low returns, arising from a group economic project. The provision of savings and credit to individuals rather than groups has been one of the consequences of this past experience. The support given to micro-enterprises in terms of business and skills training is often referred to as 'non-financial services'. An argument is now being put forward that such services should be demand-led and selfsustaining (Tanburn, 1996). The rationale behind this contention is that services provided in the past by NGOs (and other providers) have not been particularly useful or appropriate to those trying to set up in business. Therefore if users are not willing to pay for the service, this indicates it is of little real benefit to them. We argued above that financial management is not necessarily a strong point of NGOs. Likewise, business management is not in general an area in which NGO staff have much direct experience. Therefore it may be more effective for an NGO to encourage entrepreneurs to choose their own training programmes, which the NGO then pays for (with loans if necessary), than to supply a service that is sub-standard. This strategy would appear to make sense where small businesses are welldeveloped and have fairly specific needs, and where training opportunities are available, for example, in urban environments. The strategy may encounter greater difficulties where people want to exploit skills or start businesses which do not exist in the area, and they may need additional support to make contacts and visit places where such businesses operate. In such circumstances the role of promoter rather than provider of support services may be more appropriate for the NGO. Further considerations for income-generation schemes relate to the economic opportunities already existing in the area. Credit supplied in quantity, where knowledge of what to produce and trading opportunities are limited, can quickly result in market saturation. Supporting moves to experiment and invest in new productive activities may therefore be important. There may also be good arguments for sharing risks with people as they go about experimenting with new activities. In one of our case studies, CCC in Ecuador, this has been done in the case of a trout-rearing project, an enterprise not known in the area and one which would be far too risky for
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction individuals to take on. However, there is obviously a need to distinguish between supporting experimentation and wasting money, particularly if enterprises are clearly not thriving and individuals have lost interest. Business skills and experience are of great value in making such judgements and NGOs often have a lot to learn from others.
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-3.10 Summary and conclusions
-This chapter has explained and discussed a number of central features in the design of microfinance for poverty reduction. The discussion has sought to illuminate the principles which underlie these features and point out that they need to be combined in different ways in different schemes. Poverty targeting: many schemes now practise 'self-selection' through keeping loan sizes small, and demanding regular attendance at meetings which better-off people would find time- consuming or socially difficult to attend. However, some schemes still use measures to directly target poor people, such as wealth ranking. 'Self-selection' lowers costs but cannot be assumed to exclude the better-off entirely, especially if loan sizes start to rise as the scheme progresses. Loan size as a feature of targeting can create a dilemma if it prevents poor people ever taking on larger loans. Women as scheme users: many schemes are designed to provide women with credit. However, it cannot be assumed that disbursing loans to women means either that they use them or that they are empowered. Scheme implementors need to be clear about the gender-related objectives of their intervention and to understand the implications that delivering financial services have for relations between men and women. They should also find ways of supporting women's own strategies for enhancing their position. Lending through groups: groups have been a common component of methodologies for lending to the poor but repayment does not solely depend on peer pressure; groups take different forms in different contexts and it is important to analyse the mix of circumstances which ensure repayment. This mix goes beyond peer pressure to include supervision, management, transparency, and accountability of the systems. Savings: voluntary and flexible savings facilities have so far been a largely unmet need of poor people. Interveners should consider developing flexible
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people savings mechanisms. However, to operate a savings facility is to take responsibility for other people's money, and should not be undertaken lightly. Interest rates: there is now widespread acceptance of the need to charge interest rates which cover inflation and make a contribution to the cost of providing the service. This reassessment has recognised that it is often the availability rather than the cost of credit to poor people which is the constraining factor. Long-term availability requires that the loan fund does not become eroded through inflation, and that a degree of cost-recovery ensures sustainability (see Chapter 4 for further discussion). • NGOs should understand the design features they incorporate in a scheme in the light of local social and economic circumstances and the objectives of the scheme; there is now a continuously evolving set of design features that can be used in microfinance schemes but no single blueprint for use in all circumstances. • NGOs should continuously and critically assess design features in the light of the results they produce in practice. This is an important part of impact assessment, as will be discussed in Chapter 5.
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-Financial performance and sustainability
-4.1 Introduction
-As with any programme intervention, performance monitoring of microfinance schemes is essential. In the context of managing money the need for timely and accurate information about what is happening cannot be stressed too highly. This chapter does not provide guidelines for financial analysis but emphasises the importance of financial management — an area in which NGOs have tended to be weak. Financial sustainability, which will also be discussed in this chapter, is unlikely to be a feasible objective if financial management is poor. The ability of some of the best-known institutions which have been operating in this area to gain consistently high repayment rates of 90 per cent and above, and to extend their coverage to relatively large numbers of individuals (see Table 1, Annex 1) has raised expectations that such microfinance institutions may be able to become sustainable in the long term.
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-4.2 Managing and assessing financial performance
-Managers of a microfinance intervention need to know how well it is performing in financial terms. The first essential is to produce financial statements at the right time. Information that is produced late cannot give an accurate picture of the organisation's financial position. Next, the financial statements must be analysed to produce information about the performance of the scheme which can be used to improve that performance. The crucial question here is whether the portfolio of loans and savings that the scheme is holding is being effectively managed. We briefly discuss the repayment rate in order to highlight the importance of a proper understanding and appreciation of the intricacies involved in financial management. 58
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-Financial performance and sustainability (For more comprehensive guidance on financial management and analysis reference should be made to SEEP, 1995; IADB, 1994; Christen, 1990; and Stearns, 1991.) 4.2.1 The repayment rate The repayment rate is the indicator most often used as a measure of the performance of a credit scheme (see Annex 2 for an explanation of how it can be calculated). Despite its universality, the way in which the repayment rate is calculated and monitored is not entirely standardised as it must relate to the design of a particular scheme. This means that comparisons across schemes must be undertaken with an awareness of how repayment rates have been calculated. One of the mistakes that is often made in calculating the repayment rate on loans is that the rate is not clearly defined in relation to a given time period. The figure may therefore include loans which have been made and fully repaid, or it may include repayments which were made after they were due. The amount repaid might include early repayment of their loans made by some borrowers (called 'prepayments'), and these should be excluded from the calculation. Since the repayment rate should precisely measure the ratio of payments made to payments scheduled as due at a particular time, it can also be referred to as the 'on-time' repayment rate. The different methods used in calculation are well illustrated by the case study schemes set out in Table 6.2, page 88. ACTIONAID in The Gambia calculates its repayment rate as a historical figure reflecting the total amount that has been repaid out of the total ever disbursed. This is a relatively common method but is not standard banking practice and does not indicate the current status of outstanding loans. 4.2.2 Arrears and default Other indicators, such as default and arrears rates, are also useful financial management information. These indicators monitor the lending portfolio at different points. The arrears rate can capture loans that are past their scheduled time for repayment, i.e. are overdue, and need to be followed up. The default rate includes only those loans which require special action if they are to be recovered. An age analysis of loans outstanding is a standard technique of banking practice. This involves classifying loans in terms of the length of time they are overdue. Default is a subject that tends to make fieldworkers nervous. They feel that once a borrower knows that a loan is regarded as in default, then he or she will not bother to repay. This reflects the 'soft' approach to repayment in which there are few consequences for non-payment. The classification of a
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction loan as in default should precipitate action on the part of staff of the scheme. At the same time it is vital that the financial health of the scheme is monitored and the intervener knows what proportion of the capital is at risk. Action to recover loans can also be looked at in the context of other local financial systems. Borrowers who are falling behind with repayments may be indebted to other lenders as well, hence they may set about a rational calculation of which loan it is best for them to default on, based on their own view of the relative merits of different lenders and with which it is most important to retain a good credit record. This is when external schemes, such as those run by NGOs, are likely to encounter problems. The borrower may decide that the NGO is likely to leave the area at some future date, and hence is not likely to be a reliable long-term source of loans. Default on an NGO loan is likely to have less effect on the borrower's local creditworthiness (except in group-based lending systems, where non-payment is public knowledge). The borrower may also think that the NGO has welfare-related objectives and therefore is likely to be more 'understanding'. It is the syndrome of the 'understanding' NGO, with 'soft' repayment enforcement, which is most likely to lead to the failure of any credit scheme. While the group system of social collateral can provide an added incentive for individual borrowers to repay, there is evidence to suggest that much repayment enforcement is actually carried out by scheme staff. The problem is different if the whole group decides that repayment is not in their interests. This is most likely to occur at the outset of a scheme, when the NGO (if an external one) and the borrowers may not know much about each other. It is because NGOs and other institutions, including governments, have not enforced repayment in the past that the community may collectively decide not to repay. In such cases, if the NGO is serious about the scheme being credit rather than grants, then it must demonstrate this either by taking action to recover loans (for example, asset seizure) or suspending all further loans until existing loans are repaid.
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-4.3 Financial sustainability
-High repayment rates have been reported in schemes where interest rates are high enough to partly cover the costs of providing the services. The circumstances in which long-term financial sustainability might be possible have become a subject for research. A recent study of 11 large established microfinance institutions (Christen, Rhyne and Vogel, 1994) identifies three levels of financial sustainability:
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-Financial performance and sustainability Level 1 Subsidy dependent: the costs of the organisation are funded through grants and subsidies from donors. Level 2 Operational efficiency: the non-financial costs of operation (salaries and other administrative costs) are covered out of programme revenues (interest on loans and fees). Level 3 Fully self-sufficient or profitable: the institution is generating positive (inflation adjusted) returns on assets. The financial costs of operation are also covered: capital for on-lending is raised through commercial loans and income is enough to cover the costs of these loans. Ten of the eleven organisations studied had reached level 2, operational efficiency, and five had reached level 3- The study therefore concluded that 'it is consistently possible for competent microfinance programs to achieve operational efficiency within a reasonable timeframe' (p.5). However, they are a little more cautious about the potential for full financial selfsustainability, suggesting that 'it remains an open question whether full selfsufficiency is consistently possible in a variety of settings' (p.5; authors' emphasis). It is with studies of this type in mind that Otero and Rhyne (1994) propose that 'it is incumbent upon governments and donors that currently support micro-enterprise programmes to demand movement toward viability' (p21). Discussions of the potential for sustainability sometimes suggest that a microfinance institution can become financially sustainable between seven and ten years after starting operations. Branches of the Grameen Bank can become operationally self-sustaining in the space of five years (Khandker, Khalily and Khan, 1995). Branches of the ASA network in Bangladesh appear to be able to reach this level within eight months of commencing their operations (Rutherford, 1995b). This is achieved by the rapid mobilisation of group ('samity') members and their savings; and the issuing of the first wave of loans within three months of mobilisation. As the ASA branch receives the groups' weekly savings and interest payments it is able to utilise the savings and interest to make more loans, and the interest rates charged allow the salaries of workers to be covered. 4.3-1 The pros and cons of 'scaling up' Ways of achieving financial sustainability are currently the subject of debate among practitioners. Much emphasis has been put on microfinance operations reaching a sufficiently large number of users so that economies of scale can be made, and the cost of servicing numerous small transactions starts to
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction fall. This emphasis is a cause for concern, as increasing the scale of the operation may become an objective in itself. There are major organisational and management problems to be faced as operations scale up. For many organisations, scaling up may not be appropriate. Two of the schemes described in Chapter 6, URAC in Mexico and Ladywood Credit Union, partly derive their strength from their relatively small scale. For URAC it is the objective of building a peasant union that is important, and the financial services component is one aspect of its work which is contributing to this end; extending its financial services more widely might undermine the core objective. In the case of Ladywood Credit Union, it is the closeness of the service to members, and the time which can be given to helping them address their financial difficulties, which are significant features of the service, and these benefits would be compromised if scaling up was an objective. A further problem that can arise in the pursuit of financial self-sustainability is that of retaining a focus on the poor. Some organisations find that their users who do well need larger loans over time. This is termed 'graduation', as the users can be seen to be 'graduating' out of the target group which the scheme initially defined. The organisation is then under pressure to increase the size of its loans and continue to work with these people. Although costs per loan fall when loan sizes increase, the disadvantage is that better-off users are likely to be attracted to the services. The potential for fully self-sufficient microfinance institutions in all settings is questioned in a study of nine interventions in West Africa (Webster and Fidler, 1995). Their findings lead them to believe that while every attempt to move to full cost-recovery should be made, 'the costs of reaching very poor people in remote, rural areas of this region will always exceed possible revenues and [that] subsidies will always be needed to fill the shortfall if the institution is to remain in operation.' A similar conclusion is reached for remote and mountainous areas of Nepal and Pakistan in comparison to more densely populated areas of Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and India (Bennett, Goldberg and Hunte, 1996). However, Bennett etalsuggest that it is not only geographical inaccessibility that raises costs but also female seclusion, illiteracy, and poverty. 4.3.2 Issues in sustainability: the experience of 'village banking' The 'village banking' model illustrates some of the issues in sustainability outlined above. It is a model of financial service delivery set up by the Foundation for International Community Assistance (FINCA), and is employed by a range of NGOs, including Catholic Relief Services, Freedom From Hunger, and Care, in a number of countries.
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-Financial performance and sustainability The original model is one in which a sponsoring agency lends 'seed capital' to a village bank. Village banks ideally consist of between 20 and 50 members. The loan agreement is signed by all members and first loans are for approximately US$50. They are payed back on a weekly basis and the member is also expected to save approximately 20 per cent of the loan during each loan cycle. Loan amounts for clients increase after each one is repaid. Through this process, the village bank is expected to build up its internal capital, pay back the seed capital to the organisation, including interest, and reach internal sustainability within three years. Experience has been varied but there have been few cases where individual members have been able to 'graduate' to become clients of the formal financial system; nor are there many examples of the village bank itself being able to graduate away from the support of the sponsoring agency to reliance on formal banks alone for loan capital. One of the problems encountered is that members all tend to participate in similar productive activities and hence the demand for loans peaks at a particular time. The need for an external source of capital is therefore crucial and without this the scheme is likely to revert to a rotating savings and credit association. While financial sustainability has been an objective it has not been vigorously pursued. Interest rates have not always been set to cover costs and the detailed accounts which might enable this to happen have not been kept. The experience suggests there is need for a certain degree of scale and dispersion of loans and savings for financial intermediation to function effectively, and this is unlikely to be found within one village. The theory and the practice have therefore diverged quite significantly, and adjustments and adaptations have been made in implementing the system. While the methodology has demonstrated an ability to reach poor people, and especially women, on whom the programmes have often focused, the vision of financial sustainability is yet to
-become reality. (Source: Holt, 1994.)
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-4.3.3 Sustainability through extending coverage
-One of the issues raised by this example is the need to operate on a scale larger than village level, since the demand for loans may be simultaneous among a group of people with similar livelihood strategies. Extension of coverage could include wider geographical regions and diverse social groups, which could spread the demand for loans more evenly throughout the year. Ladywood Credit Union is an example of a scheme where better-off
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction members, through taking and repaying loans, support the sustainability of the scheme. The same is true of Casa Campesina Cayambe, where the taking and repaying of loans by relatively wealthier members has enabled the scheme to survive. The difference between LCU and CCC is that the former has made loans only for consumption. Providing bigger loans for productive investment to the relatively wealthier can increase inequality, further skew power relations, and increase relative poverty. Moreover, research for the CCC case-study showed that wealthy households were often the worst repayers. The example of Garu Rural Bank (see 2.8.3) also demonstrates how offering services to local salaried workers such as teachers and civil servants provides the bank with a secure source of income. It is interesting to consider the sustainability of the informal financial systems described in Chapter 2. Mechanisms such as ROSCAs are financially sustainable since their managerial inputs are voluntary. However, in the course of making procedures more formal, additional costs may arise, such as a salary for a paid manager. Informal schemes also differ in the ways they make use of existing informal structures which may in some cases involve voluntary inputs. A scheme for financial service provision that works with pre-existing ROSCAs may find its costs much lower than one which sets out to establish new groups. Whether or not financial sustainability is an achievable objective is still the cause of much debate and enquiry, as these experiences illustrate. However, one of the emerging points of consensus is that, even in cases where the scheme is not able to operate in a way that will make it financially sustainable, any subsidy provided by an NGO should be to the operational costs of the scheme rather than in the form of low interest-rates and lax repayment policies. Providing public or donor money to maintain the institution can be viewed as building financial infrastructure. There are some dangers even with this approach, in that access to donor money can lead to a lack of financial discipline on the part of the institution, which may undermine the objective of building up such institutions to survive in the longer term. 4.3.4 Measuring financial sustainability While the debates described in the previous section continue, NGOs are increasingly being challenged by donors to examine the financial sustainability of their programmes. Exercises of this type can be important in stimulating critical thinking about a programme's direction. Calculating sustainability can be a complex matter but here we will consider two relatively simple measures that can be used to assess where a programme stands financially: the sustainability index and the break-even interest rate.
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-Financial performance and sustainability Sustainability index A straightforward way to look at the financial sustainability of the savings and credit operation is to look at its income compared to its costs (Havers, 1996).
-Sustainability Index (SI) = Percentage of total costs covered by income _ total income earned from credit programme duringthe period total credit programme costs during period xlOO
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-The income received includes interest and fees on loans. Programme costs include all staff, office, and other costs necessary to run the programme. It is suggested that even costs which are not directly incurred should be included for the purposes of this calculation. For example, if office space is free because of a special arrangement, a figure for notional rent should be included, so that the programme can be evaluated as if it had to cover all its costs out of income. However, in schemes where inputs are voluntary and likely to continue into the future, there is a case to be made for not including these costs in the calculation of financial sustainability. In Chapter 6 we discuss the example of the Ladywood Credit Union in the UK in which volunteers provide much of the labour. This is a characteristic of the project and it would therefore be inappropriate to suggest that the project was not financially sustainable as a credit union because of this free labour. It must be stressed that the loan fund and savings deposits are not part of this calculation. However, if the loan fund has been received from donors as a grant, the calculation should include an imputed cost for this (i.e. the interest that it would be necessary to pay if the funds were to be raised from another source). The interest rate charged by banks in the formal sector is often used to calculate this cost. The purpose of including such a cost is to make clear the dependence of the scheme on donors or other sources of subsidised capital. Attempting such a calculation demonstrates the benefits of keeping savings and credit scheme accounts separate from those of other activities. In cases where staff are shared between programme activities it is necessary to make an estimate of staff time and resources spent on the savings and credit component. Overleaf is an example of the calculation for one of the casestudy schemes, URAC in Mexico.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction The calculation is presented for URAC on the basis of 1995 figures. It is an illustration only and is not intended actually to portray the sustainability of URAC.
-Costs 75% of salary costs of 4 development workers' Operational costs2 Computers — estimated depreciation Main office utilities Main office maintenance Vehicle — petrol Vehicle — maintenance Vehicle — depreciation Interest paid on savings Total costs N$ 248,850 96,060 6,500 1,756 4,000 18,000 14,000 15,400 163,996 568,562
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-Income
-Interest received on loans and bank interest on deposits Total income 268,395 268,395
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-Calculation of SI: Income Costs x 100-47%
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-Notes:
-1 These figures are based on estimates of the proportion of vehicle use and development workers' time devoted to the savings and credit part of URAC's work. It is estimated that the development workers spend 75 per cent of their time on the savings and credit programme and the remainder on their other activities. 2 Operational costs include: clerical salaries, stationery and other consumables, bank commission, free gifts, transport to committee meetings (for cashiers) and the costs of the mobile office.
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-Financial performance and sustainability In the case of URAC it has not been necessary to estimate a cost for the loan fund because it is generated from savings and hence is being paid for by paying interest on savings. This calculation of the sustainability index demonstrates that URAC is covering 47 per cent of the costs incurred in running the scheme out of income generated through its own operations. This means that in order to continue its operations if donor funds were withdrawn it would have to either double its income or halve its costs or both. The strategies for raising income would include raising the interest rate on loans and charging fees for certain services or transactions. The major element of cost is clearly salaries of the development workers and currently these staff are essential to the integrity of the programme. The break-even interest rate An alternative approach to looking at financial sustainability is to calculate the interest rate that the scheme would have to charge its borrowers if it had no source of income other than interest income and fees. This is referred to as the break-even interest rate. If the rate turns out to be extremely high compared to the formal sector and local informal rates, it is likely that the demand for the scheme's loans would collapse and it would have to adjust its operations to survive. Below is an example of the calculation for URAC. Total costs incurred in 1995 were N$568,562. The loan volume in 1995 was N$749,000. For the purposes of this calculation we will assume that this figure represents an average volume of loans outstanding at any point during the year. The interest paid by URAC on savings is included in the costs (see previous calculation). On the basis of these figures, URAC would have to charge an interest rate of 76 per cent on the N$749,000 of loans it has outstanding in order to bring in income of N$568,562; 76 per cent is therefore the breakeven interest rate. This compares with the current interest rate charged of 30 per cent. In the economic situation in Mexico in 1995 formal bank interest rates ranged from 50 to 70 per cent. The break-even rate for URAC would appear to compare quite well with such rates. However, those rates in the commercial sector caused massive rates of default on the part of middle-class households; and whether URAC's clients could cope with such levels is open to question. However, separating the costs of fieldworkers and management time between savings and credit activities and other programmes as in this calculation does not necessarily mean that the organisational form which this implies would be viable. Since at present programme activities are integrated
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction and costs shared, the removal of funded components might mean that the way in which groups and service delivery are organised would not be sustainable.
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-4.4 Managerial and organisational sustainability
-Even if it was clear that the organisation was able to cover its operating costs, this would be only one factor in moving a savings and credit scheme towards an independent future. The structure and management of the organisation are equally important considerations. NGOs do not necessarily possess the most appropriate skills for managing financial services. As well as carrying out regular and efficient financial monitoring, the management of the scheme must demonstrate integrity and accountability in dealing with other people's money. (It is only necessary to consider what type of organisation you, the reader, would trust with your own money to understand some of the qualities needed.) 4.4.1 The role of staff in microfinance interventions One of the critical issues is staffing. Not only is it important that staff feel motivated to undertake the intensive supervision that most financial services programmes entail, but the honesty and integrity of the institution and its staff in dealing with the funds must be apparent. Without this, the credibility of the organisation in the eyes of its users will soon suffer and demand for services will decline. Jain (1996) describes how, in the case of Grameen, group meetings promote the transparency and accountability of staff as well as members. Members can see that funds are not being mishandled and claims from individuals to their entitlements under the scheme are not being denied. Experience in Casa Campesina Cayambe revealed that when procedures for loan application only required the approval of the Credit Delegate, a very small number of cases occurred in which he would require 'fees' for nonexistent administration or a percentage of the loan. As a result the policy was changed to involve three members of the community in supporting loan applications. The transparency which village meetings can promote benefits the users by helping to control the behaviour of scheme staff or volunteers. It is also necessary to prevent staff colluding with scheme users to abuse the scheme. In the case of Ladywood Credit Union, interlocking committees made up of staff and members check on each other. One of the most important debates in this context is how to structure staff remuneration and incentives. Some schemes offer incentives for loan
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-Financial performance and sustainability collection related to the performance of the groups with which a staff member works. There is a danger that quantitative performance targets of this kind may lead to a neglect of institution-building among members (Montgomery, 1995), which is fundamental to sustainability. In the case of URAC, group cashiers at first worked on an entirely voluntary basis. They were offered an incentive in the form of a points system related to the supply of basic goods, which was another element of the programme. This has resulted in co-operation among them to improve the quality of the recordkeeping on behalf of the group. As such it is an example of an incentive that has been structured in a way which improves the capacity of the cashiers and hence the institution-building objectives of the project as a whole, as well as contributing to the efficient running of the scheme. For NGO workers who interact daily with users, often on a wide range of issues, becoming debt-collectors on behalf of a savings and credit scheme can put them in a difficult position, and it is this tension that has so often in the past led to a 'soft' approach by NGOs interested in poverty alleviation. Staff may find themselves in an ambiguous relationship with users which impairs performance. 4.4.2 Organisational sustainability and change Effective management also requires continuous adaptation and change on the part of those in control. Circumstances are continually changing: macroeconomic conditions, legal requirements, the needs of users, and the availability of other financial services in the area. All of these changes mean that the scheme must continually adapt its operations as new information comes to light and experience is built up. Flexibility is essential. (See Chapter 5 for a discussion of adaptability as an indicator of impact.) In Chapter 2 we argued that financial services are not something which should be here today and gone tomorrow. If providing them is to make a significant contribution to the alleviation of poverty, a long-term approach is needed. The organisational framework which will enable this future sustainability must be considered. Throughout this book we have discussed a range of different organisational forms: ROSCAs, village banks, credit unions (SANASA and Ladywood), schemes run and managed by NGOs itself (AATG, URAC, SUNGI and CCC), and organisations which have the status of banks (BRI and Grameen Bank). These projects offer a rich and diverse range of experience from which to draw in considering what forms of organisation might be most appropriate and enduring. The most obvious organisational form for sustained financial service provision is a bank, and we have given two examples of organisations that
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction started out as banks: BRI (a state-owned bank) on a very large scale in Indonesia and Gam Rural Bank on a much smaller scale in Northern Ghana. Two organisations, BancoSol in Bolivia and Grameen in Bangladesh, started out as NGOs and have been able to convert themselves into banks, which might suggest that this is a course of action many more schemes should follow. However, the feasibility of this approach for other organisations in other circumstances is in question. Grameen had to gain unique governmental dispensation to convert itself into a bank, whereas BRAC has so far been unsuccessful in obtaining a similar concession. Apart from legal difficulties of this type, some commentators do not agree that such a process should be an objective of NGOs, believing 'that the competitive advantage of NGOs is in their capacity to reach the poorest and engage in activities which help people change, but which cannot necessarily be financially supported by the recipient of the assistance' (Dichter, 1996). Dichter concluded that NGOs should concentrate on what they do best rather than trying to become banks. Such debates are unlikely to be easily resolved. Meanwhile, NGOs with microfinance interventions are considering how they might establish organisations that are able to survive. Legal status is clearly one of the main concerns, and we have argued above the need for government regulation of organisations taking deposits (see Chapter 3). The major legally-recognised alternative to banks is the credit union. Credit unions, in being owned by their members and savings-based, present two characteristics for survival that the above discussions have shown to be particularly important, and which NGOs may feel to be strongly convergent with their own values. However, there is still much to be learned in this area, and many countries have no legislation or regulations to deal with credit unions. An alternative strategy for NGOs is to persuade national banks and private financial institutions to extend their services to poor people. Groups with whom the NGO has developed a relationship can then be encouraged to transfer their custom to a sympathetic bank, so removing the need for the NGO to provide long-term support. Another role for NGOs is to engage with governments in discussing how the financial needs of the poor can best be addressed. Organisations such as Women's World Banking, for example, have worked to raise the issue with governments and policy makers (WWB,1994).
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-Financial performance and sustainability 4.5 Summary and conclusions This chapter has emphasised the critical importance of continuous monitoring of financial performance. Financial sustainability should be explored, using some relatively simple calculations which, even if not entirely accurate, can give an impetus to debate about the future of the programme. However, financial sustainability should not be seen solely within the context of this narrow financial calculation, in which, for example, voluntary inputs such as labour are costed. Some organisations are fully capable of sustaining the flow of such voluntary inputs, which can be integral to the achievement of their objectives. Even within the context of debates about financial self- sustainability there are questions about whether it is achievable, especially where there is low population density, or where physical constraints, such as poor infrastructure and communication, and social constraints, such as illiteracy and female seclusion, increase the costs of delivering services. These factors reduce the likelihood of being able to recover costs through charging appropriate interest rates. Financial sustainability is only one component of ensuring that schemes are able to provide services in the long term; aspects of management and organisational structure are equally critical. The organisational form may be the most significant design element in relation to long-term sustainability. Some NGOs have turned themselves into banks, but this is not likely to be an option for most NGOs. Pressures for financial self-sustainability are likely to produce dilemmas for the organisation. An institution which increases loan size may lose its focus on poor people; the strategy of deliberately including better-off people in order to subsidise lending to the very poor requires a clear organisational vision if it is to succeed. • The monitoring and management of financial information is a specialist area and should be recognised as such by building the necessary skills among NGO staff or using outside specialists. • Considerations of sustainability in both organisational and financial terms need to be made from the outset; but even when a project is already underway prospects for financial and organisational sustainability should be addressed. • In order to develop a sustainable organisation within the national regulatory framework it may be necessary to undertake advocacy work to change existing government policies. • The progress of the institution towards financial and organisational sustainability is not the sole indicator of achievement. For organisations with an agenda for poverty reduction, assessing the impact of the services on users is crucial. This is the subject of the next chapter.
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-5
-Assessing impact
-5.1 Introduction
-As we have seen in the last two chapters, microfinance technology can take many forms, and interventions with microfinance components have been designed in varied ways. This chapter is concerned with understanding how the consequences of microfinance interventions can be measured and attributed. If financial service provision has had poverty reduction as a goal, it is particularly important to know whether, by how much, and for whom poverty has reduced (or increased) and the extent to which these changes have occurred as a result of the intervention. The chapter begins by discussing conventional approaches to measuring impact and explores some of their methodological and practical problems. NGOs have made substantial progress in promoting alternative methods of collecting information. The third section draws on this new body of work in examining ways of overcoming some of the problems associated with conventional impact assessment. A crucial source of information is users' own accounts of the usefulness and relevance of the services in supporting their livelihoods. In the fourth section, it is suggested that rather than addressing impact as a question to be answered only once, usually after an intervention has been made, the relevance and usefulness of services should be continually assessed. Through this learning process, the organisation can adapt its services to better meet the needs of users.
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-5-2 The difficulties of assessing impact
-Development project managers and their funders have long engaged in linear thinking about the consequences of their actions. Inputs, in terms of people, resources and activities, lead to outputs which themselves have outcomes. These outcomes have an impact on people, often a targeted group. In order to
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-demonstrate to themselves, their donors, and supporters that their work is proceeding as planned, organisations endeavour to assess the impact of their activities. It is particularly important for organisations like Oxfam and ACTIONAID to understand the impact of their work. They each rely on support from large numbers of voluntary donors, who give money on the basis that it will be used to further the organisation's mission. Oxfam's Mission Statement refers to 'working with poor people....in their struggle against hunger, disease, exploitation and poverty'. Such a commitment to poor people implies that Oxfam should also be accountable to them for its actions. Indeed, for NGOs in general, it has been argued that impact assessment is important in enabling them to remain true to their mission; and that poor quality impact assessment is likely to leave them more vulnerable to co-option by others (Edwards and Hulme, 1995). Yet poor people 'are not static "targets" waiting to be "impacted" upon by credit programs' (Abdullah, Rutherford and Hossain, 1995). People's actions, ducking and weaving through staictural constraints and opportunities, have their own consequences. These actions, whether freely chosen or not, can combine with the processes and outcomes of planned intervention to enhance or diminish well-being. Interventions, generally less nimble, continue, and outcomes and impact over time are very difficult to predict. How, then, should NGOs measure the impact of their work? In Chapter 1 we outlined three ways of defining poverty: lack of income, vulnerability to income fluctuations, and powerlessness. Interventions could attempt to reduce poverty by raising incomes (income promotion); increasing income and livelihood security (protection); or empowering people who lack control and choice in their lives. Impact assessment of NGO-funded financial services has usually focused on the first of these: income promotion. Emphasis has been placed on measuring changes in income levels following credit programmes, especially those where loans have been directed to specific uses. This approach raises a number of methodological problems especially where the impact of directed credit is being assessed: • respondents may give false information if loans have been used for a purpose other than the stipulated one; • establishing a causal relationship to the actual loan in question involves knowledge of all the beneficiary's sources and uses of funds; • it is difficult to establish what would have happened if the loan had not been made (Mansell-Carstens, 1995).
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction 5.2.1 Establishing loan use The first of these dilemmas has at its heart the 'fungibility' of cash, that is, the potential for funds to be used for purposes other than those stated. Microfinance interveners may or may not insist that loans be used in certain ways. If they do impose conditions for loan use, they may find themselves wasting resources trying to discover if these have been fulfilled. As ACTIONAID Vietnam (AAV) lament in the proposal for an impact evaluation methodology for their Son La Programme, 'in practice it is very difficult to determine the use to which fungible loans are put. It would be interesting to know whether the microfinance activities have enabled households to improve food security or to invest in a profitable activity, but AAV does not consider that a loan use survey is likely to generate conclusive information on this' (1996). For these reasons, the village-level research for the case study of SUNGI in Pakistan (see Chapter 6), focused much more on asking respondents to compare streams of income with the size of repayment instalments than on attempting to determine whether loan use was as stated on the application form. However, similar problems arise when poverty is defined in broader terms, and when credit is not directed to specific uses. Investigators carrying out . one-off impact assessments rarely have the time to talk to people for long enough to find out the complexity of their livelihood strategies and the details of how they manage their finances. (This was also true of the assessments attempted for this book which could not by their very nature involve longterm engagement.) In addition, respondents themselves have little incentive to discuss their personal finances openly. People may disguise the real purpose to which loans were put for fear of offending project staff; or because they believe that action may be taken against them; or because they calculate a possible advantage in doing so; or simply because to do so can be quite amusing in the course of a boring interview. 5.2.2 Measuring change: controls and baselines A related and more general difficulty is that of establishing from respondent recall the changes that have occurred over time as the result of an intervention. One of the major problems here is the relationship of both researcher and respondent to the microfinance institution itself. Both have interests in the outcome of the impact assessment. For example, a respondent might want a further loan and think that a positive story about the way a previous loan had improved her or his life might help to get that loan. Similarly, an investigator hoping for re-employment might not wish to offend the agency hiring her. It is very difficult to establish what would have happened in the absence of a loan. For quantitative analysis a control is
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-required: a sample of people, similar in every other way, who have not received a loan, compared with a sample who have. As well as being costly and time-consuming, to establish a perfect control is virtually impossible (Copestake, 1996b). An alternative to using a control group is to use a baseline against which to assess change. Unfortunately, good baseline data rarely exist. Experience with quantitative baseline surveys of household income and assets has shown that it is costly and difficult to collect adequate data. Such surveys often raise as many questions as they answer, and staff who originally collected the data may no longer be available to explain the intricacies of the data when it comes to using them to answer questions about impact. Moreover, if project objectives have changed in the course of time, the original baseline data will give an inappropriate or irrelevant picture of the pre-project situation; for this reason, some information can only be collected at the end of a project (Newens and Roche, 1996). Capturing the unintended impacts of interventions is also problematic. We have argued in Chapter 2 for the importance of looking at an intervention in the context of other locally available services. If 'enabling' aspects of these existing services have actually been undermined by an intervention, then this information also needs to be part of the assessment of impact. A further unplanned impact may occur if the provision of credit to one group allows them to invest in a particular market opportunity, with the result that established producers or traders are displaced. The concepts of 'controls' and 'baselines' also raise moral questions for interveners. What do people gain from spending time monitoring or being monitored for the impact on them of notbeing beneficiaries of a project? One possible solution to this problem is to include new users as the 'control' group, and to use recall to make comparisons with how things were before the intervention.
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-5-2.3 Proving causality
-A final and major obstacle is the difficulty in being able to attribute any change that is found to the intervention. Other events and changes occur while the intervention is taking place, and this may make it virtually impossible to separate out the impact of a savings and credit programme. Further, even if apparently successful in terms of raising incomes, reducing vulnerability or challenging unequal power relations, an intervention may make very little difference to people's overall well-being. The positive changes may be dwarfed or negated by other factors in the local context or by macroeconomic or political changes, and therefore be marginal. This points to the
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction need to frame objectives of what can be achieved by providing financial services, in more modest terms.
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-5.3 Innovations in impact assessment
-The response of many microfinance specialists to the methodological and practical difficulties of impact assessment has been to argue that it should not be attempted at all. Rather, the financial health of the microfinance institution should be taken as a proxy indicator of positive change. They argue that the very popularity of the services among poor people is enough to demonstrate that they find the services of benefit. It has been suggested, therefore, that impact studies should be replaced by indicators of scale and institutional sustainability (Rhyne, 1994). If the institution is increasing the outreach of its services to a growing number of people, and indicators of financial sustainability are improving, the impact of the institution is viewed as positive. However, while the fact that increasing numbers of people are using the services is in itself a positive indication, it does not tell enough of the story. Aside from the fact that increasing scale brings its own problems, and can even undermine the sustainability of the institution itself, as discussed earlier in this book, it is necessary to investigate further to find out who is using the services. Users should be differentiated by wealth, gender, and location; and information should be gathered on how various groups are using the services to support their livelihood activities. Understanding how people use the services in practice makes it possible to analyse what makes them relevant and usefuho poor people. Answers to the question of whether relatively better-off or poorer people are using the services can be found by undertaking wealth-ranking exercises with members and non-members (Pretty etal, 1996). Discussions with them in 'focus groups' can reveal their views on why others do not join the scheme or why they may have dropped out. Following up users who may have dropped out or become inactive is particularly helpful in understanding why the scheme may not be able to meet these users' needs, as are interviews with non-members. It may be that a member has dropped out because her income-earning husband has died, or her son has stopped sending back remittances from outside the area. This would raise the question of how financial services can support her in dealing with this situation. Or perhaps discussions with non-users might uncover difficulties for in-migrants to an area in being accepted in groups which rely on social collateral. We have earlier emphasised the distinction between access to and use of scheme services. When considering who is using services, it again becomes important to understand women's roles, particularly in relation to loans.
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-Female members may be able to describe the process of decision making before and after taking the loan, their role in it, and how they felt about it. How repayments are made, and how women who may not have direct access to income develop strategies for ensuring repayment, are essential aspects of appreciating the relevance of the services to them. For example, women in Bangladesh often find the money to make weekly compulsory savings deposits required for group membership by taking a handful of rice from the daily household allocation and saving this up to sell (White, 1991). To assess how services are relevant and useful to users and to what extent requires answers to a range of questions: how users see them in the context of other locally available services; how the amounts and timing of loans and ease of withdrawals from savings accounts relate to their priorities in meeting consumption needs and production opportunities (across seasons); how repayment schedules and any compulsory savings deposits relate to flows of income available to individuals and the household as a whole. The views of a range of users can be elicited via semi-structured interviews (Pretty etal, 1995). However, questions need to be carefully framed, so that respondents are encouraged to share their experience of using the services, and how the services relate to their circumstances. For example, asking 'Why did you withdraw savings at this time?' or 'Why did you take a loan at this time?' might result in more useful responses than questions such as 'What did you use your savings for?' or 'How did you use this loan?' (ACTIONAID Vietnam, 1996).
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-5.3.1 Researching usefulness: a case study
-The following account of research into the usefulness of locally available financial services in The Gambia can illustrate many of the points raised: During case study field work in The Gambia, preference ranking was used to understand better how AATG's credit programme related to other sources of credit available to the villagers. AsAATG knew little about how villagers saved, a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of various types of savings proved illuminating. Research was carried out sometimes with women only, but usually with both women and men. As the researchers movedfrom village to village, they became more adept at ensuring the women's participation in a mixed group discussion. The discussions took about two hours and were facilitated by two field workers, who began by asking about the different sources of credit available to people. Since villagers often emphasisedformal sources and failed to mention their own group systems it was usually necessary to ask probing
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction questions to find out about the latter. Then advantages and disadvantages of these sources were discussed. For example, in the village ofjiffarong, sources of credit included The Gambia Co-operative Union Ltd, Village Savings and Credit Association (VJSACA), Freedom From Hunger Campaign (FFHC), Co-operative consumer shop, and the Department of Community Development (DCD), as well as the AATG Group Revolving Fund. The Co-operative had provided three carts to its members to carry farm produce, people, and goods to and from the village. The Cooperative Society used to provide cash credit for subsistence purposes but no longer did so. Only registered members who sell their produce (usually groundnuts) to the Society could obtain credit and the majority of members are men. The Co-op applied strict measures in their credit-recovery programmes, and this discouraged farmers from applying for credit. Some time ago FFHC also supplied three carts on credit to some community members and provided some production inputs on a small scale. The VISACA has been newly introduced and provides cash credit, but also with stringent loan-recovery measures. A village bank has been built through VISACA where registered members and the VDG are able to deposit savings and gain interest. The DCD also provided one cart to the village some years ago but no longer provides credit in kind. Funds from the Group Revolving Fund had been used for the purchase of basic commodities such as rice, sugar, and oil which were supplied to members during the time of food shortage. The group members also borrowed cash from the GRF to buy seeds for planting, to be repaid during the course of the trading season. Part of the GRF was also used to set up a village bakery to generate income. The consumer shop set up by the group also provides some savings and credit facilities to its members. The group has saved the sum ofD2300 ($230)which yielded an interest ofD232 ($23) over a one-year period.
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-5.3.2 Assessing impact on social relationships
-There are other questions which might be asked about the dynamics that the intervention itself can catalyse: • Is social differentiation (inequality) and thus relative poverty increasing as a direct or indirect result of the intervention?
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-Assessing impact • Do gains in financial security and material well-being by relatively betteroff people among the poor increase practices of exploitation and exclusion of even poorer people? • Can the impact of an intervention inside poor households be identified? • If services are not used by the poorest people are there other resources and services which should be made available for them? Who is using the service and what happens as a result is a function of social relations which can themselves change as a result of financial services interventions. Yaqub (1995) has shown convincingly how attempting to use peergroup pressure to screen borrowers and enforce repayment can have unintended consequences if the lending organisation is unaware of changes within social institutions. Referring to the experience of BRAC in Bangladesh, Yaqub argues that the very empowerment which repeated borrowing can bring to an individual may turn a good repayer into a defaulter. Over time, wealth differences emerge within the group and the social sanctions imposed on a defaulting group member may become less threatening: the member has less to lose by letting down the group if she has built up her own resource base. Yaqub uses this to support the case for a permanent subsidy for institutionbuilding at the group level. If the intervention is enabling empowerment of its members, it will become more difficult for the groups on which its success is based to function, and work will be needed to maintain group solidarity. 5.3.3 Impact assessment as a dynamic process It is clear that the usefulness of financial services varies over time, as well as between different groups of people, as can be seen in the varying use made of those services. The example given in Chapter 2 of a study of low-income people from diverse ethnic backgrounds in the UK illustrates this point. Each group mixed formal and informal financial services in different ways. The financial institutions to which people already had access seemed to affect the demand for new financial services. The implications of this are that it is necessary to engage in continuing dialogue with a representative cross-section of scheme members, who are likely to have different needs and uses for the services (women and men, landed and landless, different ethnic groups, and so on). Such a process should be designed to ensure that all relevant views are gathered. It should allow the 'facts' to be cross-checked and thus overcome the problem of respondents giving false information. Also, by collecting multiple views of performance the chances of establishing causality are increased. The way in
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction which this monitoring process is designed should enable conflicts of interest between different users to emerge and less powerful as well as more powerful people to speak freely. Then rather than looking in a linear way at intentions versus outcomes, performance standards can be set according to 'the criteria or factors which relevant people are likely to use when making a judgement' (Fowler, 1995). 5.3.4 Validating qualitative data A process approach such as this, which relies heavily on qualitative information collected through methods such as semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions with users, can appear arbitrary and is often criticised for this reason. However, it can be made more rigorous by paying attention to the process involved and being able to evaluate the validity of the information. Pretty (1994) has suggested criteria and characteristics for judging the trustworthiness of data generated through qualitative enquiry, which include: • prolonged engagement: with users so that trust can build up over time; • observation: both of users' behaviour in relation to the services and of the context in which this happens; • cross-checking: (triangulation) of information by using multiple sources of information, multiple ways of finding out that information, and a number of investigators; • analysis of difference: allowing a wide range of perspectives to be brought into the analysis and not necessarily seeking consensus; • making use of negative findings: allowing findings which do not meet with expectations to revise the results and reformulate the expectations, rather than dismissing such findings as exceptions; • peer checking: exposing analysis to colleagues not involved in the enquiry at an early stage and continuing to do so in order to expose biases or assumptions which might remain implicit; • checking the data with users: after collecting information using participatory approaches, checking the interpretation with those from whom the information was collected and so establishing its credibility as representing users' actual views; • giving reports: explaining hypotheses about impact and the context in which they have been developed, and using direct quotations of people's personal experiences and detailed descriptions of context to substantiate these reports; 80
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-Assessing impact • keeping reflexive journals: recognising the central role played by investigators themselves, they use these journals to record information about themselves, their feelings, and decisions; journals need not be shared with others but can be used at a later stage to remember the immediate reasons for methodological decisions and interpretation of data; • conducting an inquiry audit: this should be carried out by someone unconnected to the inquiry who looks at the process followed and the results to confirm that the findings are supported by the data and are internally coherent. Our suggested approach to impact assessment focuses on understanding who uses the services on offer, and in what ways those services are relevant and useful to poor people in supporting their livelihoods. 'Relevance' and 'usefulness' are highly subjective, so criteria such as those proposed by Pretty can be important in adding credibility and legitimacy to findings. Nevertheless, as White has argued 'sharing through participation does not necessarily mean sharing in power' (1996, p6). The relationship between the interests of the donor agency or implementing organisation in establishing whether it is reaching its overall goals, and the interests of its users in addressing the same question, is an unequal one. Information from impact assessment exercises can be ignored if inconvenient, or can be used for political purposes inside an organisation. On the other hand, for an organisation which is based on attracting savings, users have ownership rights in a very real sense, and the organisation should pay great attention to users' assessments.
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-5.3.5 Using quantitative data in impact assessment
-The ways in which members use services can be explored and cross-checked using quantitative as well as qualitative data. Computerised managementinformation systems are important for the efficient and timely generation of quantitative data. It should be possible to analyse the following information: • savings behaviour: size, frequency and timing of deposits and withdrawals; • savings balances: size of balance held by different categories of people: women, men, better-off, poorer, etc; • loan sizes and types taken, when and by whom; • repayment performance of different categories of people.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction This information can be analysed in relation to aspects of the local economy and livelihood systems to further establish how useful and relevant the services are to particular groups of people. For example, the timing of savings and loan activities could be analysed in relation to local events such as agricultural seasonality, festivals, and so on. A good database should enable creative use of the data to be made in answering a range of questions. If records are kept at the level of the individual borrower then it is possible to examine the number of loans that have been taken by each borrower. This allows the extent to which people are making repeated use of the service to be analysed. For example, finding out whether loan sizes are rising or falling with second or third loans can provide insight into borrowers' confidence, or lack of it, in taking larger or smaller loans. Analysing the timing of savings withdrawals in relation to loan disbursement may indicate whether savings are only being made in order to obtain loans.
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-5.4 Learning and adaptability
-To develop a package of services which responds to a specific context requires a willingness to learn and to change. It requires a good information flow between all those 'stakeholders' involved: users, staff, management, and funders. Assessment must be continuous because people, their circumstances, and their aspirations change. The extent to which an organisation learns from experience and adapts accordingly can itself be used as a measure of success. Indicators could be, for example, how well an organisation listens both to users and funders; how efficiently it learns and adapts as a result; and the degree to which it rewards learning and innovation (Roche, 1995). Changing organisational practice to encourage learning and adaptation has obvious advantages in that it increases the likelihood that mistakes will be admitted and corrective action taken. However, any process approach of this nature can be used to support changes which are more to do with satisfying the interests of particular, already powerful, people — whether management, staff or particular groups of users—than with a focus on successful poverty reduction. Moreover, learning, adaptability, and understanding must take into account the wider environment in which the institution operates and not be confined to the organisation's own services. Microfinance institutions, userowned or otherwise, need good sources of information on the nature of and changes in other financial services institutions locally. As Howes has concluded for membership organisations in general; ... successful outcomes nearly always seem to rest, in the first instance, on a sound understanding of existing institutions. 82
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-Assessing impact A capacity to identify and utilise present sources of social capital1 can often give new initiatives a head start. Conversely, where the institutions which are in place constitute part of the problem to be addressed, a thorough knowledge of how they operate is indispensable as a means of anticipating and managing the conflicts which will inevitably arise (Howes, 1996). Perhaps because of the inherent difficulties of gathering so much information and keeping in touch with changes; ... NGOs should start slowly, pilot-testing new ideas carefully with small groups ofpeople ... Institutional development is a long-term undertaking, and strategy must be harnessed to a process approach to ensure flexibility in the light of evolving external circumstances (Howes, op. cit.).
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-1 'Social capital' refers to the networks, relationships and mutual obligations which lie behind collective action and exchange.
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-5.5 Summary and conclusions
-We have discussed the failings of conventional approaches to impact assessment which have taken a linear view of the relationship between an intervention and its consequences. These approaches encounter methodological and practical problems when put into practice. Problems include the difficulties of getting accurate data, and whether the consequences observed can in fact be attributed to the intervention in question. In recent years substantial progress has been made in developing methodologies which involve users more deeply, in order to capture the diversity of experience which exists among them. Such approaches to impact assessment do not necessarily assume that services will have a measurable impact, but instead seek to increase understanding of the ways in which the services are relevant and useful in supporting users' livelihood strategies. Approaches which involve continuing engagement with users in a more dynamic dialogue make it possible to meet their needs more effectively. At the same time, if done well, they have the potential to enhance users' identification with the institution, and are therefore in the interests of that institution and its funders. Impact assessment becomes a process of continuous feedback rather than a one-off exercise. • NGOs interested in poverty reduction should be concerned with the impact of financial services, and especially loans, on poor people's livelihoods. • In addressing the question of impact, NGOs need to go beyond quantitative information detailing the numbers of users, and volumes and sizes of loans disbursed, to an understanding of how and for whom these services support livelihoods. • In using qualitative methods to understand the usefulness and relevance of services to poor people, NGOs should develop ways of increasing the trustworthiness of data, by involving a wide range of both users and staff in the process. • An NGO which is modest and honest in setting its initial objectives, and which is prepared to admit its mistakes and learn from them, is more likely to provide services which are useful and relevant to a wide range of users and so have a more significant impact in supporting their livelihoods.
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-6
-Case studies
-6.1 Introducing the case studies
-The purpose of this chapter is to explore further the concepts and approaches already laid out in earlier chapters through discussion of five case studies of microfinance interventions. Each case study is presented thematically in terms of its background, design, performance and sustainability, and impact assessment to correspond to the four preceding chapters. Tables 6.1 and 6.2 present information in summary form on the background, design and performance of all five microfinance interventions. Each case study is then discussed in detail. Information on impact was gathered using brief one-off studies. While an attempt was made in each case to assess the usefulness and relevance of the financial services, it was not possible to use all the methodologies for impact assessment advocated in Chapter 5. This was because the approach to learning and adaptation set out in that chapter requires long-term processes involving users, staff, and volunteers. The five examples discussed are connected with ACTIONAID and Oxfam (UK and Ireland). The Union Regional de Apoyo Campesino in Mexico has received modest financial support from the Mexico programme of Oxfam (UK and Ireland) for a number of years. SUNGI in Pakistan has worked with Oxfam Pakistan, although not in microfinance activities. The study of Ladywood Credit Union in Birmingham UK has been done jointly for the purposes of this book and as a preliminary study for Oxfam's recently established UK programme. ACTIONAID has been working in The Gambia since 1979, and this provides an example of a long-term project where an international NGO has been directly operational. Casa Campesina Cayambe in Ecuador has been a partner project of ACTIONAID and Ayuda en Accion since 1988.
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-Table 6.1 Summary of Information about Case Study Schemes
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-Mexico
-Union Regional de Apoyo Campesino(URAC) National GDP per capita (US$1993) Location Definition of intended users/size Scheme membership Savings facilities 3,610 Rural Rural households in 26 communities
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-Pakistan
-SUNGI Development
-(SUNGI)
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-430
-
-Rural 47 villages
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-4591 active members (1995) Voluntary savings: savings balance must be 20% of loan size General purpose 'normal' loan max N$700 (US$ 100) over 7 months; also loans for housing, family purposes and small-scale agricultural production 18 (note 1) 30 (note 1) 20-70 members organised for savings purposes with one cashier; loans signed by 5-10 other members
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-1260 saving; 137 borrowing Compulsory: Rs30 per month minimum Max Rs 5000 (US$150) for productive purposes for 6-24 months
-
-Loan facilities
-
-Interest rates (%):
-Savings: Loans: nominal real nominal real
-
-profit-loss share 18 (service charge) 8 Village Organisations, men and women separately, size variable. Has credit
-management committee
-
-Way of working (through individuals or groups)
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-1 Inflation rates in Mexico have fluctuated significantly in the last two years resulting in both positive and negative rates in real terms, currently rates have become significantly positive again but were not at the time which the study was undertaken
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-UK Ladywood Credit Union (LCU) 18,060 Urban Unemployed / lowincome and other families on innercity housing estates 270 adults 400 junior savers Voluntary: loan size 2 x savings balance Max 2 x savings balance+£300; max loan size £5,000 (US$7,500) over 2 years
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-Gambia
-ACTIONAID The Gambia(AATG)
-350
-
-Ecuador
-Casa Campesina Cayambe (CCC) 1,200 Rural Small farmers / rural householdsof 2 cantons with a population of 3,150 families
-
-Rural Small farmers / airal households in 523 villages
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-Approx. 11,000 households Individual coverage have received credit figures not available to date None None
-
-Inputs for agricultural production in kind: range from seed to carts, ploughs etc. Max term 5 years
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-'Ordinary' loan max. lm.sucres (US$400) over 15 months. Other types of loan available
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-1% dividend in 1995
--2% 12%
-
-n/a
-
-n/a 52 (note 2) approx. 27 Indigenous community committee structures and credit delegate represent communityinterests with CCC.
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-9 Credit Union as a whole defined by 'common bond'of residence: financial services provided to individuals
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-0 approx-10 Village level groups administer credit; AATG provides training. Group level responsibility for repayment
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-2 52% calculated as an annual percentage rate; 43% calculated on the declining balance basis
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-Table 6.2 Performance indicators of all Case Study Schemes in 1995
-(All figures in US$)
-
-S 2
-0)
-
-375,741
-
-941 bor
-
-Approx
-
-ccc Ecuad
-
-0
-
-2
-
-350
-
-n/a
-
-n/a
-
-!
-
-m
-Ml
-
-CN
-
-X
-
-00
-
-!5 TheG
-AATG
-
-(4
-
-o
-
-V >
-
-8
-
-x: "5
-
-Appro; househ
-
-60% (1;
-
-107,10(
-
-n/a
-
-n/a
-
-177(2)
-
-i
-
-itol ans
-0
-
-i
-
-x:
-
-»n
-
-\r\
-
-3s
-
-00
-
-ir\
-
-i
-z'-S
-M
-
-0
-
-in
-
-•8
-
-CO
-
-5;
-l-H
-
-668
-
-(N
-
-•3
-
-r-» m
-
-NO
-
-O O
-
-ro
-
-5Z
-
-WN -<f
-
-ON
-
-it available
-
-85 loans
-
-<AC exico
-
-5,000
-
-3,485
-
-m
-
-u
-
-c
-ers % ofuse | who arefemale
-
-ON
-
-3
-Average• loan siz < u
-
-CN
-
-in
-ON
-
-i-
-
-1 No. ofoLi rrent 1 borrowiB rs/loan
-
-Volume ofsavinj
-
-Volume of loans
-
-Noofsa vings account
-
-0
-
-i/i
-
-Indicat
-
-*w t_
-
-c
-
-1
-
-0 v^ 0 •
-
-1 indicates number of women members of village development groups having access to credit in one area with 140 villages rather than number of women actually taking loans. However, coverage within the group for seasonal loans was 70% upwards. 2 estimate
-
-Arrears rate
-
-<u
-
-a
-
-Average loan siz as%ofCiDPper capita (1 993)
-
-Average savings balance
-
-Repaym ent rate • currenit on tim ;nt rate
-
-< > /
-
-Si
-
-XI
-
-i/i V
-
->
-
-evertakien and r pai
-C D
-
--a
-
-1
-
-10%
-
-270
-
-194
-
-I
-
-g .2
-
-0
-0 IA CN"
-
-0
-
-0 in in >n
-
-not a vail
-
-0 0
-
-iwe
-
-•a
-
-«
-CTS
-
-Case studies
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-6.2 Union Regional de Apoyo Campesino (URAC), Meaco
-6.2.1 Background
-The Union Regional de Apoyo Campesino (URAC) is based in Tequisquiapan in the Mexican state of Queretaro. It was started in 1989 by Union de Esfuerzos para el Campo, (UDEC), a four-person NGO which began working around Tequisquiapan in 1984. URAC has a broad vision of building an alternative peasant economy in the region by encouraging the production of goods which campesinos (peasants) consume and the consumption of what the peasant union produces. Much of the work involves training villagebased volunteer workers, and encouraging the organisational capacity of campesinos in the region. It is clear about its identity as a peasant organisation, rather than a savings and credit scheme, although the backbone of the work is currently the provision of financial services. Mexico underwent radical economic reforms following the 1982 debt crisis. Low inflation, high capital in-flows from outside the country, and moderate economic growth masked a growing divide between rich and poor. This divide was expressed through a peasant uprising in the Southern state of Chiapas in January 1994. A series of events, including the assassination of the ruling party's presidential candidate, caused investor confidence to decline. This resulted in a new economic crisis in late 1994 when investors began to withdraw funds from short-term bonds and precipitated a run on the government's reserves of foreign exchange. Since then rescue packages have been organised by the IMF and World Bank to maintain Mexico's debt repayment obligations and secure the banking system. These efforts have not prevented inflation rates in the region of 50 per cent and similarly high interest rates. These in turn have resulted in defaults by middle-class borrowers on mortgages, car loans, and credit cards. The four municipalities around Tequisquiapan in which URAC works have seen significant social and economic change in recent years. Rapid industrialisation in nearby towns had improved employment opportunities in the area although wages were poor, but these industries have suffered in the recent economic crisis. Agricultural employment is still provided on local estates and large farms, while some households have land-use rights under the terms of the land reforms of the 1930s, and others cultivate their own small plots. Male out-migration is high, both on a short-term basis to nearby towns and for longer-term work in the US. Remittances are therefore a major source of income.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction 6.2.2 Design URAC is active in three main areas: financial services, agricultural and livestock production, and a programme to supply basic goods. The programme puts strong emphasis on organisation building and encouraging the involvement of members in monthly meetings at village level. The programme had some 5,000 members in 27 villages in 1995- There has been constant and steady growth, with a 60 per cent increase in membership between 1993 and 1996, reflecting the popularity of the programme in the villages in which it operates. With its philosophy of self-sufficiency, URAC started with a savings-based approach. Members pay a membership fee and can save as much or as little as they wish. Members are organised into groups of between 20 and 70 people, and there may be two or three groups within a village. There is a monthly village meeting to give an update on the position of each group, including overdue loan instalments; information about the basic goods supply; news about URAC and about events in the region; followed by discussion of a broader issue, often a national or international theme, as well as technical discussions about agricultural production. The function of the smaller groups is for saving. There is one cashier per group whose task it is to collect the savings and take them to the URAC office on a weekly basis. The savings facility is subject to a minimum deposit of 1 peso (US$0.15 in March 1996). The cashier decides when during the week she is willing to accept deposits, and the fact that this facility is available within the village makes it very convenient: members have been known to move between groups on the basis of the efficiency of the group's cashier. Withdrawals can be made on demand, but require more effort as they can only be made at the URAC office or mobile unit. However, the facility is wellused, and there is constant activity at the URAC office. Although this is not encouraged by staff, members sometimes ask the cashier to make withdrawals for them. The savings facilities have also been adapted to suit local needs over time. URAC's 'optional' savings accounts are an interesting example of this. Members faced particularly high expenditures around periods of childbirth and school leaving. (It is customary for parties to take place in school and at home to celebrate school leaving. In almost every household there is a celebratory lunch involving the extended family.) The optional savings accounts were designed to meet these needs. Savings are regular but withdrawals can only be made three times a year when school semesters end, or at the time a baby is due. URAC has also established children's savings schemes. Children's groups are subsidiary to the adult ones and use the same cashiers. Loan sizes are linked to savings balances. There is a requirement that 20 per
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-cent of the loan is on deposit, which allows loans of five times the savings balance to be taken, up to a maximum for normal loans of N$700 (US$100; exchange rate N$6.6 = US$1 in March 1996). There is no restriction on what these loans can be used for. Quick-access loans in emergencies are also available under certain circumstances. Additional criteria for loan eligibility are attendance at meetings (a member must have attended the last three monthly meetings) and savings record (members must save at least N$l per week). A range of loan facilities are available, the main one being 'normal' loans described above; these are repayable over seven months. Loans for housing up to N$900 and 'responsible' loans of N$1000 are also available, on condition that members have demonstrated their ability to repay a normal loan and have 25 per cent of the loan amount in their savings account. A 'family' loan of up to N$4,000 for investment in a micro-enterprise requires applications to be made directly to URAC's Board. This loan also requires physical collateral or guarantees for half the value of the loan from other members. A further range of small-scale loans has recently been introduced for homestead production of small livestock and vegetables. These loans are administered through the savings and credit programme, partly because URAC finds them easier to monitor than loans issued through the agricultural production programme. The group-based mechanism operates fairly loosely in terms of peer monitoring. Loan applications have to be endorsed by other members of the group (a group can in practice have up to 70 members) but this endorsement does not require that they take responsibility for repaying the loan in the event of default. However, if a member defaults, the group is denied access to further loans; individual defaulters lose access to their savings, which are used as collateral. Repayments are not made in public at group meetings but are taken by the individual borrower to URAC's office or to the mobile unit. The groups are not the only way in which members participate in the Union. For example, group cashiers are involved in monthly decisionmaking meetings with URAC. They were involved in the recent decisions to tighten up the repayment policy and to allow loan instalments to be made in the villages as well as at head office. Interest rates on savings and loans facilities differ depending on the service. In March 1996 the rate on 'normal' savings was 18 percent per annum and on 'normal' loans was 30 per cent p.a. With inflation at rates of 50 per cent and above in Mexico since the peso crisis at the end of 1994, both savings and loan rates have been negative in real terms (see section 3-7 for an explanation of nominal and real interest rates). However, these interest rates were set by URAC before inflation rose so sharply and were initially highly positive in real
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction terms. Now that inflation has again declined, URAC's real saving and borrowing rates are positive once more. The project employs four full-time development workers (promotores) who undertake the main work of mobilisation at community level. They are assisted in this by two technicians — one agronomist and one vet (volunteer). Additionally, the URAC office has two clerical staff dedicated to the savings and credit programme and is open five days a week for members to transact their business. A mobile unit staffed by the development workers is open twice a week in Cadayreta, the part of the region furthest from Tequisquiapan. But the scheme depends heavily on the work of the group cashiers. Their role is to collect weekly savings and take them to the URAC office at least once a week, as well as to represent their groups in URAC meetings. In 1995 an incentive system was introduced to motivate the cashiers. It consisted of a points system for accurate record-keeping, with the points redeemable through the basic goods supply programme or as savings instalments or loan repayments. Performance has improved dramatically. Loan disbursement is carried out from the URAC office and until recently repayments could only be made at the office or mobile unit. Now, the development workers also collect loan instalments at the monthly village meeting, which reduces transport costs for borrowers. Interlinked with the savings and credit scheme is the basic goods supply scheme which members qualify to use if they attend meetings and save regularly. Through a volunteer from the village, orders are placed fortnightly from a printed list of about 300 items and delivered to the village. Payment is made after two weeks at the time of making the next order. If an individual fails to pay on time the whole group is disqualified from using the facility.
-
-6.2.3 Financial performance and sustainability
-URAC collects a wide range of financial information which can be used to calculate either arrears, default rates or both, and reported a healthy repayment rate of 95 per cent in March 1996. Arrears are defined as loans for which full repayment has not been received seven days after the final due date. The number of loans in arrears has fallen consistently over the three years to 1995, as has the total volume outstanding. Arrears in 1995 represented some 14 per cent of the level of 1995 loan disbursement. The relationship between the arrears and defaults is especially interesting. The proportion of loans in arrears which eventually became defaults (defined as loans due for repayment in a particular year which are still not paid) rose from 8 per cent in 1994 to 27 per cent in 1995. This suggests that recent macro-economic contraction beginning in late 1994 has had a knock-on effect on URAC's loan
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-performance by making repayment more difficult for members. Loan numbers declined in 1995, especially loans for housing construction; savings deposits remained steady in nominal terms, but this represented a fall in real terms. From the start, URAC's philosophy has been one of self-sufficiency. This led to initial emphasis on savings mobilisation, and the core loan fund has never been dependent on donor capital, although loans in the separate agricultural production fund (not part of URAC's savings and credit component) have utilised donor money. As the calculations shown in Chapter 4 demonstrated, URAC reported a financial sustainability index of 47 per cent and a break-even interest rate of 76 per cent. This suggests that URAC is half-way towards achieving financial self-sustainability in its microfinance operations. The questions arising for URAC is how it might move towards full financial sustainability, and what the implications of this might be for the form and sustainability of the organisation. As was pointed out in Chapter 4, one of the main elements of URAC's operating costs is the salaries of the four development workers. At present these workers are essential to the integrity of URAC's operations. In organisational terms, the challenge for URAC is therefore to find a strategy which enables costs to be covered without undermining this integrity.
-
-6.2.4 Impact assessment
-To understand the relevance and usefulness of the work of URAC, one of the 27 communities where the Union works was selected. The criteria for its selection included the programme having been in operation for at least three years, its being a village of average size, and one where URAC felt confident about the work it had done there. The focus of the research carried out was the savings programme. The village of La Laja is adjacent to a deer-hunting ground, and includes a large working commercial dairy farm {hacienda). Campesinoscultivate land in privately owned smallholdings and use communal lands for grazing. However, there is extensive migration out of the area to find work. La Laja lies on the main road between Tequisquiapan and Queretaro. According to URAC, the village is not ethnically differentiated. All the inhabitants are mestizo by race and most are Roman Catholics. Most of the residents support the ruling Partido Revolutionario Institutional (PRI). There are four URAC groups in the village, two each for adults and children with each of the two cashiers working for one adult and one children's group. Given the large size of the groups, up to 70 members, it was decided that the study would select a sample of households from just one group. Group
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction membership involved more than one member of the same household, with 39 members covering a total of 26 households. A wealth ranking exercise1 offered insights into perceptions of what it meant to be relatively wealthy or relatively poor in La Laja. Respondents placed households into three categories: the wealthiest were referred to as those who 'tienen el modd (translated as 'those who have got it'); the middle group 'losamoladotf (the ground-down) and the poorest group' losfregados" (literally, the buggered). Indicators they used included: • size of house, its condition, kitchen equipment (most importantly whether gas or wood was used for cooking) and bathroom; • regularity of income and whether this is in the form of remittances from the USA; • family size and ratio of workers to dependents. Of the 19 respondents only one was male, a boy of 13; and in this case, most of the answers were provided by his mother. The main sources of income were remittances from male family members temporarily working in the USA; male workers in the construction industry (skilled and unskilled); and agricultural production (male and female), whether as paid workers on the local hacienda or as crop producers in their own right. Women were involved in petty trade, including the buying and selling of snacks and cheap jewellery in the village, small-scale food preparation, and domestic employment. One other woman traded on behalf of a company as an abonero, collecting payment instalments towards purchase of consumer durables selected from a catalogue. The incomes of people in La Laja have been squeezed drastically by reduced opportunities for industrial employment (an estimated drop of 35-40 per cent between 1994 and 1996: Alfonso Castillo, personal communication) and escalating prices, especially for health care and education. In early 1996 the national inflation rate was running at approximately 50 per cent. The URAC services have helped members to survive in times of difficulty and cope with unemployment following the 1994 crisis. Members used URAC to maintain economic security, despite savings deposits losing purchasing power through the operation of a negative real rate of interest. Its savings and loans components offer ways of saving that work out cheaper than alternatives such as abonero and less embarrassing than borrowing from relatives. Most of the households operate more than one savings account. Often l The wealth-ranking and semi-staictured interviewing in La Laja was carried out by Martha Romero.
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-women have accounts for themselves and for each of their children to which they contribute regularly. Most save weekly, although the amount may vary. Savings have been withdrawn for medical expenditure (including urgent treatment), survival in hard times (including sporadic unemployment), utility bills, raw materials for making household adornments, consumer durables (fridge, cupboard), clothes, shoes, school fees, and registration of a truck. Of those currently saving, half have taken loans for purposes such as house building and repair, school fees and uniforms, consumer durables (refrigerators), organisation of festivals (each year two villagers have to take this role), onlending to non-members (including relatives outside the village), truck repairs, and credit instalments. Because the biggest category of loans are those for which no purpose needs to be specified, this data on loan use is likely to be reasonably reliable. The advantages of the URAC services referred to by members included not having to save a fixed amount weekly (unlike ROSCAs); easy access to loans ,with minimal regulations and red tape; easy access to savings (including for urgent requirements); and the fact that individuals can safeguard cash without informing other household members. Members adapt their use of the services to their preferences. Thus some people like to save and withdraw but would never consider borrowing; others take loans because they like the additional incentive to keep up payments. People who are very indebted cannot normally save and are thus unable to join the scheme; heavily indebted people who are already members become inactive. One respondent, a non-member, had previously saved in a co-operative bank (caja). However, faced with a serious illness in the family, she has had to live on withdrawn savings and has been unable to make new deposits. It is important to understand how individuals make use of several financial services simultaneously; in particular how they borrow or withdraw from one source in order to meet commitments to another. One household reported paying school fees under a credit arrangement with monthly instalments. If these instalments are paid late, they increase by 10 per cent. A loan from URAC was used to ensure payments did not fall behind. Credit taken from local shops for groceries (a regular weekly practice for many members) was repaid from URAC savings. Half of the members interviewed had been actively involved in tandas (ROSCAs). In La Laja, one tanda was run by the hacienda owners; workers could opt to have 50 pesos per week deducted from their salary to be put into the group fund. Savings were also used for tanda instalments. In more than one case, members had also used cooperative banks based in Tequisquiapan for savings and loans. But this was common only among those who had relatively large amounts to save.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction Members also used formal bank services on a one-off fee basis to receive remittances transferred from the USA. 6.2.5 Conclusions URAC's savings and credit programme demonstrates the feasibility of operating a savings-based scheme from the outset. This savings base has limited the dependence of the programme on external funds to running costs alone. URAC's flexible savings facilities are clearly appreciated by its members and used by them to support a wide range of livelihood needs, including food purchases, emergency health care, and insurance for periods of unemployment. In this way the services have demonstrated their usefulness and relevance to members and enabled them both to protect and improve their livelihoods. The development of URAC's savings accounts to meet special needs, and those developed for children, demonstrates URAC's practice of continuously learning and adapting. URAC has achieved a high level of internally generated funds. Much of this success has been due to the hard work and commitment of the staff, whose salaries, in effect, have been funded from external sources.
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-6.3 SUNGI Development Foundation, Pakistan
-6.3.1 Background SUNGI Development Foundation (SUNGI) is an NGO formed in 1989 and operating in Hazara Division of the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) of Pakistan. The Hazara Community Support Programme (HCSP), which SUNGI runs, grew out of a response to floods which hit the area in 1992. The HCSP began in 1994 and by December 1995 was working in 120 villages spread over four Districts. Apart from the small enterprise development component of the programme it includes work in health and sanitation, small-scale infrastructure, and forest management. Compared to Pakistan as a whole, NWFP has fewer people below the income poverty line. While approximately half of all agricultural households in Pakistan rely on income from wage labour, in NWFP the proportion is less than one-third. Moreover, although agriculture is an important part of the regional economy, there is a relatively high reliance on non-agricultural income (Gazdar etal, 1996, p29). The position of women in the society and economy of NWFP is particularly constrained in relation to enterprise development. Cultural norms limit their mobility outside of the homestead to engage in economic activities such as production and trade.
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-6.3.2 Design
-SUNGI works with village organisations (VOs). These are set up for men and women separately. SUNGI will not work in a village unless there is both a men's and a women's organisation. The small enterprise development component is a savings and credit scheme. The VO elects a Credit Management Committee of at least four members. SUNGI works with this group to develop the credit policy of the village organisation, so detailed rules of operation vary from village to village. A membership fee is levied as a contribution to the VO. Of the five case studies, SUNGFs way of working most closely resembles the Grameen model, in which members are organised into 'solidarity groups' of five and offer guarantees in case of non-repayment by group members. However, while this is organisational policy, the operation of this mechanism varies significantly in practice between villages, as will be seen below. Savings are compulsory for all members at 30 Rupees (about 90 US cents) per month. Members' savings are deposited by the village organisation into a bank account, in which they earn a 'profit and loss share'. (Islamic law prohibits interest being charged on loans or paid on deposits.) In theory savings are retrievable from this account, but policies guiding the terms and conditions of access had not been worked out with the VOs by the time of the case-study research. Loans are available to individuals up to a limit of Rs5,000 (about US$150). All loans are subject to an annual service charge of 18 per cent in the context of an annual inflation rate of 10 per cent. The interest rate income is divided as follows: 14 per cent to SUNGFs loan fund, 2 per cent for SUNGI's operational costs, and 2 per cent for the Village Organisation. All loans are intended for productive income-generating purposes and vary in term from six to 24 months. Repayment schedules are designed to reflect the income stream of the investment. Physical collateral is not required, but guarantees must be sought from other members of the five-member groups into which people are organised. The co-guarantors of the loan must keep a minimum of 15 per cent of the loan value in their savings accounts. SUNGI's village-level workers are called Field Coordinators. It is the Coordinator's job to undertake a feasibility study to investigate whether the economic activity proposed is viable. The application for credit is submitted by the Credit Management Committee through the Field Coordinator to the SUNGI monthly management meeting, where a decision is made. In one village, it was found that, due to the dynamic leadership of the village organisation by a local teacher, the operation of the scheme was largely conducted by him on a house-to-house basis, and those taking loans were not necessarily even aware of who the other four members who had signed their loan applications were. 97
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction 6.3.3 Financial performance and sustainability SUNGI started disbursing loans in 1995 and to date has not had any problems with repayment. It is difficult to discuss its performance so far given the small number of loans that have been made. In particular it is too early to judge financial sustainability. Organisational sustainability for NGOs working in this area may require a more enabling legal framework, especially with regard to the collection of savings deposits. 6.3.4 Impact assessment It is also too early to attempt detailed investigations of the role loans have played in relation to members' livelihoods. The case study therefore concentrated on understanding the way in which SUNGI's model was working out in practice: the relationship of the scheme to other informal financial services; and the way in which different groups within the community were participating in it. The experiences of women in obtaining and using loans were of particular interest given the system of purdah (female seclusion) predominant in the area. The case study was confined to two villages selected by SUNGI. Livelihood activities in this part of NWFP include manual work (male) on the railways; livestock-rearing and dairying (female and male); and wheat cultivation (male). Casual work for men is available in the enormous Jepsum quarry adjacent to one of the villages. In Barilla, a large village consisting of a number of separate hamlets, with a total population of 10,000, the male VO had existed prior to involvement with SUNGI. It started in 1991 in one hamlet to carry out infrastructural work and repairs, and by 1995 had 119 members across the village as a whole. The driving force behind this organisation is a local teacher. The executive council of 15 members is selected rather than elected, with some based outside the area; two members of the Credit Management Committee were based in Islamabad for most of the week. The Women's Organisation is also led by a local teacher. Its formation is more recent but its success in mobilising savings has already drawn the attention of other (larger) financial services providers. One of these is the First Women's Bank of Pakistan, which has visited Barilla to study SUNGI's methods. In the other village, Karach, the male VO had been formed in 1994 as a result of SUNGI's work and its parallel women's organisation started soon afterwards. A total of 17 semi-structured interviews were carried out, with male and female members, some of whom had already taken loans, and with two nonmembers. A relatively high proportion of those interviewed had access to regular salaries or were relatively well-remunerated from self-employment.
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-Only one household relied on income from agriculture, and the majority had multiple income sources. The researchers were immediately conscious of obvious wealth differences on entering the villages; and the sensitivity about wealth and poverty made a wealth-ranking exercise inappropriate. As a result, respondents could not be selected to represent all social ranks and wealth groups. However, because of the small number of loans, it was possible to meet a large proportion of borrowers. On the savings side all members were making the minimum compulsory contribution of Rs30 per month. However, understanding of the profit share and withdrawal options was confused. The SUNGI system operates savings as a relatively inflexible component. It is one thing to have to save but quite another to have to save a fixed amount and not to have automatic withdrawal rights. The fact that none of the respondents saved more than the required Rs30 per month suggests that for most of them at least the compulsory savings are part of the price they have to pay for their loans. Sources of informal finance in Barilla and Karach included loans from neighbours and ROSCAs known locally as kamitis. Loans from neighbours were considered very pressurising because of the degree of shame involved if the loans were not repaid on time. There was very little evidence of highinterest private informal lending, and only one woman was reported to be an interest-charging money lender in Barilla. (VO leaders attached importance to not charging interest as it was forbidden in Islam.) Kamitis were used in general by better-off respondents and were more common in the wealthiest part of Barilla. The kamitis in Barilla involved groups of between 9 and 25 people and equal monthly instalments ranging from Rs30 to Rs2000 per month and pay-offs of Rs300 to Rs32,000. Some households were involved simultaneously in more than one kamiti. The uses to which kamiti pay-outs were put included house building, deposit into a formal-bank savings account, payment for sons in higher education, and marriage of daughters. None of these purposes would have qualified for a loan under the SUNGI scheme as none of them fell into the five possible categories of productive loan. This indicates that for households involved in kamitis the SUNGI intervention is to an extent complementary. The stated purpose for loans taken by interviewees included livestock rearing and small businesses such as shops, sewing, and rope making. However, without fairly expensive monitoring and follow-up systems on SUNGI's part, which do not currently exist because responsibility is taken by the VO's credit management committee, there can be no assurance that loans are being used for the purposes stated. While it did appear that loans were being used for income augmentation rather than 'protection' alone, it was also clear that those on the lowest incomes tended not to take part. The
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction situation of two non-members reinforces this view. They were unable to make the necessary savings to join the scheme, and were dependent on private loans to cover their needs or were paying-off earlier loans. Almost all of those interviewed were paying their instalments on time. This is probably due, in Barilla at least, to the personal involvement of the organisation's office-holders in repayment enforcement. Thus the operation of the model in practice differs significantly between the villages. Within the household, loans are managed in different ways. Intrahousehold loan management and control was discussed with six borrowers — five women and one man. Below, the experiences of three women borrowers are given, to illustrate terms of control of the asset purchased and associated tensions within the households. The first woman, who is 22 years old, and lives in Barilla village with her husband and three small children, described their main sources of cash income as the clerical salary her husband earns (Rs2000per month) and her own occasional embroidery (Rs20-40 per month). Her husband went to market to purchase the two goats she bought with her loan ofRs4500. She carries out most of the tasks associated with the goats' upkeep and her husband provides loan repayment instalments from his salary. Sometimes there are arguments with her husband when she needs cash. The goats themselves do not provide an income stream; in fact, one of them died. However, the remaining one is a source of milk for the children, and she hopes to earn some cash when she sells the animal. Although she very much values the savings component of the women's organisation's work, she has had to oppose her brothers who advised her to deposit money in the bank to gain more interest. Another woman borrower, much better-off and living with her husband and three salaried sons, was the mother of one of the leading members of the Barilla village organisation. Her monthly income is over Rs4000. She received Rs5000for rope-making (for string cots) and travelled to Faisalabad herself to purchase the raw material. The income she makes, which was not revealed, is controlled by her alone. She attends monthly meetings regularly and plans to apply for a loan for a bigger business. A third woman, 35 years old and an office-holder in the Karach women's organisation, took a two-year loan ofRsSOOO to start a shop. She lives with herfive children. Her husband is employed as
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-Case studies a daily labourer in Islamabad. He brings back Rs1300-1500per month and she earns Rs320per month for stitching clothes. Once her brothers-in-law came to know about her loan, they took over the management of the shop, and gave her Rsl50-200per month income (her loan instalments are Rs250per month). She has been subjected to violence by her husband who used to beat her during arguments about money, even before she took out the loan. Recently, although pregnant, she says she was badly beaten as her husband wrongly thought she had received a high per diem for taking part in a SUNGI training exercise. Once this loan is repaid she plans to take another loan for livestock rearing. She is more confident that she will be allowed to manage the work involved herself.
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-6.3.5 Conclusions
-SUNGI's small enterprise development programme started in 1994. Using a model based on micro-enterprise loans, compulsory savings, and small lending groups, with guarantees on loans provided by other members within the group, SUNGI's approach resembles that of the Grameen Bank. Short visits of a few days to each of two villages revealed differences in the ways VOs disbursed loans and collected savings. Early indications suggested that in those villages repayments were being made on time. In one case actual repayment enforcement was carried out by VO office-holders rather than the members of the small borrowing groups. The few women borrowers interviewed reported diverse experiences. While in one case, the borrower retained control over the whole small enterprise (including purchasing inputs from Faisalabad), in another, the enterprise was taken over by male relatives.
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-6.4 Ladywood Credit Union, UK
-6.4.1 Background
-Ladywood is an inner-city area of Birmingham, UK. The Ladywood Project has set up a range of initiatives, including a drop-in centre for parents and small children, a women's group, a domestic violence forum, and a furniture exchange, where poor families can obtain second-hand donated furniture. The Project operates from a Community and Health Centre. It was workers on the Ladywood Project who began the Ladywood Credit Union (LCU) in 1987 with the support of the Birmingham Credit Union Development Agency. Registered unemployment in the area is 29 per cent for men and 20 per cent for women, compared with 10 and 5 per cent respectively in the UK as a
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction whole (1991, Census of Population). The result is a high dependence on state welfare benefits. Earlier experience of the Ladywood Project had revealed the high extent of indebtedness and personal financial difficulties in the area. LCU is not a commercial organisation and its activities are closely defined by the restrictive framework of the 1979 UK Credit Union Act. This requires that members must have a 'common bond' defined by either workplace, location or faith. Workplace or employee credit unions are quite distinct from community credit unions, as members of the former have regular incomes and assets can therefore be built up rapidly. However, the maximum savings that an individual can hold in a credit union is ±5000. Savings are held in the form of shares and the maximum dividend payment allowed on them, by law, is 8 per cent p.a. As part of the Ladywood Project, the role of LCU goes beyond financial service provision, although many members use it solely for that purpose. Activist members, including the former and current development workers, and the staff of the Ladywood Project, see its role as more broadly supportive of members in financial difficulties. The informal and flexible way of working which has been developed at LCU, together with a friendly and open attitude towards new members, makes it more than just a service provider. Also the history of the LCU, which has relied on voluntary labour, sharing office space with the Ladywood Project, and calling on members to share skills which would have been prohibitively expensive on the market (such as book-keeping and accountancy), distinguishes it from commercial providers of financial services. Its core members also explicitly set out to provide (through both voluntary work and financial security) a means of building self-esteem, of being in control of one's own life, of being valued and able to contribute and develop personal skills2. 6.4.2 Design The LCU is staffed by one full-time development worker who has been funded by Birmingham City Council since 1991, and a number of volunteers who are either from the community or are associated with the Ladywood Project in some way. Volunteers are vital to the project and LCU could not survive if it had to pay them salaries. LCU operates through a series of committees which are part of the structure prescribed by law. These committees involve community members as well as staff of the project. Their role is to monitor each other. There is a Board of Directors, a Loans Committee, a 2 Much of this analysis of the impact of LCU's work was written by (and almost all the semi-structured interviewing was carried out by) Helen Derbyshire.
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-Credit Control Committee, and a Supervisory Committee which carries out regular checks on the operation of the other committees. LCU offers a voluntary savings facility. Members can deposit as little as they like. Withdrawals of up to £10 (about US$17) can be made at the main office (open four afternoons a week) or at one of the various satellite collection points which operate on a part-time basis. Larger amounts may take longer, but for those who suffer mobility problems, these rules are implemented very flexibly. LCU has only been able to pay a dividend on savings for the first time in 1995 at a rate of 1 per cent. Up to this point, it had used its income from loan interest to build reserves against bad debt. Members of LCU conduct their activities entirely independently. Security for loans is provided by savings balances and the 'common bond' of local residence, rather than group collateral. While loan size can be a maximum of twice the savings balance plus £300, (US$500), subject to a legally prescribed ceiling, a crucial component of judging applications is examining past savings deposits and attempting to set the loan instalments to levels just below the amount, and at the intervals at which, the borrower usually saves. This is done in order to try and ensure that savings balances continue to rise. Quick-access loans in emergencies are also available. Interest rates on loans stand at 12 per cent p.a, resulting in a real rate of around 9 per cent. However, credit of the type LCU offers to its members (much of which is used for consumption) would only be available at rates of interest of at least 20 per cent from the formal sector in the UK. LCU members would also face many other barriers in trying to obtain such loans. Members automatically qualify for life insurance cover, which LCU purchases in bulk via the Association of British Credit Unions. This would pay off any outstanding loans and provide twice the value of savings to a previously named beneficiary in the event of death. LCU is involved in two important innovations. The first is the Junior Savers Scheme. Three of the four satellite collection points are in schools, and there are now 400 child members, some of whom get involved in keeping computerised records for the scheme. LCU has also been involved in a scheme run by Birmingham Credit Union Development Agency to connect up three inner-city credit unions by using modem links between computers, enabling members to use the offices of any of the three to undertake transactions. In addition, LCU took part in research to establish the business potential for a bill-paying service. Bills for utilities (gas, electricity, water) are major expenses for poor people. Not only do they often find it difficult to organise their payments on a regular basis but they also incur high transport costs and fees in paying bills. The business plan suggests that a service could be provided more cheaply than the one the Post
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction Office currently provides, and that it would be commercially viable in the long run. The capital funding for the project has not yet been raised.
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-6.4.3 Financial performance and sustainability
-Ladywood Credit Union has experienced some difficulties with the timing of repayments. In about one-third to one-half of all loans there are gaps of three weeks or more in repayment instalments, which are usually weekly. However, part of Ladywood's service is that it investigates non-payers and is flexible in repayment schedules. Such a situation is only possible because of the small number of members, and the close supervision available. Some 58 per cent of borrowers can be in arrears at any one time but at present serious default cases run at approximately 10 per cent of the loan fund and involve some 25 per cent of those with loans outstanding. This suggests that it is those with small loans who find it difficult to repay, and this is likely to be explained by the earlier observation that the scheme also has members who have salaries and take out loans for relatively large consumer items such as cars. This profile of membership and lending, in which better-off members are able to take larger loans which involve lower risks for LCU, suggests that to some extent these users are helping to ensure the availability of LCU's services to its poorer members. LCU's accounts show a healthy situation in which profits were made in the second half of 1995- However, this calculation does not include staff costs. At present the work is carried out by volunteers and a full-time development worker whose salary is paid by Birmingham City Council. Office space is free as part of the wider Ladywood Project. A sustainability index calculated on the basis of costing all inputs would probably indicate that Ladywood was not financially sustainable. However, LCU has demonstrated an ability to mobilise the voluntary work and other inputs required to sustain the union, and UK credit union law does not allow it to operate at a financial loss. Indeed, the voluntary work of the staff and their commitment are integral to the project in supporting an element of social interaction which is central to the project's way of working. This demonstrates the limitations of evaluating financial sustainability on the basis of a narrow financial calculation, especially in cases where it is possible to sustain voluntary inputs in the long term.
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-6.4.4 Impact assessment
-In order to understand the role LCU plays for its members, semi-structured interviews were carried out with 19 individuals. The respondents were selected by the current and former LCU development workers to reflect the
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-range of members' socioeconomic backgrounds in terms of income, race, gender, age, and location. It was emphasised that interviews with poorer members and ex-members were of particular interest. Overall, members could be divided into two groups: • Those living on government benefits and/or very low employment income, often single parents, who used the Credit Union to control domestic finances. If they took loans, these members would tend to use them to pay domestic bills, cover the costs associated with Christmas or other festivals, and the purchase and repair of items of household equipment such as cookers and washing machines. • People with more regular incomes, including professionals employed in the Ladywood Project, for whom the main attraction was low-cost loans for larger items such as holidays, weddings, and cars. However, the credit union membership did not generally include the very poorest Ladywood residents, i.e. people living in debt. Kempson, in a wider study of those excluded from the banking system in the UK (HMSO report, 1994), classifies credit unions as 'mid-market'. As Kempson explains, creditunion members need to save in order to access loans. Most people without current accounts in high-street banks are not in a position to build up savings. In a separate study among poor people of Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Carribean origin in the UK, Herbert and Kempson (1996) found that, despite differences in credit use between these groups, all of them relied either on informal rotating savings and credit associations or friends, relatives, and the private informal sector (including pawn-brokers and foreign exchange agents) rather than credit unions. The interviews demonstrated that some members see LCU as a preventive measure to keep themselves out of a downward spiral of indebtedness to private credit-companies. The savings facilities of LCU, like those of URAC, are extremely useful to such people. It is those who are already heavily indebted who find it hard to manage a regular savings commitment as any income is already committed to existing creditors. In Ladywood indebtedness to private loan companies is common and mostly affects those people whose income is derived from benefits and various forms of casual labour. They borrow to meet consumption needs, such as clothes and household items, by obtaining them through mail-order catalogues or with high-interest loans taken from private credit-companies. A government-run Social Fund provides loans for items of essential domestic expenditure, such as cookers and beds, with repayments being deducted at source in fixed amounts from benefits. Private credit-company loans are
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction provided in the form of vouchers for particular shops, or immediate unsecured cash loans to be repaid at very high rates of interest. There are increasing numbers of private credit-companies offering cash loans and shopping vouchers to people living in Ladywood. Their services are advertised in local shops and through leafleting door-to-door. Creditcompany agents, who are paid on a commission basis, visit people at home to provide loans and to collect repayments. Interest rates on loans are high: in most cases more than 50 per cent per annum. The credit-companies are providing a service which is extremely widely known and widely used, and to which, for those not in a position to save, there is often no alternative. Respondents described how the private credit-companies often tried to persuade people to take on more loans, even when they knew they were already heavily indebted. They therefore saw the purpose of the credit union as useful for the thrifty, preventing indebtedness through savings, and providing a means of building security against uneven cash needs. One of the clear advantages of the private credit-companies was the immediate nature of their loans, given without collateral. There is thus a philosophical difference between the credit union and the private loan-companies. While the former promote an ethic of thrift, providing people with a means of being in control of their own finances, and living within their income, the latter tempt people to spend, live beyond their means, and count the cost tomorrow. LCU users who live on benefits or very low incomes tend to save in irregular small amounts. They reported using loans to help to pay for items such as TV licences, utility bills, and life insurance. Such members felt they could not use banks due to embarrassment at the small amounts they deposited. They also make extensive use of the other sources of credit described above. Some who had tried to save in the credit union, found themselves unable to keep up with their initial expectations of their own savings capacity. Those people on benefits who use the credit union are very positive about it, stressing in particular the understanding approach of staff, the flexibility, the chance it provides to save in small amounts, the low rate of interest on loans, and the greater sense of control it offers them in difficult circumstances. The majority of LCU members fall into the second category: they are people who have a regular income, including some professionals. All of these people have bank or building-society accounts into which their salaries are paid, and make contributions to LCU by means of automatic transfers. A minority of people in this category save with a building society as well as with LCU, as a way of diversifying assets. Some people in African-Caribbean communities combine LCU savings with revolving savings and loans ('partner' arrangements). One of the advantages of such arrangements is the
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-discipline in savings required which is enforced through strong social sanctions. But for those who find it impossible to meet the fixed weekly commitment, LCU offers a flexible alternative. 6.4.5 Conclusions The case of LCU illustrates a number of points of relevance to the themes of this book. First, the difficulties of reaching those who are already highly indebted and unable to make even small but regular savings which might eventually qualify them for a loan. Second, the combination of a financial service with a strong social support structure which encourages people to take control of their finances. Third, the role that other members of the local community can and do make in providing the service. These better-off people contribute by investing their capital and hence providing the funds for on-lending, taking and repaying loans so providing LCU an income. Some can also be counted among the volunteers from all income groups who give their time to assist in the running of the credit union.
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-6.5 ACTIONAID in The Gambia
-6.5.1 Background
-ACTIONAID has been working in the small West African state of The Gambia since 1981. With a population of approximately 1 million, The Gambia has a GDP per capita of US$350 (1993). The bulk of the population is rural and dependent on agriculture. There is a single rainy season and only limited irrigation facilities along the Gambia river, and food security is a major concern. Agricultural development activities have always been central to the ACTIONAID The Gambia (AATG) programme. AATG works in over onesixth of the villages of The Gambia (591 villages in all). It is largely funded through child sponsorship in the UK, and in the early 1980s operated by giving grants to individuals and organisations. Many grants were given in kind in the form of seasonal inputs of seed and fertiliser as well as agricultural implements, such as ploughs, sinehoes, and weeders. By 1987, this was changed to a 'half grant: half credit' approach in which the credit repayments were used to finance further input supply. This approach moved to a 'full credit' system in which the full value of the credit was repaid; and since 1992 the strategy has been to locate this credit system within the village organisations and groups with which AATG works. These Village Development Groups (VDGs) have in many cases grown out of existing village institutions, including local savings and credit groups (kafosand osusus). AATG disburses interest-free loans to the VDG. The VDG
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction allocates loans among members and may charge interest to members if it wishes. Repaid credit is kept in a Trust Account for each particular village. Since 1992, if the original loan capital has been repaid in full, AATG has made it available once more to the VDG to use for its own purposes ('recycling'). This can include on-lending to individuals. Thus AATG is attempting to use financial capital to build the resource bases of existing village institutions. 6.5.2 Design AATG has done little to stimulate saving by groups. However, groups are helped to open bank accounts in up-country branches of commercial banks into which they deposit membership fees. When AATG returns their Trust Account funds to them, this is done by a transfer to their bank account. Loans available from AATG have generally been provided in kind. They have covered seasonal inputs, such as seeds and fertiliser, which are repayable within a year; medium-term loans for agricultural implements, such as seeders and sinehoes, for between one and three years; and long-term loans of animal carts and oxen. Repayments are usually scheduled annually on the anniversary of the loan. The AATG fieldworker receives applications from the group for loans, and these are passed on to the project's credit committees for vetting against a range of criteria, including whether the community has overdue loans. If it has, it should receive no further loans. This rule was introduced in 1992 after loans had been issued to many communities and not repaid. However, repayment is often related to the strength and attitude of the village group, some groups being better organised and more interested in development activities than others. The 'recycling' of money to communities has acted as an incentive for some groups to pay-off outstanding loans in order to gain access to their Trust Funds. Others believe that what they have received should be treated as a grant, a clear hangover from AATG's past programming approach. AATG undertakes a range of activities including work in education and health. It has also worked with the groups and village organisations to expand their organisational and management skills. Training is provided to group executive committees, which are encouraged to extend their membership to all households in the village. Many of the organisations are almost entirely composed of women. In its early days, AATG worked mainly with group enterprises and farms and, since women's groups were common, tended to work with them. However, the degree of women's representation currently varies from village to village. Some of the groups have only a very small number of male members.
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-Case studies AATG has never charged interest on loans. It takes the view that the loans are made to the village groups who can on-lend them with interest if they want to. However, in practice there is no evidence that this occurs for loans given directly by AATG. Where AATG has returned repaid loan funds to the group to utilise in their own way, evidence suggests that they are being lent out by the group at interest. These rates are difficult to calculate because the groups undertake a range of activities, such as purchase of food or seed which is stocked locally (very similar to the basic goods supply scheme in URAC), which may be offered in kind and repaid in cash. Groups tend to offer a range of terms on the type and nature of the loans. 6.5.3 Financial performance and sustainability In AATG, the repayment rate of 75 per cent is calculated as a historical figure taking account of the whole period of the scheme; the 'on-time' repayment rate is likely to be lower. The method of calculation is related to the programme's policy of 'recycling' funds to the VDGs once they have repaid their loans. This shift of policy has improved recovery rates in a number of villages since villagers have realised that they can receive more resources if they put pressure on those who have not repaid. There is evidence that groups have seized assets from non-payers as a result. AATG takes a very different approach to the issue of organisational and financial sustainability. It argues that it has never been and does not intend to be a microfinance institution. Rather its objective is to develop the institutional mechanisms that exist in the villages in which it works. Its change of strategy in 1992 from service delivery to institutional development underlines this approach. While it continues to offer credit to villagers, the way in which repayments are paid into Trust Funds for those villages means that the village is building its own capital fund through repaying. Against certain criteria of organisational development, the village is then allowed to apply for the return of those funds to be operated under its own management. This is an example of how this is now operating in one village: The VDG in Demfaye Njaga has 58 women and five men, representing a total of 29 households. It is well-organised and operates by dividing into small cells within which D5per month is collected. This money is deposited in the village safe and is used for emergencies. The village safe is not allowed to 'go dry'. If loans are neededfor an emergency, a small number of members of the loans committee are able to decide and report to the next executive meeting. Emergency loans are interest-free if repaid quickly (within a month).
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction The group has received D28,253 back from AATG ($2,500) via its group bank deposit account. It withdrew D8,000, of which D7,000 was given out to members as cash credit at 15per cent interest over four months, to be repaid at the end of the dry season. D1000 was given out as loans for small business operations, which made D1280 profit. A further Dl 1,000 was then withdrawn and distributed as cash loans, some of which were used to buy food, others for trading. There have been no problems with repayment so far. None of the loans are given directly to men because the women feel that they have no authority over them to ensure repayment. This group has also taken a loan from the Gambia Village Development Trust which was offered at a rate of interest of 18 per cent over one year. It was used for buying carts which were given as loans to men and for ram-fattening activities. The profit made on this loan was D570. AATG is now building on the experience of recycling funds by looking at how it can support the continued development of financial services through training and support. Not all village groups are as well-organised as the group in Demfaye Njaga, and some have had problems with repayment. AATG's approach is still being refined. Among the 591 villages in which AATG works, not all will want to run, or be capable of running, their own financial institution. Some VDGs may invest in development projects and not revolve the capital fund. Some are likely to be development organisations with financial resources at their disposal, rather than village banks. 6.5-4 Impact assessment For the AATG case study semi-structured interviews were carried out with a sample of 42 individuals in eight villages. This was one part of a research initiative which included establishing information on coverage and other sources of credit. The individuals selected included men and women, those with short- and long-term loans, and non-borrowers. Seasonal loans had been received by upwards of 70 per cent of VDG members. However, this had sometimes meant very small amounts of seed or fertiliser (such as a quarter of a bag of fertiliser) as the VDG would decide to distribute the inputs it received equally to all members. The extent of coverage of long-term loans for agricultural implements was much more varied, ranging from 5 to 67 per cent of VDG members. The differences in coverage between villages often reflected the fact that villages which had not repaid had not been given further loans.
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-Case studies Five individuals interviewed reported non-repayment of more than one loan. This can be related to AATG's relatively 'soft' policy on loan repayment, especially prior to 1991. In three of these cases the village had received no new loans since 1991 as a result of this non-payment. In the remaining two cases further new loans had been received by the village in spite of the policy change. Of the 30 respondents who summarised what a loan had meant to them, only one mentioned a negative impact. (The loan was for a donkey which had had to be sold following non-repayment due to a bad harvest.) The remaining 29 reported increased production, improved yield, more food, less need to borrow from elsewhere, and reduced length of the 'hungry season'. One respondent, the President of one of the VDGs, had taken three longterm, fixed-capital loans for a sinehoe, seeder, and cart, and claimed he was unable to repay any of them due to poor harvests. In this case, the use of social position to obtain a relatively high number of long-term loans was combined with non-repayment. (It is interesting to contrast this with the example of one village in the Casa Campesina Cayambe project (Ecuador), in which relatively wealthy office-holders took more loans than others, but repaid them; and with the Ladywood Credit Union in Birmingham which relies on larger loans taken out by relatively well-off people to generate income for the organisation from interest payments.) The evidence suggested that seasonal working-capital loans had expanded the supply of relatively scarce inputs. Although yields have improved as a result of fertiliser use, it appeared the increases had not reduced the length of the hungry season and there was no evidence that they had enabled processes of accumulation and expansion of agricultural production to take place over subsequent seasons either. The impression of researchers was that women borrowers and poorer borrowers were more likely to repay, but also that the poorest exclude themselves from larger loans, not wanting to jeopardise their access to future credit through gaining a reputation for being uncreditworthy. Indebtedness has increased in some of the AATG villages, however, partly because of the inter-annual variation in rainfall: most loans are agriculture-related and agricultural production is rainfall dependent. However, non-payment is also due to the 'soft' line on repayment taken by AATG. A tougher stance might have led to higher repayment but also to more self-exclusion by potential users. Of the eight villages where the study took place, six had received recycled funds. The main use of these funds, which are allocated entirely by the VDG, has been to provide hungry season consumption loans, often through setting up small retail shops within the village. (This indicates a similar need to that addressed by URAC, for the convenient supply of basic consumer items.) There had been a limited supply of loans for consumption purposes
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction previously, with capital available to groups only from pre-existing group savings. Because most kafo groups already have experience of providing small cash loans out of their own savings, the recycling of funds was taking advantage of an indigenous system, which was already working well. Loans made out of recycled funds carry relatively high interest rates, but also achieve high repayment rates. Recycled funds have also been used to provide agricultural implements, such as sinehoes and seeders, on credit to members. The seasonal loans made by AATG and the consumption loans made out of group revolving funds have enabled many women to cope with immediate needs. However, assets received in women's names as long-term loans are owned and controlled by the male household head. In one group, women reported that men were habitual non-repayers and that they did not have the means to enforce repayment from menTherefore they did not give loans to men. AATG's main objective since 1992 has been the establishment of village institutions and it now sees credit as a means through which group organisation and management can be strengthened as well as provided with financial resources. The need for 100 per cent repayment before further loans are sanctioned, and the system of recycled funds, has introduced incentives for group cohesion and management which did not exist prior to 1992. While earlier policies had resulted in poor loan repayment in many villages, there was no evidence that this had resulted in non-payment of kafo loans. This contrasts with the findings of research which suggests that 'soft' policies might 'contaminate' indigenous lending practices (Nagarajan, Meyer and Graham, 1995). In one village, Sinchu Tamsir, where the AATG scheme is not performing well in terms of loan repayments, indigenous group activities continue to be effective. Non-payment in the AATG system in this case had been a result of the abuse of the system by the village head, an option that was clearly not open to him in the indigenous system. The apparent success of recycling funds raises questions about the necessity of the continued existence of the AATG credit work. An alternative approach would be to make capital grants into pre-existing group revolving funds (where such funds can be seen to be working well) to expand their capital base. However, with declining profitability on marketed groundnuts, reduced remittances from urban migrants due to increasing unemployment, and the shrinkage in the tourist trade, rural livelihoods are under pressure. AATG's credit-cum-grants and the recycled funds make a small contribution to the capitalisation of village institutions and to the coping mechanisms of poor households. Seasonal loans in particular have enabled poor households to protect their livelihoods, through the use of otherwise inaccessible agricultural inputs which result in greater yields. 112
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-In some cases better-off households are able to use the capital to accumulate wealth without respecting the repayment requirements. There is insufficient evidence to judge whether this increases socio-economic differentiation. The recycling of repaid loans to village groups has meshed well with existing systems for group investment and allocation of loans. There is also no evidence to suggest that the soft line on repayment enforcement in the AATG credit scheme negatively influences the working of indigenous kafos. However, it is possible that this experience will complicate the efforts of other external agencies aiming at sustainable microfinance initiatives.
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-6.5.5 Conclusions
-AATG is the largest operational NGO in The Gambia where it has been working since the early 1980s. Its size and history influence current performance both in terms of users' attitudes to the project as well as the organisational constraints in deciding and implementing major changes in policy and approach. Changes are often piloted with smaller numbers of villages before being extended as general policy. Such constraints mean that change takes time to agree, experiment with, and then implement throughout the agency. The understanding of fieldworkers and community members is key and it is often more difficult to communicate changes in policy during a programme than when starting up in new areas. AATG has decided that its main aim is to build strong rural institutions rather than to become a sustainable financial intermediary itself. The shift to community-based management systems which was introduced in 1992 was brought about as a result of lessons learned from its own work and a desire to move its own practice forward. This major shift in policy has taken time to implement, but interesting results are beginning to show, with groups demonstrating their ability to manage recycled funds. The strength of local communities' existing skills in management of osusus and kafos have contributed to the success of this policy. In turn this indicates what can be learned from an exploration of indigenous systems of financial services.
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-6.6 Casa Campesina Cayambe, Ecuador
-6.6.1 Background
-Casa Campesina Cayambe (CCC) was set up by a Salesian priest in 1987 as an extension of work that Salesian fathers had been undertaking for several decades. It works with indigenous Quichua Indians in four parishes, 80km north of Quito, at an altitude of some 2,800 metres in the Andes.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction The villages depend on agriculture and livestock. They farm land regained after the collapse of a co-operative system, which had taken over land from large estates after land reform legislation. The land-holdings of poorer households are typically as small as two hectares and necessitate seasonal migration of family members for agricultural labour or to the cities. Annual family incomes are approximately US$300 compared with a national per capita average of US$1200 (1993 figures). While literacy is high, at 87 percent, child malnutrition is also high, at 50 per cent. CCC's financial services are an example of NGO credit-provision in a closely defined geographical area. Loans were initially allocated through the Centros Infantiles Campesinos, the creches for children aged three to six. Loans were available to the children's parents, funds coming directly from Ayuda en Accion. At the same time, Foderuma (the government programme for which the charismatic CCC leader had worked as promoter) was allocating loans through village-level organisations. Foderuma loans were given in kind in the form of agricultural inputs. Foderuma was dissolved in 1994. 6.6.2 Design The project operates in the three sectors of production, education, and health. The credit programme exists as part of the production programme but is not exclusively credit for production. There is no savings component. CCC does not operate a group mechanism of its own, rather it operates through the Quichua's indigenous system of Community Committees, which exist independently of CCC. The loan application must be approved by the Community Committee and be signed by the Credit Delegate and Community Directorate before being passed to the Inter-Community Credit Committee (CIC). This committee, which consists of a delegate from each of the villages, meets monthly. It approves applications for loans and decides on the allocation of credit between communities. The sanction of no further loans to the community is applied when an individual defaults. Continued nonpayment results in legal proceedings being brought against the borrower by the CIC. Credit is provided in a number of categories. 'Ordinary' credit is the main type of loan with a maximum amount of 1 million sucres (Approx. US$400 in 1995) which can be used for any purpose. This amount has been raised over the years as inflation has been high, but the project has attempted to retain this limit at a level which would ensure a degree of coverage for poorer members, and to correspond to the debt-carrying capacities of households. Other loans available are: 'special' loans in cases of illness or domestic emergency; loans for the installation of bathrooms — a total of 600 have been
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-installed to date; credit for housing construction, involving a group of about ten people who apply together, and the provision of building materials in kind through a supplier; and credit for new productive activities — these are micro-enterprise ventures usually in fish production or cheese making in which the project also carries some of the risk of failure and provides a large degree of training and technical support. Further categories of credit available are for grassland and seed improvement. CCC charges 52 per cent (APR) on ordinary loans or 43 per cent if calculated on the basis of declining balance. (APR is Annual Percentage Rate. For example, CCC charges 325,000 sucres for a loan of 1,000,000 which is repaid in five equal three-monthly instalments; 325,000 interest is therefore paid on an average loan balance of 500,000, representing 65 per cent over 15 months or 52 per cent over 12 months.) This is in the context of an inflation rate that varied between 45 and 55 per cent p.a. in the period 1990-1993. Since mid1995 the inflation rate has virtually halved, to 24 per cent, so CCC interest rates have become strongly positive in real terms. Other types of loan carry interest rates of 32.5 per cent, also presenting a positive but lower real interest rate. There is no rule against applying for more than one loan: for example a borrower of an ordinary loan can access another loan for a different purpose. However, as CCC became more aware of the need to try to avoid the concentration of loans in a particular family, it instituted a new rule whereby any new applicants had priority over those who were applying for further loans. 6.6.3 Financial performance and sustainability CCC measures the numbers of loans (rather than loan volumes) for which payments are on time and records non-payment after the loan term is complete. Out of 1,333 loans issued since 1990 and on which loan terms have been completed, 13 per cent have been paid late and only in 2 per cent of cases has legal action been taken. In cases of default the CIC has initiated legal action to seize the possessions of the borrower. Any community with four unpaid repayment instalments forfeits the right to further loans. The system is then intended to involve pressure both from within the household and within the community for timely loan repayment. The number of overdue instalments needed to invoke the bar on further loans was increased after borrowers were found to be unable rather than unwilling to repay. In the case of CCC, movement towards financial sustainability has been strong. At the end of 1994 interest rates were raised in the context of high inflation which then fell in 1995 leaving real interest rates positive, at approximately 27 per cent on ordinary loans and 10 per cent on other types of
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction loan. In 1995, the costs of operating the scheme were 4 per cent of the loan fund implying that interest rates a little above this level were needed to break even. (In fact, interest rates would need to be slightly higher, since a proportion of the capital is inactive, having been repaid and awaiting further applications.) Expansion of staff and new capital equipment in 1996 will result in increased costs but these still stand at only 10 per cent of the loan fund. However, the loan fund is partly sourced from a Canadian-Ecuadorian fund on which 32 per cent annual interest is paid. Even when this fund has been repaid and removed from the current loan fund the costs of operation in 1996 would represent approximately 10 per cent of the loan fund and hence suggests that CCC is very near full financial sustainability. However, in terms of organisational sustainability, the fund may not be sustainable without the supporting framework of CCC. The scenario presented here allows the scheme to cover costs of administration and follow-up and suggests a situation in which the credit fund can continue to operate as a cost-covering arm of the project. It is less clear what framework the credit scheme could operate within if the whole structure of CCC did not exist. Proposals for the CIC to take over the loan fund encountered resistance. This was related to the recent history of co-operatives in the project area, when management groups had used their position to take advantage of the co-operative's benefits, which has made people wary of management by such organisations, fearing that conflicts of interest might arise. 6.6.4 Impact assessment A study was carried out in the community of Turucucho. Most of the land in the community is irrigated, with average holdings per family of nine hectares, making it a community of moderate wealth by local standards. Main crops are barley, beans, potatoes, and grass (for dairy herds). Through loans specifically for grassland management many members have improved milk output and raised incomes. Turucucho has benefited from several externally funded projects, including the opening of a bridle path, the construction of a community building, and provision of CCC credit. The programme has encountered particular difficulties in this community. Its directorate has recently disbanded and been replaced. There has been a repayment problem, which has meant that access to new loans has been delayed until all past loans have been paid; and some members have only repaid under the threat of legal action. The distribution of loans to families in this community has produced substantial coverage but has at the same time been highly skewed. While the majority of families had received at least one loan, investigation revealed that
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-three families had received 46 loans out of a total of 104. These three extended families are headed respectively by the President, Vice-President, and Credit Representative, who are the wealthiest individuals in the community. Of the nine families who had not applied for a loan, five were those least involved in agricultural production, and included single mothers, and young families from which adult male members migrate to the city in search of employment. Since loans in Cayambe were often used for economic investment, in particular to purchase cows, there is a danger that economic differentiation within the community could increase, as the better-off are able to increase their incomes by much more than poorer people. This widening gap could increase relative poverty. 6.6.5 Conclusions The case of CCC presents an example in which there has been good movement towards financial sustainability. In this context the institutional arrangement preferred by the project (making the Inter Community Credit Committee the managing body) was rejected by the members themselves and left CCC in search of a new organisational form. CCC has developed a variety of credit services catering to a range of local needs including the specific need to protect a family's asset base in the face of medical emergencies. This case study again illustrates the difficulty of designing credit for very poor people, who prefer not to take on the risks of indebtedness. As in CCC, working with existing community structures may be a deliberate choice to respect the local social context, and take advantage of their inherent strengths. At the same time, agencies have to be aware of the intragroup and intra-communal struggles which inevitably occur, and find ways of counterbalancing these, as CCC has done by instituting rules to avoid loan concentration.
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-7
-Conclusions
-In focusing on microfinance, emphasis has been laid on the need that poor people have for a wide range of financial services. These needs are evidenced by the uses made of financial services that already exist but which are usually informal in nature. This shift in emphasis away from the provision of credit solely for income generation towards a range of financial services is consistent with an understanding of poverty which looks beyond low incomes to vulnerability and powerlessness. Providing microfinance can give poor people the means to protect their livelihoods against shocks as well as to build up and diversify — also a means of protecting — their livelihood activities by investing loan capital. The role of credit in promoting incomes has been the rationale for NGO programmes in this sector in the past. However, obtaining one or two loans has rarely resulted in sustained improvements in income for poor people. Moreover, even if very poor people are able to invest successfully, unexpected shocks can undo any gains very quickly. Thus, the poorest are likely to need to build up a degree of security before investment and growth become possible. In any place at any time, the needs of poor people for financial services are many and varied depending on individual circumstances: some will be saving for the future, while others will be facing a crisis, and still others wish to obtain a loan to invest. A programme of flexible services which can be adapted to meet these different needs is more likely to be relevant and useful to poor people. Many informal financial services are a response to the saving requirements of poor people, and we have described how developments in the technology of lending to poor people have been based on the demonstrated ability and willingness of poor people to save. However, the further establishment of flexible savings facilities requires appropriate regulatory environments. There is still relatively limited experience on the part of NGOs in insurance, hire purchase, and related financial services. Thinking in terms of microfinance rather than credit therefore encourages NGOs to develop and try out a wider range of services to support poor people's livelihoods.
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-Conclusions We have proposed an overall approach that NGOs should adopt to microfinance for poverty reduction. The first point is the need to consider any proposal for intervention within the context of existing informal financial services. Extensive study and documentation of informal financial services has taken place all over the world. This work has demonstrated that diverse facilities already exist; some are highly exploitative but others provide for needs ranging from buying household items and clothes to trade credit. Research has demonstrated that these informal facilities are enduring features of the local economy. We have categorised them into those which are owned by their users and those which are provided 'for profit'. While demonstrating the flexibility and diversity of the myriad of informal ways in which people's financial needs are dealt with, we have argued that these services can harm as well as enable poor people. Financial relationships, especially those of debt, are one way in which the powerlessness of groups of poor people is entrenched. The analysis suggests therefore that intervention in local financial markets is an area that should be approached with great care. It is necessary to understand for whom, in what ways, and under what circumstances the array of local services adds to the options they have for maintaining and developing their livelihoods, or contributes to their further impoverishment. To assist in making this assessment we have suggested that services which are owned by their users are less likely to contain an exploitative dimension for those users than those which are offered on a 'for profit' basis. This approach to understanding pre-existing services should be followed by a consideration of whether or not the NGO in question should intervene. There is evidence that NGOs do not necessarily possess the right range of skills and experience to effectively implement and manage the provision of financial services. When NGOs do this they in effect set themselves up as bankers: a role few would be likely to contemplate if expressed in this way. Consequently we have suggested that the NGO should carefully and honestly assess whether it has the appropriate skills and resources before beginning work. Acquiring or developing the specialist skills is a long-term commitment which itself requires substantial investment of funds. Poor people's needs for financial services are enduring and long-term. An NGO considering whether to provide services must understand the need for a commitment to do so for a considerable length of time: the 30 years or more of a bank's existence, rather than the three to five years of donor funding arrangements. There are alternatives to becoming a direct provider of services. An NGO can play a useful role in promoting financial services. This can make use of an NGO's skills in mobilisation, training, and management in establishing
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction groups who undertake internal savings and credit; promoting user-owned small-scale initiatives such as thrift co-operatives and credit unions; linking groups to banks; bringing in an NGO which has special expertise in financial services (of whom there are a growing number); or undertaking advocacy within the country to involve the formal banking system in microfinance. If a decision to intervene is made, we have argued that it is necessary to understand the rationales for different combinations of recently developed design features including small loan sizes, regular repayment, group lending, higher interest rates, and savings. Cutting out the need for physical collateral (whether through peer-group lending or locally based loan-officers providing character references for individuals) is based on a process of screening borrowers which uses local 'inside' information. The local loan-officer or the other members of the loan group will probably know better than a bank does who is likely to repay a loan, and the appropriate size of that loan. This understanding can enable designers of microfinance schemes to more effectively adapt their technology to local circumstances. Features such as small loan sizes, regular repayment, and regular meetings have been used as low-cost means of discouraging better-off people from joining schemes. Small loan sizes and regular repayment may also be useful in preventing indebtedness among poorer borrowers. Meetings can be a means of bringing together women in contexts where they are otherwise unable to leave their homesteads. The effectiveness of these design features will also depend on the particular situation: the appropriateness of the loan size in relation to local circumstances, the cost of time lost to users attending regular meetings, and the regularity of their income streams in relation to loan repayments. A focus on lending to women has become common for microfinance schemes. Some commentators suggest that this is the result of practical considerations about the efficiency of operation. Evidence has shown that it cannot be assumed that loans received by women are necessarily empowering. Gender-related objectives need therefore to be made clear when embarking on scheme design, and steps taken to ensure that women are supported in developing their own uses for financial services. In discussing financial services we have emphasised the role of savings. Schemes involving a 'compulsory' savings component have demonstrated the ability of users to save on a regular basis from regular income. However, in these schemes savings are not usually accessible and therefore the need remains for voluntary savings facilities — safe places to store money to meet planned as well as unexpected, immediate as well as long-term expenditures. However, while highlighting the advantages of voluntary savings facilities,
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-Conclusions we have also emphasised the heavy responsibility that operating any savings programme entails. The provision of credit at interest rates below those in the formal private sector has in the past resulted in the failure of many development finance institutions to reach their target groups and provide an effective service. Subsidising interest rates tended to attract unsuccessful projects and at the same time prevented the institution from covering its costs. More recent experience has suggested that poor people can take and repay loans at interest rates which contribute to costs, especially if repayments are organised in ways that relate to their flow of income. It has therefore become more acceptable for interest rates to be set at levels which cover inflation and make a contribution to the costs of administration and default. In the initial stages of a microfinance programme, however, costs will inevitably be high, and setting interest rates to cover them is likely to price the organisation out of the market. Interest rates will remain a sensitive political issue in many countries and environments, and NGOs surely would not wish to become the 'new exploiters' (Rutherford, 1995b, pl51). Setting realistic interest rates should not be a license for high costs and inefficiency. Poor people need financial services on a long-term basis and sustainability is thus important. In the past NGOs which have provided credit as part of a short-term package of inputs have not been able to meet the repeated demand for credit and savings facilities. In this context, there are two main aspects of sustainability: financial sustainability and organisational sustainability. The financial sustainability of microfinance schemes can be enhanced by charging interest rates which make a contribution to costs, and by reducing default rates. An emphasis on measuring financial sustainability for an operational programme can enable important debates about the direction of the programme to have a financial basis. However, financial sustainability does not guarantee organisational sustainability. Organisational sustainability will depend on a range of factors such as management, staffing, and organisational structure. The incentives used to motivate staff to avoid collusion with scheme users is critical, as is their integrity in handling money. Organisational structure is an area of some controversy. Some have argued that the role of NGOs is not to convert themselves into banks but to retain anNemphasis on innovative work with the poorest which others will not undertake^eg Dichter, 1996). While there are notable examples of NGOs turning themselves into banks, this course of action is only one of many in the provision of financial services to poor people in the long term. We have already discussed the alternatives to direct provision which involve NGOs in a more promotional role — examples such as village banks, credit unions, and thrift co-operatives are models which are
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction being tried out. Credit unions have a good record of success in a number of countries. It is in considering the potential for these long-term structures at the outset that an NGO might be convinced that a promotional role rather than one of direct provision is more appropriate. While we have argued that the potential for sustainability is important, NGOs aiming for poverty reduction will need to assess the impact of their services on users' livelihoods. Conventional approaches to impact assessment have focused on a set of causal linkages from the intervention to reduced poverty. This type of impact assessment has proved extremely difficult, and costly, since there are many methodological pitfalls. In the past ten years 'participatory' approaches to research have become widely used. These methodologies applied to microfinance can enable institutions to capture more of the diversity of their impact. However, even from among those most closely associated with development of 'participatory' approaches, warnings about their limitations have emerged (Guijt and Cornwall, 1995). Involving a representative cross-section of users in impact assessment is essential in order to explore the ways in which financial services are able to support livelihoods; protect them through savings, and consumption or emergency loans; and promote them through savings accumulation and loans for investing in livelihood activities. Approaching impact in this way leads to a concern with the usefulness of services to poor people in securing livelihoods rather than in meeting NGO's expectations of what financial services can achieve. The diversity of users' socio-economic circumstances even within what might appear to outsiders to be an homogeneous environment will affect demand for financial services. Even poor women will differ significantly in their socio-economic status, life-cycle effects being a particular feature: the needs of young unmarried women will differ from those of young married women with growing families; and from the needs of older women with grown-up sons or those who are widows. Putting this into practice means understanding the diversity of users' situations through, for example, wealth ranking and focus group discussions. A process of dialogue with users can be structured in ways which increase the weight that can be given to the findings. Thus obtaining multiple accounts and cross-checking them, and exposing findings to critical review by users themselves as well as other staff and peers are means of ensuring that qualitative information is not misinterpreted. Channelling this information into a structured and continuous process of feedback enables the organisation, if it is willing, to learn useful lessons and to adapt its services to meet the needs of users more effectively.
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-Conclusions In the course of this book, we have demonstrated the ways in which poor people use financial services to support their livelihoods. Developing a microfinance intervention which can respond to these demands, and which is able to meet the varied needs of people within the same location at the same time, is a challenge for NGOs. This challenge involves understanding what exists, deciding on an appropriate role, designing in relation to local circumstances, focusing on sustainability, and being willing to learn from experience. Responding to this challenge offers the prospect that microfinance interventions will play an important role in reducing poverty.
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-BancoSol Bolivia BRAC Bangladesh SANASA Sri Lanka K-REP Kenya
-
-BRI Unit Grameen Bank Desa Indonesia Bangladesh 1.4m 650,000 1,177 51 267 310 75 107 143 540 220 50 700,000
-
-No. of borrowers (1992)
-
-50,000
-
-1.8m
-
-% women borrowers
-
-74 150 220
-
-24
-
-94
-
-Average borrower income level (US$) 360
-
-296
-
-GNP per capita US$(I992)
-
-680
-
-670
-n/a 68 approx. 173
-
-Average borrower income as a % of poverty line before 1 st loan 80
-
-480
-
-195
-
-n/a
-
-Average loan size (1992, US$)
-
-i
-75 15
-Compulsory savings, Tk 2/week, 5% of loan to 'savings fund' 4% to VO fund, 1% life insurance Weekly at group meetings
-
-322
-
-600
-
-50
-11
-
-347 9
-Compulsory 20% Voluntary savings available deposit plus and compulsory voluntary savings savings for borrowers Monthly at cooperative HQ Weekly at group meetings
-X' n"
-
-Real interest rate % (1992) 15 Compulsory savings, Tkl/week, 5% of loan to 'group fund' and 5% to 'emergency fund' Weekly at group meetings
-
-45
-
-6
-
-Savings/Insurance arrangements
-
-Compulsory Voluntary 10% deposit plus savings voluntary savings
-
-3
-
-1
-4.0 8.9
-
-Loan collection method
-
-Fortnightly or monthly at bank branch
-4.5
-
-Monthly at bank branch
-
-6 month arrears rate % (1992)
-
-0.6
-
-3.0
-
-3.0
-
-Source: Adapted from Hulme and Mosley (1996)
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-Annex 2
-Repayment rates
-The repayment rate can be defined as: repayments made repayment rate = repayments due Since the repayment rate should precisely measure those payments which have been made among those which are scheduled as due at a particular time, it can be referred to as the 'on-time' repayment rate. The on-time repayment rate needs to be calculated regularly in relation to a time period of relevance to the programme. If the majority of loan repayments are made on a monthly basis then the repayment rate should be calculated on a monthly basis. This figure will be independent of the rate for the previous month and the month before that. When monitoring the performance of a scheme it will be important also to look at the trend in repayment rates. Rates of repayment might fluctuate over the year, if borrowers have difficulty in making instalments at certain times, such as during the dry season before harvests are due.
-
-Arrears rate
-Loans which are not being repaid can be shown by the arrears rate, which also needs to be defined in a manner appropriate to programme policies. If, for example, experience showed that loans tended to be repaid within three months of their due date then a figure of particular interest might be loans outstanding after three months: value of loans outstanding on which repayments are more than 3 months overdue arrears rate = total value of loans outstanding This shows the proportion of the total loan portfolio which is at risk of turning into default at any given time. The classification of a loan as in arrears may prompt certain types of action on the part of the project, such as intensive follow-up of the individual lender, or the withdrawal of further loans from a group of co-guarantors. These actions would be designed to prevent the loan moving from being in arrears to being in default.
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-Default rate
-The default rate needs to be defined in relation to the programme's default policy. The point at which a loan is defined as being in default will vary. For example, some schemes may classify loans as being in default if repayments are overdue one month after the loan term is complete; others define default as two loan instalments not being received according to the repayment schedule. When a loan is regarded as in default it should be monitored. For financial purposes it must be entered into a loan loss provision. In definition a default rate is virtually the same as an arrears rate: default rate = value of loans which are defined as in default total value of loans outstanding While the arrears rate indicates the proportion of the loan portfolio which might be at risk, the default rate shows the proportion of the loan fund which has gone a stage further towards being lost. However, this does not necessarily mean that the loan will never be recovered. It might be at this stage that any savings balances or loan guarantees from other members of the community are called in.
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-References
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-          Microfinance and Poverty Reduction
-Susan Johnson and Ben Rogaly
-
-Oxfam
-(UK and Ireland)
-
-First published by Oxfam (UK and Ireland) and ACTIONAID in 1997 Reprinted by Oxfam GB 1997, 1999 © Oxfam (UK and Ireland) and ACTIONAID 1997 Oxfam GB, 274 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7DZ ACTIONAID, Hamlyn House, Macdonald Road, Archway, London N19 5PG ISBN 0 85598 369 8 A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library. All rights reserved. Reproduction, copy, transmission, or translation of any part of this publication may be made only under the following conditions: • • • • With the prior written permission of the publisher; or With a licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd., 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 9HE, UK, or from another national licensing agency; or For quotation in a review of the work; or Under the terms set out below.
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-This publication is copyright, but may be reproduced by any method without fee for teaching purposes, but not for resale. Formal permission is required for all such uses, but normally will be granted immediately. For copying in any other circumstances, or for re-use in other publications, or for translation or adaptation, prior written permission must be obtained from the publisher, and a fee may be payable. Available from the following agents: USA: Stylus Publishing LLC, PO Box 605, Herndon, VA 20172-0605, USA tel: +1 (0)703 661 1581; fax: + 1(0)703 661 1547; email: styluspub@aol.com Canada. Fernwood Books Ltd, PO Box 9409, Stn. 'A', Halifax, N.S. B3K 5S3, Canada tel: +1 (0)902 422 3302; fax: +1 (0)902 422 3179; e-mail: fernwood@istar.ca India: Maya Publishers Pvt Ltd, 113-B, Shapur Jat, New Delhi-110049, India tel: +91 (0)11 649 4850; fax: +91 (0)11 649 1039; email: surit@del2.vsnl.net.in K Krishnamurthy, 23 Thanikachalan Road, Madras 600017, India tel: +91 (0)44 434 4519; fax: +91 (0)44 434 2009; email: ksm@md2.vsnl.net.in South Africa, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland: David Philip Publishers, PO Box 23408, Claremont 7735, South Africa tel: +27 (0)21 64 4136; fax: +27(0)21 64 3358; email: dppsales@iafrica.com Tanzania: Mkuki na Nyota Publishers, PO Box 4246, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania tel/fax: +255 (0)51 180479, email: mkuki@ud.co.tz Australia: Bush Books, PO Box 1958, Gosford, NSW 2250, Australia tel: +61 (0)2 043 233 274; fax: +61 (0)2 092 122 468, email: bushbook@ozemail.com.au Rest of the world: contact Oxfam Publishing, 274 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7DZ, UK. tel. +44 (0)1865 311 311: fax +44 (0)1865 313 925; email publish@oxfam.org.uk Designed and printed by Oxfam GB, 274 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7DZ, UK Printed by Litho and Digital Impressions Ltd. OX410/RB/96 Oxfam GB is a registered charity, no. 202 918, and is a member of Oxfam International.
-
-This book converted to digital file in 2010
-
-Contents
-Acknowledgements vii Introduction 1 1 Current debates in microfinance 5 1.1 Subsidised credit provision 5 1.2 The move to market-based solutions 5 1.3 Making use of social collateral 7 1.4 Savings 8 1.5 Can microfinance interventions reduce poverty? 10 1.51 Poverty as powerlessness 10 1.5-2 Credit for micro-enterprises 11 1.53 Reaching the poorest 12 1.6 Financial interventions and social change 13 1.7 Treading carefully in microfinance interventions 14 2 Informal financial services 16 2.1 Introduction 16 2.2 User-owned informal financial services 17 2.2.1 Some examples of user-owned financial services 18 2.3 Informal financial services for profit 19 2.31 Some examples of informalfinancial services providedfor profit 20 2.4 Turning the informal into the formal 22 2.5 What can be learned from informal finance? 23 2.6 Deciding when and how to intervene 25 2.6.1 Research questions on existing informal financial services 27 2.7 Filling the gaps 29 2.7.1 Some examples of innovative services 29
-in
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-2.8 Promotion: an alternative strategy for NGOs 30 2.8.1 Formation of savings groups and development of internal credit facilities 30 2.8.2 Promotion of small-scale formalised approaches 31 2.8.3 Linking groups to the formal system 32 2.8.4 Linking with specialised financial service NGOs 33 2.8.5 Advocacy 33 2.9 Summary and conclusions 34 3 The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people 35 3.1 Introduction 35 3.2 Targeting savings and credit to poor people 35 3.3 Women as users of financial services 38 3.4 Lending through groups 38 3-4.1 Functions of the group in microfinance schemes 39 3.4.2 Including the poorest 41 3-4.3 Other examples ofgroup-based schemes 42 3.5 Savings 43 331 The value of a savings facility 44 3-5.2 Compulsory or voluntary savings? 45 3-5-3 Linking savings to credit 46 3.6 Forms of loan 47 3.6.1 Credit in cash or kind? 47 3-6.2 Directed or undirected credit? 48 3.7 Loan disbursement and repayment schedules 50 3.8 Interest rates 51 3.9 Integrating financial services with other activities 52 3-9.1 Savings and credit for group formation and institution-building 53 3-9.2 Social development programmes 54 3-9.3 Economic development activities 54 3.10 Summary and conclusions 56 4 Financial performance and sustainability 58 4.1 Introduction 58 4.2 Managing and assessing financial performance 58 4.2.1 The repayment rate 59 4.2.2 Arrears and default 59
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-IV
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-4.3 Financial sustainability 60 4.3-1 The pros and cons of 'scaling up 6l 4.3-2 Issues in sustainability: the experience of 'village banking' 62 4.3-3 Sustainability through extending coverage 63 4.3-4 Measuring financial sustainability 64 4.4 Managerial and organisational sustainability 68 4.4.1 The role of staff in microfinance interventions 68 4.4.2 Organisational sustainability and change 69 4.5 Summary and conclusions 71 5 Assessing impact 72 5.1 Introduction 72 5.2 The difficulties of assessing impact 72 5-2.1 Establishing loan use 14 5-2.2 Measuring change-, controls and baselines 74 5-2.3 Proving causality 75 5.3 Innovations in impact assessment 76 5-3-1 Researching usefulness.- a case study 11 5-3-2 Assessing impact on social relationships 78 5-3-3 Impact assessment as a dynamic process 79 5-3-4 Validating qualitative data 80 5-3-5 Using quantitative data in impact assessment 81 5.4 Learning and adaptability 82 5.5 Summary and conclusions 84 6 Case studies 85 6.1 Introducing the case studies 85 6.2 Union Regional de Apoyo Campesino (URAC), Mexico 89 6.2.1 Background 89 6.2.2 Design 90 6.2.3 Financial performance and sustainability 92 6.2.4 Impact assessment 93 6.2.5 Conclusions 96 6.3 SUNGI Development Foundation, Pakistan 96 63-1 Background % 6.3.2 Design 97 6.3-3 Financial performance and sustainability 98 6.3-4 Impact assessment 98 6.3-5 Conclusions 101
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-6.4 Ladywood Credit Union, UK 101 6.4.1 Background 101 6.4.2 Design 102 6.4.3 Financial performance and sustainability 104 6.4.4 Impact assessment 104 6.4.5 Conclusions 107 6.5 ACTIONAID in The Gambia 107 6.5.1 Background 107 6.5.2 Design 108 6.5-3 Financial performance and sustainability 109 6.5.4 Impact assessment 110 6.5-5 Conclusions 113 6.6 Casa Campesina Cayambe, Ecuador 113 6.6.1 Background 113 6.6.2 Design 114 d. 6.3 Financial performance and sustainability 115 6.6.4 Impact assessment 116 6.6.5 Conclusions 117 7 Conclusions 118 Annex 1 Table 1 Six microfinance institutions 125 Annex 2 Repayment rate and arrears rate 126 References 128
-
-VI
-
-Acknowledgements
-The authors wish to acknowledge the major inputs of Farah Batool (Pakistan case study), Martha Romero, Stephen Fogarty and Ofelia Guttierez (Mexico case study),Helen Derbyshire and Aggie Kent (UK case study), Ousman Cham and the staff of ACTIONAID The Gambia (The Gambia case study), Juan Serrano, Emilia Ferraro and Javier Herran (Ecuador case study). Stuart Rutherford provided a major and much appreciated contribution in the form of a background paper, A Critical Typology ofFinancial Servicesfor the Poor, as well as making comments on the text. Thanks are also due to the following: Shahin Yaqub, for a background paper, Macroeconomic Conditionsfor Successful Financial Servicesfor Poor People, Alfonso Castillo, and Md. Mumtaz Tanoli for additional assistance in planning and undertaking the case studies as well as commenting on the text; David Norman, Barbara Thomas and Helen Yanacopulos for research assistance. The following read and made valuable comments on the full text: Audrey Bronstein, James Copestake, Ros David, Helen Derbyshire, Heather Grady, Dot McCall, Amitava Mukherjee, Ravi Narayanan, Chris Roche, William Smith, Ines Smyth, and Ton van Zutphen. The authors are also grateful for the help and encouragement of Kirat Randhawa, Simran Rogaly, Deborah Eade, Pat Conaty, Carlos Ling, Michael Semple, Ceci Lopez, Pauline Wilson, and Nigel Twose. Any errors or omissions remain the responsibility of the authors. Susan Johnson and Ben Rogaly
-
-vu
-
-Introduction
-During the 1990s, the provision of financial services dealing with very small deposits and loans — microfinance — and particularly the provision of microcredit, have been increasingly acclaimed as effective means of poverty reduction. There is continuing and quite rapid improvement in understanding how financial services for poor people can best be provided. This book sets out to draw together some of the most important lessons learned to date, as a useful resource for those considering financial interventions as well as those already involved. However, rather than setting out a single model of 'good practice', the book recommends an overall approach. In doing this, and in order to counteract the idea that credit alone can be a panacea for eradicating poverty, it reports on continuing debates about and different approaches to the provision of financial services to poor people. Private sector non-profit organisations (referred to in this book as nongovernmental organisations — NGOs) aiming to bring about reductions in poverty have become increasingly involved in providing financial services. Of those NGOs, most have experience of savings and credit, often linked to programmes of income generation. Very small deposits and loans are referred to together as 'microfinance'. This book focuses on microfinance and only briefly discusses its relationship to other development activities. The book does not cover financial service provision during complex emergencies or natural disasters, or for particular marginal or vulnerable groups, such as pastoralists or people with AIDS/HIV. Before going further, the term 'financial services' needs explanation. Financial services are about enabling people to amass usefully large sums of cash (Rutherford, 1996). They can be divided into two main types: first, those that build up cash reserves through forgoing income. Saving does this by making deposits out of income now and so forgoing its current use in order to draw a sum from these savings in the future. Insurance performs a similar
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction function: it allows the client to buy access to a future lump sum. Loans work in a similar way, but in reverse: they are lump sums which are given now in return for income forgone in the future. The second main type of financial service allows assets to be converted into and out of lump sums of cash. Mortgages and pawns are the main examples of such services. A further type of service which poor people may need, but which is rarely discussed, is cash-handling, especially to allow the transmission of cash from one place to another. This is essential for long-term migrants, for example, wishing to send cash back to their relatives.
-
-The elements of an effective approach to microfinance
-The approach to microfinance proposed here has five main points. First, that NGOs should investigate existing financial services; who uses them and to what effect. Second, that before intervening directly, NGOs should assess whether they have the specialist knowledge and skills required to provide financial services themselves. Third, in order to design services which are relevant and useful to poor people, NGOs should understand local social and economic structures, and also macro-level trends. Fourth, NGOs should consider how the provision of services can be sustained in the long term. Lastly, the impact on poverty reduction should be continually assessed rather than taken for granted, which tends to happen if a microfinance intervention is covering its costs and has many low-income users.
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-The structure of this book
-The book begins by setting out the main debates surrounding interventions to provide financial services, to provide a background to the rest of the book. Much of the discussion in this initial chapter is based on Rogaly (1996a). In any situation there is likely to be an array of informal financial services which people are making use of. An overview of these is given in Chapter 2. There is now much greater understanding of the characteristics of such services and how they operate. The first task for an NGO proposing to intervene is to find out which services are already available to people and which additional ones they would find most useful. To do this the NGO must understand for whom, under what circumstances, and to what degree these services support or undermine livelihood strategies. This background information allows the design of financial services to be connected to an analysis of poverty and well-being, and at the same time establishes which existing services poor people may wish to retain, and which should therefore
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-Introduction not be undermined by any new intervention. This chapter draws heavily on a background paper commissioned for the book: A Critical Typology of Financial Services/or the Poor, by Stuart Rutherford, November 1996. The next step suggested for an NGO is to critically and honestly assess whether it is best placed to become a provider of financial services. In the past NGOs have not always achieved success in this area, and have failed to appreciate that specific skills are required. Alternative approaches which enable the NGO to utilise its skills in mobilising, training, and working with poor people to promote rather than to provide services should be seriously considered. Another possible role for NGOs is in advocacy with governments, to persuade them to make the necessary legislative changes, and with national banking systems to encourage bankers to work with poor people. Recent microfinance interventions have made use of a range of design features, which are discussed in Chapter 3- They have focused on reaching the poor by keeping loan sizes small, targeting women, adopting groupbased lending systems, and mobilising small and frequent savings deposits, and have tended to set interest rates at higher levels than in the past. Such interventions have demonstrated that poor people can and do repay loans, that they have the ability to save, and that they can pay higher interest rates. The discussion in Chapter 3 explores the assumptions behind these design elements of microfinance schemes, and the ways that they operate in practice. It emphasises the fact that different combinations of design features suit particular macro-economic, socio-economic, and political circumstances. This suggests that interveners must continuously and critically assess the effects that elements of the design of their programme are having in practice. To do this, it is advisable to start slowly in order that growing understanding of people's uses for microfinance can lead to adaptations in design. The fourth element of the approach set out in this book is a focus on sustainability, and this is discussed in Chapter 4. Microfinance initiatives have increasingly reported high repayment rates and the ability to cover part of the costs of providing the service. This has raised the possibility that organisations providing these services may be able to become self-sustaining, and so ensure the long-term provision of financial services to their users. NGOs involved in (or seeking to start) the provision of financial services need to take the issue of financial sustainability seriously, and ways of measuring financial self-sustainability are discussed in the chapter. However, financial sustainability is only one necessary condition for NGOs to be able to continue to provide services in the long term. The organisational structure, management, and staffing of the NGO are equally vital components. In discussing the forms of organisation that might be sustainable, some have argued that NGOs should turn themselves into banks. There is unlikely to be a single answer:
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction some NGOs may prefer instead to put groups in touch with existing banks so that they are no longer needed. The final element — the assessment of impact — is explored in Chapter 5. This is an area in which there are many methodological difficulties. However, for those interested in poverty reduction, changes in users' livelihoods as a result of microfinance provision are of central importance. The approach proposed is one in which organisations continuously investigate and assess the usefulness and relevance of their services, and adapt their ways of working in response to the results they find. It is suggested that NGOs involved in microfinance should be modest and honest about their aims. Qualitative data gathering which involves users as well as the staff of the microfinance institution can help to clarify how different groups of people — poor, poorest, men, women — are able to make use of the services and with what effect. This information is a vital adjunct to quantitative information on performance, such as numbers of users reached and number and amount of deposits, or volume and size of loans dispersed. The book makes use of five case studies of financial service schemes connected to or funded by ACTIONAID or Oxfam. In Chapter 6 these schemes are described and used to illustrate issues discussed in earlier chapters in a practical context. Chapter 7 then draws overall conclusions.
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-1
-Current debates in microfinance
-1.1 Subsidised credit provision
-From the 1950s, governments and international aid donors subsidised credit delivery to small farmers in rural areas of many developing countries. It was assumed that poor people found great difficulty in obtaining adequate volumes of credit and were charged high rates of interest by monopolistic money-lenders. Development finance institutions, such as Agricultural Development Banks, were responsible for the delivery of cheap credit to poor farmers. These institutions attempted to supervise the uses to which loans were put, and repayment schedules were based on the expected income flow from the investment. Returns were often overestimated. For example, calculations would be based on agricultural yields for good years (Adams and Von Pischke, 1992). As a result, loans were often not repaid. The credibility and financial viability of these subsidised credit schemes were further weakened by the use of public money to waive outstanding and overdue loans at election time (Adams and Von Pischke, 1992; Lipton, 1996; Wiggins and Rogaly, 1989)- A dependence on the fluctuating whims of governments and donors, together with poor investment decisions and low repayment rates made many of these development finance institutions unable to sustain their lending programmes. Credit provision for poor people was transitory and limited.
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-1.2 The move to market-based solutions
-This model of subsidised credit was subjected to steady criticism from the mid-1970s as donors and other resource allocators switched attention from state intervention to market-based solutions. Policy-makers were reminded
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction that credit could also be described as debt and that the over-supply of subsidised credit without realistic assessment of people's ability to repay could result in impoverishment for borrowers. At the same time the concept of 'transaction costs', and the notion that full information about borrowers was not available to lenders, were used by the opponents of subsidised credit to justify the high interest-rates charged by money-lenders. Lending money carries with it the risk of non-repayment. In order to know who is creditworthy and who is not, and so reduce this risk, the lender screens potential borrowers. This involves gathering information on the circumstances of individuals, which may not be easy to obtain. Then enforcement costs are incurred to ensure repayment. Through this process risks are reduced, though not eliminated. Where a loan is disbursed on condition that it is used for a particular purpose, supervision costs also arise. Using these tools of analysis it was argued that private money-lenders charged interest rates which were higher than formal bank-rates because of the high costs they faced in terms of risk, particularly when lending without physical collateral. At the same time, it was argued that money-lenders were an efficient source of credit because their greater knowledge of the people to whom they were lending lowered screening costs. Moreover, potential borrowers faced high transaction costs when they sought loans from formal-sector finance institutions. These costs included the time, travel, and paperwork involved in obtaining credit, and were often prohibitive for poor clients, especially those most geographically isolated. On the basis of this analysis, a group of economists based at Ohio State University (USA), notably Dale Adams and J D Von Pischke, put forward the view that the provision of credit should be left almost entirely to the private sector. In concentrating on the problems of publicly subsidised credit, these economists ignored the social ties, power relations, and coercion associated with the activities of money-lenders. However, detailed micro-level research has demonstrated the widespread use of 'interlocked' contracts to force exchange to the disadvantage of poor people (Bhaduri, 1981). Powerful local people, including landlords, employers, and traders, are able to influence the terms of loans made to tenants, workers, and small producers via conditions set in transactions involving land, labour, or crops. For example, traders frequently lend working capital to small farmers on condition that their crops are sold to that trader at a pre-determined price. Similarly, loans are made to workers against the promise of labour to be provided at below the going rate at a set future date (Rogaly, 1996b). Against the background of these debates, recent developments in the design of microfinance schemes have generated an understandably high degree of excitement. This is because innovative features in design have
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-Current debates in microfinance reduced the costs and risks of making loans to poor and isolated people, and made financial services available to people who were previously excluded.
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-1.3 Making use of social collateral
-There was little knowledge among formal-sector financial intermediaries of alternatives to physical collateral, until the 1970s, when the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh began using 'peer-group monitoring' to reduce lending risk. The model for credit delivery in the Grameen Bank is as follows: • Groups of five self-select themselves; men's and women's group are kept separate but the members of a single group should have a similar economic background. • Membership is restricted to those with assets worth less than half an acre of land. • Activities begin with savings ofTaka 1 per week per person and these savings remain compulsory throughout membership. • Loans are made to two members at a time and must be repaid in equal instalments over 50 weeks. • Each time a loan is taken the borrower must pay 5 per cent of the loan amount into a group fund. • The group is ultimately responsible for repayment if the individual defaults. • Between five and eight groups form a 'development centre' led by a chairperson and secretary and assisted by a. Grameen Bank staff member. • Attendance at weekly group and centre meetings is compulsory. • All transactions are openly conducted at centre meetings. • Each member may purchase a share in the Bank worth Taka 100 Through this system the Grameen Bank has provided credit to over 2 million people in Bangladesh (94 per cent women) with a very low default rate. (Source: Khandker, Khalily and Khan, 1995.) However, peer-group monitoring has not proved necessary to other institutions seeking to do away with physical collateral. In Indonesia, governmentsponsored banks have successfully used character references and locallyrecruited lending agents (Chaves and Gonzales Vega, 1996). The peer-group
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction method of Grameen and the individual-user approach of the Bank Rakyat Indonesia (see 1.4) can both be seen as attempts to lower screening costs by using local 'insider' information about the creditworthiness of borrowers. The degree to which Grameen Bank employees themselves implement peer-group monitoring has recently been questioned. It is argued that the reason for the Grameen Bank's high repayment rates is the practice of weekly public meetings at which attendance is compulsory, for the payment of loan instalments and the collection of savings. The meetings reinforce a culture of discipline, routine payments, and staff accountability (Jain, 1996). Another means of improving loan recovery is to insist on regularity of repayment. This is likely to reflect the actual income-flow of the borrower much better than a lump-sum demand at the end of the loan period. Borrowers can make repayments out of their normal income rather than relying on the returns from a new—often untested —mini-business. Nevertheless, where seasonal agriculture is the main source of income, and borrowers face seasonal hardship, regular repayment scheduling may cause problems. Microfinance specialists have argued that the prospects for scheme's stability are improved by innovations such as social collateral and regular repayments instalments. Indeed, financial sustainability has become an important goal in itself. To achieve sustainability, microfinance institutions, be they NGOs, government agencies, or commercial banks, need to ensure that the costs of providing the service are kept low and are covered by income earned through interest and fees on loans (see Havers, 1996). As microfinance deals, by definition, with small loans, the income generated through interest payments is also small in comparison with administration costs. To generate profits, therefore, it is necessary to increase scale — in other words, to lend to a large number of people (Otero and Rhyne, 1994).
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-1.4 Savings
-The regular repayments on loans required by large non-governmental microfinance institutions in Bangladesh (including BRAC, ASA and Grameen) provide evidence that poor people can save in cash (Rutherford, 1995a). These intensive repayment regimes are very similar to those of rotating savings and credit associations: steady weekly payments, enforced by social collateral, in return for a lump sum. Loans made are, in reality, advances against this stream of savings. By insisting on regular savings, microfinance institutions can screen out some potential defaulters, build up the financial security of individuals, increase funds available for lending, and develop among members a degree of identification with the financial health of the institution. People involved in
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-Current debates in microfinance such schemes may previously have been unable to reach formal-sector banks, complete their procedures, qualify for loans or open savings accounts. 'A savings facility is an extremely valuable service in its own right, which often attracts many more clients than a credit programme, particularly from among the poorest' (Hulme and Mosley, 1996, pl47). This evidence that poor people can save in cash has opened up further debate. A distinction is made between schemes in which borrowers must save small and regular amounts in order to obtain loans (termed 'compulsory' saving) and those which offer flexible savings facilities. In the latter case people can deposit and withdraw cash in whatever amounts, and as often, as they wish. This distinction is made especially strongly by Robinson (1995) in her account of the Bank Rakyat Indonesia. The BRI local banking system has about six times as many deposit accounts as loans. On 31 December 1993, BRI's local banking system had $2.1 billion in deposits. These were all voluntary savings. By 31 December 1995, there were 14.5 million savings accounts. Savers with BRI have access to savings whenever they want. BRI deals with individuals rather than groups. Its savings programme was designed specifically to meet local demand for security, convenience of location, and choice of savings instruments offering different mixtures of liquidity and returns. BRI's local banking system has a loan limit of about $11,000. The idea is that good borrowers should not be forced to leave until they can qualify for the loans provided by ordinary commercial banks. In addition, BRI has a system which gives its borrowers an incentive to repay on time. An additional 25 per cent of the interest rate is added to the monthly payment. This amount is paid back to borrowers at the end of the loan period if they have made every payment in full and on time. There is a corresponding in-built penalty for those who have not. (Source: Robinson, 1994.) Robinson argues that there is an enormous unmet demand for flexible savings services. However, she also warns that managing a savings system of this type is much more complex than running a simple credit programme. Schemes which operate under these 'new' savings and credit technologies are an improvement on the old model of subsidised agricultural and microenterprise finance. The story of how they have succeeded in reaching poor people is now the subject of a large literaaire (for example, Rutherford, 1995b; Hulme and Mosley, 1996; Mansell-Carstens, 1995). That many more poor people can now obtain financial services is a major achievement of these
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction schemes. However, the questions of which poor people have been reached, and of whether poverty has been reduced, still remain.
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-1.5 Can microfinance interventions reduce poverty?
-If poverty is understood as low levels of annual income per household, reducing poverty is about raising average income levels. If a particular level of annual income per head is used as a poverty line, poverty reduction could be measured by counting the number or proportion of people who cross that line — who are promoted out of poverty. Providers of financial services who aim to enable people to cross such a poverty line have focused on credit, in particular credit for small enterprises, including agricultural production. However, attention to annual income can obscure fluctuations in that income during any given year. Poverty can also be understood as vulnerability to downward fluctuations in income. Such fluctuations can be relatively predictable, such as the seasonal decline in employment for agricultural workers, or a shortage of income and trading opportunities in the dry season or before harvest. Alternatively, fluctuations in income may result from unexpected shocks such as crop failure, illness, funeral expenses or loss of an asset such as livestock through theft or death, or a natural disaster such as a cyclone (Montgomery, 1996). Vulnerability can be heightened by the lack of saleable or pawnable assets and by debt obligations. Interventions which reduce such vulnerability and protect livelihoods also reduce poverty. 1.5.1 Poverty as powerlessness A further dimension of poverty which is often the focus of NGO interventions is powerlessness, whether in an absolute sense or in relation to others. Economic inequality between and within households is likely to be associated with concentrations of political and social power. Inequality can increase whenever better-off people are able to improve their incomes faster than others. Even if the absolute level of material well-being of the worst-off people does not change, relative poverty (Beck, 1994) may increase, and with it a sense of powerlessness among very poor people. Power relations are partly determined by norms of expected behaviour. Neither the relations nor the norms are static; they are contested and change over time. Powerlessness can be experienced in a variety of situations: within the household, as a result of differences in gender and age; and within the community, between socio-economic groups, as a result of caste, ethnicity, and wealth. Defining poverty in terms of power relations implies that assessment of the impact of microfinance interventions should focus on their
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-Current debates in microfinance influence on social relations and the circumstances which reproduce them. Even in a similar geographical and historical context, it is important to distinguish between the ways in which specific groups of poor people (women and men, landed and landless, particular ethnic groups) are able to benefit from financial services or are excluded from doing so. 1.5.2 Credit for micro-enterprises While there are methodological difficulties involved in measuring increases in incomes brought about by the provision of credit (see further discussion in Chapter 5), studies have demonstrated that the availability of credit for microenterprises can have positive effects. A recent survey collected data from government, NGOs, and banks involved in providing financial services for poor people. Twelve programmes were selected from seven countries (six of these are included in Table 1, Annex 1). Households which had received credit were compared with households which had not. The results demonstrated that credit provision can enable household incomes to rise. However, taking the analysis further, Hulme and Mosley demonstrated that the better-off the borrower, the greater the increase in income from a microenterprise loan. Borrowers who already have assets and skills are able to make better use of credit. The poorest are less able to take risks or use credit to increase their income. Indeed, some of the poorest borrowers interviewed became worse off as a result of micro-enterprise credit, which exposed these vulnerable people to high risks. For them, business failure was more likely to provoke a livelihood crisis than it was for borrowers with a more secure asset base. Specific crises included bankruptcy, forced seizure of assets, and unofficial pledging of assets to other members of a borrowing group. There have even been reports of suicide following peer-group pressure to repay failed loans (Hulme and Mosley, 1996, ppl20-122). A much smaller survey comparing micro-enterprise programmes in El Salvador and Vanuatu found that the development of successful enterprises and the improvement of the incomes of very poor people were conflicting rather than complementary objectives. By selecting those most likely to be successful for credit and training, the programmes inevitably moved away from working with the poorest people (Tomlinson, 1995). Reviews of Oxfam's experiences with income-generating projects for women raised serious questions about the profitability of such activities. Full input costings, which would have revealed many income-generating projects as lossmaking, were not carried out. Omissions included depreciation on capital, the opportunity cost of labour (the earnings participants could have had through spending the time on other activities), and subsidisation of income-
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction generating projects with income from other sources. Market research and training in other business skills had often been inadequate (Piza Lopez and March, 1990; Mukhopadhyay and March, 1992).
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-1.5.3 Reaching the poorest
-Whether income promotion is based on loans for individual micro-enterprises or on group-based income generation projects, its appropriateness as a strategy for poverty reduction in the case of the poorest people is questionable. Other evidence suggests that self-selected groups for peer-monitoring have not been inclusive of the poorest people (Montgomery, 1995). People select those with whom they want to form a group on the basis of their own knowledge of the likelihood that these people will make timely payment of loan and savings instalments: X will only have Y in her group if she believes Y is capable of making regular repayments and has much to lose from the social ostracism associated with default. This system might well be expected to lead to the exclusion of the poorest (Montgomery, op.cit.). Even the low asset and land-holding ceiling which the big microfinance institutions in Bangladesh have successfully used to target loans away from better-off people has not necessarily meant that the poorest, who are often landless, are included (Osmani, 1989). So while the innovations referred to earlier appear to have made loans more available to poor people, there is still debate over the design of appropriate financial services for the poorest. Hulme and Mosley's study strongly suggests that providing credit for micro-enterprises is unlikely to help the poorest people to increase their incomes. However, detailed research with users has found that some design features of savings and credit schemes are able to meet the needs of very poor people. For example, it was found that easy access to savings and the provision of emergency loans by SANASA (see 3.4.2) enabled poor people to cope better with seasonal income fluctuations (Montgomery, 1996). Microfinance specialists increasingly, therefore, view improvements in economic security — income protection rather than promotion (Dreze and Sen, 1989) — as the first step in poverty reduction, '...from the perspective of poverty reduction, access to reliable, monetized savings facilities can help the poor smooth consumption over periods of cyclical or unexpected crises, thus greatly improving their economic security.' It is only when people have some economic security that 'access to credit can help them move out of poverty by improving the productivity of their enterprises or creating new sources of livelihood' (Bennet and Cuevas, 1996, authors' emphasis).
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-Current debates in microfinance
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-1.6 Financial interventions and social change
-Interventions have an impact on social relations partly through their economic effects. In many instances implementors of credit schemes have claimed that the work will lead to progressive social change, for example by empowering women and changing gender relations in the household and in the community (Ackerly, 1995). In five out of the six schemes summarised in Table 1 (Annex 1), over half of the borrowers were women. Much of the work that has been done in assessing the impact of credit programmes on women has been in Bangladesh. One approach was to look at the control women retained over loans extended to them by four different credit programmes: the Grameen Bank, BRAC, a large government scheme (the Rural Poor Programme RD-12), and a small NGO (Thangemara Mahila Senbuj Sengstha) (Goetz and Sen Gupta, 1996). Results suggested that women retained significant control over the use to which the loan was put in 37 per cent of cases; 63 per cent fell into the categories of partial, limited or no control over loan use. Goetz and Sen Gupta found single, divorced, and widowed women more likely to retain control than others. Control was also retained more often when loan sizes were small and when loan use was based on activities which did not challenge notions of appropriate work for women and men. The question of whether women were empowered is not answered: even when they did not control loans, they may have used the fact that the loan had been disbursed to them as women to increase their status and strengthen their position in the household. However, in some cases women reported an increase in domestic violence because of disputes over cash for repayment instalments. A second major piece of research has assessed the effect of Grameen and BRAC programmes on eight indicators of women's empowerment: mobility, economic security, ability to make small purchases, ability to make larger purchases, involvement in major household decisions, relative freedom from domination by the family, political and legal awareness, and participation in public protests and political campaigning (Hashemi et al, 1996). The study concludes that, on balance, access to credit has enabled women to negotiate within the household to improve their position. However, unlike the Goetz and Sen Gupta study, which is based on 275 detailed loan-use histories, Hashemi et al attempted to compare villages where Grameen or BRAC were present with villages where they were not. Because of difficulties inherent in finding perfect control villages (which the authors acknowledge), the conclusions of the study do not signify the end of the debate. It has also been argued that focusing on women is much more to do with financial objectives than with the aim of empowerment. According to
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction Rutherford (1995b) the real reasons for targeting women in Bangladesh are that they are seen as accessible (being at home during working hours); more likely to repay on time; more pliable and patient than men; and cheaper to service (as mainly female staff can be hired). Thus the process of loan supervision and recovery may be deliberately internalised inside the household (Goetz and Sen Gupta, op. cit.). Goetz and Sen Gupta do not use this as an argument against the provision of finance for women in Bangladesh, but rather suggest that to avoid aggravating genderbased conflict, loans should be given to men directly as well as to women and, at the same time, that efforts should be made to change men's attitudes to women's worth.
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-1.7 Treading carefully in microfinance interventions
-This brief summary of evidence and argument suggests that microfinance interventions may increase incomes, contribute to individual and household livelihood security, and change social relations for the better. But that they can not always be assumed to be doing so. Financial services are not always the most appropriate intervention. The poorest, in particular, often face pressing needs in terms of primary health care, education, and employment opportunities. Lipton has recently argued for anti-poverty resources to be allocated across sectors on the basis that a concentration on a single intervention mechanism, say credit, is much less effective in poverty reduction than simultaneous credit, primary health, and education work, even if this entails narrowing geographical focus (op. cit.). The particular combinations which will be most effective will depend on the nature of poverty in a specific context. Although microfinance provision appears to be evolving towards greater sustainability, relevance, and usefulness, there are few certainties and the search for better practice continues. Decisions on whether and how to intervene in local financial markets should not be taken without prior knowledge of the working of those markets. If the intervention is intended to reduce poverty, it is especially important to know the degree to which poor people use existing services and on what terms. Only then can an intervening agency or bank make an informed decision on whether their work is likely to augment or displace existing 'pro-poor' financial services. If the terms of informal financial transactions are likely to work against the interests of poor people (cases in which the stereotype of 'the wicked money-lender' corresponds to reality) the intervention may attempt to compete with and possibly replace part of the informal system. However, making such an informed assessment is not straightforward, as one study of the power relations between informal financial
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-Current debates in microfinance service providers and agricultural producers in Tamil Nadu demonstrated. Grain merchants based in the market town of Dindigul were found to dictate the terms of product sale when lending working capital to very small-scale farmers, but to be much the weaker party when lending to larger-scale farmers (Rogaly, 1985). The structure of a credit market can change, partly under the influence of outside intervention. Rutherford has studied the changing market in financial services for poor people in Bangladesh. Competition between NGOs is leading to users being less subservient to NGO staff and protesting about unpopular financial obligations, such as the 5 per cent deducted from loans by Grameen for a 'group fund'. Private individuals have set up offices imitating the Grameen style but charging higher interest rates on loans than the big NGOs, and also offering higher rates on savings deposits. Private urban finance companies have expanded. Despite the tendency for NGOs to become more like banks, other formal-sector lenders are still reluctant to lend to poor people (see also McGregor, 1994). The expansion of NGO credit in Bangladesh has been made possible by the flood of donor money to that country. One study of BRAC showed that loan disbursal and recovery had become more important than group formation (Montgomery, 1996). In 1992, Grameen Bank and BRAC employees were found to be offering 'immediate loans' to women in villages where smaller NGOs had been attempting longer-term group-based finance (Ebdon, 1995). Ebdon attributed this behaviour to fairly strict targets for loan disbursal in the case of BRAC, and in both cases to an imperative for job security for staff and a desire on the part of the organisations to expand their influence and strengthen their reputations (p52). This anxiety to increase the number of users can undercut the very basis of the new model: the creation of sustainable financial institutions. Studies of credit schemes have consistently demonstrated that unless borrowers and savers believed they would benefit from the long-term survival of the institution, and have a sense of ownership, repayment rates would decline (Rogaly, 1991; Copestake, 1996a). The sense of ownership is weakened by attempts by large microfinance institutions in Bangladesh to claim territory by encroachment. In India, in the absence of equivalent flows of external finance, thrift and credit co-operatives based much more on borrowers' requirements have emerged (Rutherford, 1995b, pl36). An understanding of the way in which the institutions themselves change and respond to incentives is therefore necessary for the design of relevant anti-poverty interventions, including financial services.
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-2
-Informal financial services
-2.1 Introduction
-In recent years research into informal financial services and systems has significantly deepened understanding of the way they operate and their strengths and weaknesses. A simplistic belief that local money-lenders charged extortionate interest rates lay behind the provision of subsidised finance in the past. More thorough investigation has highlighted a range of savings, credit, and insurance facilities accessible to poor people. The apparently usurious interest charges reportedly made by private money-lenders may be explainable in terms of transaction costs, lack of information, and high risk. Informal financial services may be well-equipped, because of local 'insider' knowledge, and lower overheads, to respond to the requirements of poor people; they may also be exploitative. This chapter starts with a brief overview of the types of informal services that have been found to exist in a wide variety of countries and social contexts.1 Some of the broad characteristics of these services are identified, and lessons drawn for the design of NGO or semi-formal systems. In describing informal financial services it is useful to distinguish between those which are owned by their users and those which are offered by an individual, usually on a profit-making basis. The distinction can be a helpful one in analysing the ways in which financial services enable or exploit poor people. NGOs considering microfinance interventions need first to find out what informal financial services are available, and how they operate. Such services are capable of supporting poor people's livelihoods as well as perpetuating l This chapter draws heavily on a background paper commissioned for the purposes
-of this book: A Critical Typology ofFinancial Servicesfor the Poor, Stuart Rutherford, November 1996. Examples are drawn from Rutherford's own experience unless otherwise stated.
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-Informal financial services structures which undermine them. It is necessary, therefore, to understand under what circumstances and to what degree these services are enabling or exploitative for poor people. On the whole, user-owned services are likely to be more enabling than services provided for profit. Investigating the scope and nature of existing services is an essential preliminary before considering whether an intervention is necessary. However, NGOs themselves may not have the right skills to become direct providers of financial services. Furthermore, financial services are needed by poor people on a permanent basis to enable them to plan and manage their finances; NGO programmes which might be here today and gone tomorrow may be an inappropriate means through which to provide them. Therefore NGOs should seriously consider whether direct intervention is in fact the best response for them to make. The chapter closes by discussing alternative strategies NGOs might employ.
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-2.2 User-owned informal financial services
-Systems which facilitate financial transactions and are owned by their users are many and varied, and range from simple reciprocal arrangements between neighbours, savings clubs and rotating savings and credit associations (ROSCAs), to forms of insurance, building societies, and systems of cooperative business finance. An example of each of these types is described below. All of these systems can be found in a variety of country settings. Rotating savings and credit associations (ROSCAs) in particular, are an extremely common phenomenon. They exist in almost every country (for example, 'partners' in Jamaica and Britain, hui in Vietnam, and njangi in Cameroon). (See Bouman, 1995; Ardener and Burman, 1995 for detailed and extensive surveys of ROSCA operations in a range of settings.) The principle is very simple: a number of people agree to save a fixed amount of money at regular intervals; at each meeting, for example weekly, each member contributes an agreed amount, resulting in a single lump sum becoming available, which is then allocated to one of the members. There are three basic variations in the way in which this lump sum or 'prize' is allocated. First, it can be allocated on the basis of strict rotation between members of the group; second, on the basis of a lottery of members; third, it may be auctioned to the member who is willing to accept the biggest discount. The group will usually meet (but does not always need to) and undertake this transaction on as many occasions as there are members of the group, thus ensuring that each member gets the 'prize' once. The ROSCA demonstrates the basic principle of financial intermediation: collecting many small savings from many people, turning this into a lump sum for one person, and repeating this procedure over time.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction ROSCA finance is used for many purposes. Some ROSCAs operate to enable an asset to be purchased, such as a rickshaw or fishing equipment for each member, and may have been set up specifically for the purpose. 'Merrygo-rounds', as ROSCAs are called among Kikuyu women in Kenya, are sometimes used by women as a means of accumulating enough money to buy new household utensils or clothes. The technology of the ROSCA is not unique to poor communities but is also used by salaried professionals to purchase major consumption items or assets such as refrigerators or cars. A further example of a user-owned device is the insurance fund which makes pay-outs conditional on certain circumstances occurring. These are intended to cover large expenses such as those connected with marriage or death.
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-2.2.1 Some examples of user-owned financial services Neighbourhood reciprocity in Southern India
-Reciprocal lending may be extended to involve several or even all the members of a community. Among Moslems in Kerala State in southern India kuri kalyanam are invitations to a feast to which the guest is expected to bring a cash gift. When the host in his turn is invited to a feast by one of the guests he is expected to return double the amount (less if he is perceived as poor). In Vietnam one kind o/hui (a generic name for various financial devices) involves a similar pooling of resources for one person on one occasion to be reciprocated later by others, at different times.
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-Rickshaw ROSCAs in Bangladesh
-Very poor men driven by poverty from their home villages to the Bangladesh capital, Dhaka, often earn a living there by driving hired rickshaws. In the last ten years they have begun to run ROSCAs. A group of drivers forms, and each driver saves a set amount from his daily takings. When the fund is large enough (this usually takes about 15 days) a rickshaw is bought and distributed by lottery to one of the members. In between prizes' the cash is held by a trustworthy outsider, usually a local shopkeeperfrom whom the members buy their tea or cigarettes. In a further adaptation, those who have already received their rickshaw double their daily contribution. This progressively reduces the time-gap between prizes, and is seen as a fair way of rewarding those members who win the lottery late in the cycle, because their gross contribution is smaller than earlier winners. The extra payment made by the winners is roughly equivalent to what they save by no longer having to hire a rickshaw.
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-Informal financial services
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-An accumulating savings club in Mexico
-In towns and villages in Mexico neighbours place frequent but irregular savings with trusted shopkeepers, fust before Christmas, the cash is returned to the saver. No interest is paid, but the saver has a lump sum to spend, and the shopkeeper has had the use of 'themoney over the year and can now look forward to a good sales season.
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-Building societies for the middle classes in Bangladesh
-In a lower-middle-class area of Dhaka, 165 employees in the Public Works Department belong to their own 'building society' which was started over 16 years ago. Each saves 200 taka ($5) a month out of his wages. As the cash accumulates it is lent out to members, who buy land and building materials. Interest rates are high and interest on the outstanding balance has to be paid each month, to encourage modest loans and rapid repayment. But loan sizes are generous and such workers would have few or no alternative sources for loans of this kind.
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-Popular insurance: funeral funds (id&ir) in Ethiopia
-Originally burial societies, iddir have extended to provide a wide range of insurance services in urban Ethiopia. Aredo (1993), studying these in Addis Ababa, estimated that 50per cent of urban households were members of some kind q/"iddir. Groups of people come together on the basis of location, occupation, friendship or family ties. Each iddir sets its own rules and regulations but usually pays outfor funeral expenses orfinancial assistance to families of the deceased, and sometimes to cover other costs, such as medical expenses and losses due to fire or theft.
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-2.3 Informal financial services for profit
-Those offering informal financial services for profit fall into two groups: deposit takers (often also called money-guards) and lenders. What is most interesting about the situation of deposit takers is that, as in the Nigerian example below, savers usually pay for the service by obtaining a negative interest rate on their funds. This demonstrates the pressing need that people have for places to put their savings which are safe and secure not only from physical risks such as theft, fire or flood, but also from the demands of their family. For women, in particular, the ability to save small amounts in places to which their husbands and families cannot gain access (although they might know about them) has been shown to be particularly important. It may enable them to meet obligations in the family or household, such as the payment of children's school fees, for which they have particular responsibility.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction Forms of lending also operate in a variety of ways, such as money-lenders; pawnbrokers, who take collateral in the form of physical assets; and forms of trade credit and hire purchase. The term 'money-lender' can cause confusion because it conjures up the image of a class of people whose main source of income is usury. In reality, many small farmers, for example, obtain credit from employers, landlords, traders, relatives, and other people who combine a number of economic activities. In some places money-lenders may be a more professionalised class, such as the 'Tamilians' in Cochin described below, but even in this case it is not necessarily their main source of income. Lending money can be exploitative oft, as well as enablingfor, poor people. People facing seasonal shortages may have only one source of credit, for example, an employer. The employer may agree to provide a loan, but only if the borrower promises to work when required at below the going wage-rate. As described below for Indonesia, crop traders may provide producers with seasonal credit on the understanding that the crop is sold through the same trader at low post-harvest prices. Tied credit of this type, whether in cash or kind, may be the only means of survival for poor people. But arrangements such as these can maintain and even exacerbate inequalities in power and position. In contrast, user-owned devices are likely to be more supportive and enabling, because the profits made are pooled, and shared or fed back into the system, and ownership and control of the funds are in the hands of the users. Such devices are unlikely to be exploitative of those involved, although they may widen inequalities between users and non-users. The comparison with services for profit is clear. However, loans from private lenders after harvest may enable small traders to make the most of the increased liquidity in the local economy. This emphasises the need for interveners to understand the workings of real markets and to question untested assumptions. It is essential to find out for which groups of poor people — women, men, landless labourers, subsistence farmers, migrant workers — and under what circumstances these arrangements may be no more than a means of survival, while supporting wealth creation for others.
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-2.3-1 Some examples of informal financial services provided for profit Deposit takers: a mobile alajo in Nigeria
-One consequence of Nigeria's current political difficulties is a drop in public confidence informal banks, according to Gemini News. This has allowed an old tradition to flourish again — alajos, or peripatetic deposit takers. Idowu Alakpere uses a bicycle to go
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-Informalfinancial services door-to-door round the outer suburb of Lagos where he lives. He has 500 customers who each save about 10 or 15 naira with him (about 50 to 75 cents US) at each daily visit. Customers withdraw money whenever they like, and Idowu charges them one day's savings per month, which he deducts from the withdrawal. Since deposits are made evenly over the month, the negative interest rate for one-month deposits is 1/15, or 6.6per cent a month, an Annual Percentage Rate (APR) of 80per cent. Some alajos, including Idowu, store the cash in a reliable bank, others use it to make loans. The Gemini News reporter was told by many local people that they trusted these alajos more than banks. When it was pointed out that some alajos are dishonest, they retorted that so are many banks.
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-Professional money-lenders in Cochin, India
-'Tamilians'provide a money-lending service to poor slum dwellers on a daily basis. They have set terms, which are well-known all over Cochin. For each 100 rupees lent, 3 rupees are deducted at source as a fee. Thereafter, 12.50 rupees per week must be repaid for ten weeks. This works out at an APR of 300per cent (28 rupees paid on an average size loan of 48.50 rupees [97/2]for 10/52 of a year). Most non-poor observers regard this rate as outrageously exploitative. However, poor users of the service tend to take a favourable view of it. The 'Tamilians' do not needlessly harass their clients over repayment but take an 'understanding' view which includes a willingness to accept loan losses. These money-lenders know their clients well and (out of self-interest) will not lend more than they think the client can repay out of normal income over the next ten weeks.
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-Lending against collateral-pawnbrokers in Western India
-Residents of the slums of Vijayawada use their local pawnbroker when they need money quickly. He is reliably available at his goldsmithing shop and he charges 3 per cent a month for loans pledged against gold, 5 per centfor silver and 9 per centfor brass. The inclusion of brass means that even the very poor can get a small advance by pawning kitchen pots and pans. He lends up to two-thirds the value of the pawn. He gives a receipt, and because the borrower can be sure ofgetting her pawn back when she repays the loan, she can risk pawning objects of sentimental value. Unlike those who lend without collateral the broker does not need to know his clients well: the unambiguous collateral provided by the pawn means that the broker can lend to more or less anyone at any time.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction
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-Advance crop sales in Indonesia
-A practice common in many countries is known as ijon in some areas of Indonesia. Farmers often need cash to get them through the 'hungry' season when their main crop is in the ground and there is not much else to do except sit and wait. They are forced to make an advance sale of the crop, usually to a grain buyer or his agent. Ijon transactions of this sort, if seen as loans, show an interest rate of anything from 10 to 40 per cent a month.
-(Source: Bouman and Moll in Adams and Fitchett, 1992.)
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-Two examples of trade credit
-In many markets it is common to see poor people squatting on the ground with a small amount of fertiliser spread out on a mat. The fertiliser doesn't necessarily belong to the man or woman (or, often, child). Lacking capital themselves to buy stock, such people obtain the fertiliser on credit from a nearby shop. At the close of the market they return the money from sales and any balance of the stock to the shopkeeper, retaining a small proportion of the money. The system allows people to trade (safely if not profitably) without capital, and gives the shopkeeper a cheap extra outlet. Tfredadon credit system used to finance prawn cultivation in Bangladesh is an example of a trading system in which credit is passed on through a chain of intermediaries between the prawn farmer and exporters to Europe. The prawn market is a highly competitive business in which everyone in the chain is short of capital. The 'commission agent' at the port buys prawns on behalf of the exporters in the capital. To ensure their share of the market they provide credit early in the season which finds its way through a number of intermediaries before reaching the hands of the farmer. The intermediaries are 'depot' owners, then farias', or merchants, and finally local traders, who in turn lend to the farmers. In accepting the credit the farmer commits himself to selling exclusively to this particular trader.
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-2.4 Turning the informal into the formal
-In some countries such informal systems have evolved into formal systems which have had a major impact on their users. In the UK, for example, 'mutual' or friendly societies which began as small thrift groups in the nineteenth century turned into building societies in the first half of the twentieth, and have been the main source of housing finance for 50 years.
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-Informal financial services There are further examples of such informal systems becoming increasingly formalised. Aredo (1993) reports that the iddir'm Addis Ababa run by the Ethiopia Teachers' Association is of the scale of a medium-size insurance business. In Cameroon some of the traditional ROSCAs known as njangi have evolved into small banks offering finance for small businesses which have difficulty using formal banks (Haggblade, 1978). ROSCAs may thus be a transitional phenomenon. Chit funds in India are a formalised version of a ROSCA, for which government legislation exists. In contrast to the ROSCA, members of the chit fund do not normally know each other and are merely customers of the chit companies. The company advertises for and selects members, makes arrangements for collection of subscriptions, and holds auctions for the prizes. However, such funds are of limited use to poor people, who lack both the income to pay subscriptions and the social position to gain the confidence of the company. The transition to formalised services is not inevitable. Informal and formal arrangements continue to exist side-by-side even in industrialised countries. In Oxford, UK,ROSCAs have enabled people with very limited capital of their own to increase their chances of obtaining a small business loan (Srinivasan, 1995). A detailed comparative study of credit use among low-income Pakistani, Bangladeshi, and Carribean immigrants in the UK revealed enormous differences in their use of financial services. In all cases sources of credit were classified into high-street credit, local commercial credit, mail order, social fund, community-based credit, and 'miscellaneous' (including friends, family, and employer). Unlike the Bangladeshis, the Pakistani and Carribean respondents reported community-based, ROSCA-like arrangements. Bangladeshi respondents made much more use of formal bank credit than the others, although they had at least as high a proportion of applications rejected, apparently on racial grounds (Herbert and Kempson, 1996). Abugre (1994) points out that transition and change can be rapid, discontinuous, and turbulent rather than smooth and linear. There is therefore likely to be a multiplicity of arrangements, some of which become formalised, while others die out, and yet others are initiated. The implication for those interested in providing financial services is that such a role must be carefully thought through, and beflexibleand responsive to changing circumstances.
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-2.5 What can be learned from informal finance?
-Having briefly explored the range of financial services which may exist, it is clear that informal finance is a regular feature of poor people's lives. What can be learned from this? The continuation of a large number of different forms suggest the following points (partly adapted from Adams, 1992).
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-There is clearly a demand for financial services
-The range of informal financial services available partly reflects the varied requirements which people, both rich and poor, have for financial services. They may also be explained in terms of the actions of people with excess cash seeking to earn income from lending. In some cases, especially where there is a monopoly, or collusion among providers, this can be exploitative for the borrower. Informal services available include savings facilities, provision of credit for consumption, and funding for predictable but expensive events such as marriages and funerals. This is in significant contrast to the services that NGOs have generally offered, which have usually been limited to the provision of credit for production.
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-Transaction costs are low.
-Transaction costs are the costs, other than interest payments, which are incurred in making a deposit or taking a loan. They include travel, time away from other activities, related 'gifts' which might have to be offered to bank or government officials, costs in obtaining documentation required, such as land certificates, and so on. Compared to formal services, local informal services generally require very little form-filling or travel. However, the advantage to the borrower of low transaction costs may be more than counterbalanced by their lack of power in setting the terms of a loan, which may be exploitative.
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-Informal services impose their own discipline
-The flow of information locally and the small number of providers of informal finance often act as powerful incentives to users to repay loans or save in a disciplined way. A ROSCA member failing to pay their instalment risks social ostracism from neighbours, friends, and relatives; they may be less likely to receive help from these people in times of severe difficulty in future.
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-Poor people are capable of saving
-The evidence of informal systems disproves the assumption that poor people cannot save. Saving 'in kind' has long been a recognised part of people's livelihood management: saving in cash is a necessity of interaction with the cash economy. Indeed it is often the poorest, who are landless or for other reasons dependent on casual, poorly-paid jobs, who gain a large proportion of their incomes in cash and therefore have most need of savings facilities. The evidence shows that poor people are not only willing to save but at present often pay highly for savings facilities.
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-Informal financial services Informal systems are adaptable. The variety of forms and functions of informal finance demonstrates the adaptability of these systems to different economic conditions and changing circumstances. This contrasts with formal systems which often have to be based on a uniform delivery model. There is thus much to be learned from informal financial systems. Indeed aspects of these systems have found their way into the design of NGO and semi-formal financial services programmes. In particular, both group-based and individual-based schemes have made use of the 'insider knowledge' of other local people: individual-based schemes, such as BRI, through personal references from local representatives, and groupbased schemes, such as Grameen, through self-selecting groups of borrowers (see Chapter 1). This brief overview has not identified for whom these services exist — women and men, poor or poorest. The poorest people may find it difficult to save the amount that a ROSCA requires and hence find participation a burden or are excluded. Even if there are a number of people in similar situations, they are often marginalised or isolated and lack the social networks to create their own ROSCA with a lower fee. Indebtedness may also make it difficult for the poorest to save and build up a small asset base — a situation that will be illustrated in the case of low-income and unemployed members of the Ladywood Credit Union in the UK, a case-study scheme described in Chapter 6. There are therefore limitations to the extent to which savings-based userowned facilities can be of use to very poor people. However, systems that allow flexible amounts to be deposited are more likely to be appropriate.
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-2.6 Deciding when and how to intervene
-Before going on to discuss ways of intervening which are useful and relevant to poor people (see Chapter 3), it is necessary to issue some warnings. Several commentators, among them NGO practitioners, have questioned the appropriateness of NGOs acting as providers of financial services. Abugre (1992) identifies a range of dangers, and points to the dire consequences of the job being done badly: • NGOs remain averse to charging positive real interest rates and may, consciously or otherwise, undermine traditional financial systems. • NGOs do not submit themselves to the discipline required for the provision of sustainable financial services.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction • Schemes are managed by entirely unprofessional and untrained staff and are often carelessly conceived, designed, and implemented. • There are cases where NGOs have flooded the market with credit, resulting in indebtedness on the part of borrowers, and potentially regressive effects on income and wealth distribution. By extending loans which poor people are unable to pay due to factors beyond their control, or which may have simply been inappropriate in the first place, NGOs can cause a level of indebtedness which may result in the borrower having to liquidate assets in order to repay. Abugre therefore warns against the hasty introduction of new financial services by NGOs and concludes that they should concentrate on what they do well, such as providing social services and acting as confidence brokers in communities. Direct provision may be a risky and problematic strategy for an NGO, particularly as the NGO may not have the range of skills required to develop microfinance interventions, nor experience of the financial skills and responsibility required to ensure funds are properly safeguarded and accounted for. A further range of managerial skills are also necessary in managing a portfolio of financial assets such as loans and deposits. NGOs with experience of welfare and relief have more experience of channelling funds than managing them (Bouman, 1995). An NGO must ask itself whether it has the skills to become a banker. An organisation lacking the relevant skills may consider acquiring them either through recruitment or staff development. Such a strategy itself has important consequences. These skills may be in short supply and recruitment prove difficult; they take time to develop and are acquired through experience as well as training. There is often a strong impetus to start work even if the skills of staff are still weak. This can endanger the intervention itself since it is at this early stage that users gain an impression of the nature of the operation, and inexperienced staff are likely to make mistakes. Embarking on direct intervention also raises questions about the long-term sustainability of the service on offer. Financial services should not be provided on a transient or temporary basis. There needs to be a degree of permanence to enable people to plan for their future financial needs. Consideration of the long-term future for a system of financial service provision is therefore important at the outset. Direct provision by an NGO which expects to move away from the area would seldom be appropriate.
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-Informal financial services There is a further range of issues at the level of the macro-economy which should also be considered when deciding whether to intervene. Macroeconomic stability is an important pre-requisite for getting a scheme off the ground.2 Hyper-inflation and economic instability do not encourage individuals to save, and loans under such circumstances are difficult to manage. (However, in Mexico, while formal-sector banks were reeling from massive default caused by the high interest rates and high inflation of 1995, URAC, one of the case-study institutions discussed in Chapter 6, continued to thrive.) Political stability is also needed, since without it there is unlikely to be much confidence in the long-term future of new financial institutions. Before considering scheme design an NGO must also investigate the formal legal regulatory requirements for organisations involved in financial service provision, especially for savings (see Chapter 3).
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-2.6.1 Research questions on existing informal financial services
-In carrying out research into the services available, and how they are used, an intervener should try to find answers to a wide range of questions, such as:
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-How do people manage their savings deposits?
-Are there savings banks, or deposit takers, insurance salesmen, or savings clubs? Do poor people have access to them? If not, how do they save (for example, gold, livestock). Who among the poor uses them (men, women, landless labourers, subsistence farmers etc)? (Extensive use of expensive deposit takers might indicate that the NGO should look first at the reasons why alternatives are not in place: and second at whether there is any possibility for the NGO to get involved, either as promoter or as provider, in savings collection.)
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-How do people temporarily realise the value of assets they hold?
-Are there pawnbrokers or are there schemes that allow them to pawn land or other major assets (eg jewellery) safely? Who uses these services? (If such devices exist, are they exploitative or enabling? If they are clearly exploitative, there might be a case for an NGO to try to provide or promote an alternative.)
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-How do people get access to the current value of future savings?
-Are there money-lenders willing to advance small loans against future savings? Are there ROSCAs or managed or commercial chits, or co-operative
-2 In a background paper commissioned for the purposes of this book, Shahin Yaqub examined the 'Macroeconomic Conditions for Successful Microfinance for Poor People'. The paper is available from the Policy Department, Oxfam (UK and Ireland).
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction banks? Do poor people have access? Which poor people use them? (If money-lenders appear to be exploiting users, for example by imposing very high interest rates or linking loans to disadvantageous deals over land, labour or commodities, then there might be a case for the NGO to introduce ROSCAs or annual savings clubs, or work as a promoter of self-help groups or credit unions.)
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-How do people make provision for known life-cycle expenses?
-Do they provide for daughters' marriages, their own old age and funeral, for their heirs? Are there clubs that satisfy these needs, or general savings services or insurance companies that will do as well? Are there government or employer-run schemes? Are there particular expenses for which women have responsibility?
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-How do people cope with emergencies?
-What happens when a breadwinner is ill, or when a flood or drought occurs? Does the government have schemes that reach poor people in these circumstances? If not, what local provision do people make?
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-How do small-scale entrepreneurs get access to business finance?
-If so, in what amounts and at what cost? Do women entrepreneurs have access? During the exploratory work done to answer these questions another set of information will come to light — the absolute quantities of cash involved in local financial intermediation. This can be of immense value to scheme designers in cases where a decision is made to intervene. For example, information about amounts repaid regularly to money-lenders will be useful in setting loan sizes and repayment schedules for loan schemes. (Source: Rutherford, 1996.) Much can be learned from the way in which people are already managing their finances. A further aspect is the social relations involved — the groups of people who get together to form ROSCAs, those from whom loans are taken, and those with whom deposits are lodged. Tierney's work on the Oxfamfunded Youth Employment Groups in Tabora Region of Tanzania demonstrates that the design of the intervention, which was based around groups of people with the same occupational background, did not correspond to the pattern of existing financial intermediation, which was organised around small kin-based groups, each including diverse enterprises. Tierney argues that 'the formation of development groups can, ironically, divert people's energy away from improving their lives, because forming the kind of groups which are eligible for financial assistance is a time-consuming activity involving skill
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-Informal financial services in manipulating and maintaining public relations' (Tierneyforthcoming).This illustrates the value of understanding how indigenous financial systems operate, before designing a new microfinance initiative.
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-2.7 Filling the gaps
-As well as alerting people to the potential pitfalls of intervention, research to answer the kind of questions suggested above is likely to identify gaps in existing services. There are many ways in which such gaps can be filled and below are some examples of financial service interventions in insurance and hire purchase which can be of use to poor people. For those agencies whose motivation is poverty reduction it is important to link the identification of gaps with a poverty analysis to determine who is excluded from existing services and how such exclusion perpetuates poverty.
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-2.7.1 Some examples of innovative services Hire-then-purchase for the poor in Bangladesh
-ACTIONAID found, through the experience of running a groupbased lending programme similar to that of the Grameen Bank, that many very poor people were nervous of taking a large loan — the 5,000 taka ($125) needed to buy a rickshaw, for example— in case they were not able to repay it. AA therefore devised a hire-thenpurchase scheme for such people. AA bought its own rickshaws and hired them out to group members. A rickshaw driver could hire a rickshaw from AA instead of hiring one from a local 'mohajan'. If he then decided to convert his contract with AAfrom hiring to buying, a proportion of the total hiring fees he had already paid was denoted as his down-payment, and he took a regular (smaller) AA loan to pay off the rest.
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-Door-step insurance agents, Cuttack, Orissa
-In Cuttack, insurance agents from the Peerless company visit households in low-income areas. They offer simple endowment schemes, which from the point of view of the customers are like accumulating fixed deposit schemes: the customer puts in a fixed amount regularly and then on maturity gets it back plus profits. Life insurance cover is included in the contract.
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-'Bankassurance': group-based insurance for the rural poor
-In Bangladesh, one insurance company is pioneering an attempt to match, in the field of insurance, Grameen Bank's success in lending.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction Delta Life Insurance has been experimenting since 1988 with cutprice basic life-insurance for rural people. Customers are arranged in groups, there is no medical examination and no age-bar, and premiums are tiny and collected weekly. Agents are also involved in Grameen-Bank-style lending and earn an extra commission for the insurance work. In fact the insurance premiums are invested directly in lending (on which healthy interest may be earned). In 1996 Delta was looking for a big NGO partner which could offer the two services — lending and insurance — side by side. Experience so far has shown that demand for such a service is high. Delta is exploring how it can extend this initiative beyond life insurance.
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-2.8 Promotion: an alternative strategy for NGOs
-Having identified the gaps in existing financial service provision, an NGO might involve itself in promotion rather than provision. The main alternatives to direct provision of financial services are ones which involve the NGO in a transitional or support role whereby activities such as mobilisation, training, and making links to other organisations are provided. A range of possible approaches are outlined.
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-2.8.1 Formation of savings groups and development of internal credit facilities
-Where ROSCAs do not exist or have limited coverage, the NGO might act as a facilitator of their formation or enable them to develop slightly more sophisticated systems of internal on-lending which allows savings and loans to take on more flexible formats. This approach has been used by Friends of Women's World Banking in India. In this case the NGO is mainly involved in training and organising the groups. Self-help groups (SHGs) are NGO-led attempts to promote savings clubs, or simple forms of credit union. Those initiated by Friends of Women's World Banking in India are aimed at poor rural women. FWWB (or its partner NGOs) persuades women from the same neighbourhood and from similar backgrounds to form small groups of 12 to 15 members. NGO workers encourage the women to meet regularly and frequently and during these meetings the women discuss their financial problems and ways of solving them. The solution they are steered towards involves regular small savings and the immediate conversion of those savings into small loans taken by one or two members at each meeting. Care is taken to
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-Informal financial services involve all group members in the discussion and formulation of rules (how often to meet, the interest to be charged on loans, and repayment arrangements) and then to ensure that every member experiences for herself the activities of saving and of taking and repaying a loan. The group is asked to choose leaders who are trained to manage the group's affairs: if illiteracy or very poor educational levels are a problem then rules are kept deliberately simple (fixed equal savings, and annual dividends rather than monthly interest on savings, for example). These preparations are intended to equip the group for independent survival after the NGO stops sending workers regularly to the meetings. Groups which perform well over several months are able to obtain small bulk loans made by FWWB to the group as a collective. Where there are a number ofgroups in an area, FWWB may help them form a federation' ('apex body') to help with liquidity problems: groups with excess savings deposit them with the federation which on-lends to groups with a strong demand for loans. (Source: WWB, 1993.) However, although this type of intervention can succeed with agency help, it has yet to be proved whether savings and credit groups which are promoted by outsiders can achieve long-term independence (Rutherford, 1996). A range of questions remain: can they save sufficient funds among themselves to satisfy their own demand for loans? Can external funds be introduced into these groups without destroying their independence?
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-2.8.2 Promotion of small-scale formalised approaches
-National legislation may allow for credit unions (the World Council of Credit Unions has national and regional affiliates all over the world) or thrift and credit co-operatives (as in Sri Lanka, see 3.4.2). Another approach an NGO might adopt could be the linking up of people interested in establishing such services for themselves with other credit unions or umbrella and apex bodies that are able to promote and advise on particular financial services. Oxfam Hyderabad worked with the Federation of Thrift and Credit Associations in Andhra Pradesh, encouraging exposure visits to flourishing thrift and credit societies by potential members from other areas. The members now have a source of consumption credit based on their own savings. Oxfam Hyderabad saw its support for linking potential groups with an existing thrift and credit structure as a move away from direct funding q/NGOs to provide credit.
-(Source: Oxfam (India) Trust, 1993-)
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-2.8.3 Linking groups to the formal system
-Existing savings groups or ROSCAs may already have bank savings accounts but are unable to take loans because the bank does not understand their operations or believe them to be creditworthy. The NGO might work with groups to encourage them to build up savings and deposit them in formal institutions. The NGO may then be able to work with a local bank to encourage it to extend its services to groups. In Ghana, rural banking legislation was designed to create semiautonomous local banks which would serve people cut off from financial services. However, the banks have experienced a range of problems which led to only 23 out of a total of 123 being classified as operating satisfactorily in 1992 (Onumah, 1995). In 1991 the Garu Bank, a small rural bank set up in 1983 in Ghana, was near to collapse as a result of embezzlement and bad loans. The people of Garu persuaded a member of their own community who was working in Accra to come back to the area and become themanager. The Bank is a unit bank and operates relatively autonomously. Share capital of the Bank is owned by the local community, the Catholic Mission, the local Agricultural Station and a Disabled Rehabilitation Centre. Helped by an additional capital injection of $30,000 received from overseas donors via the Catholic Mission the manager transformed the situation, and expected to report a profit for the first time. The bank has a range of clients, including local salaried workers such as teachers and government employees. These people are good customers because they take loans which are easily recoverable in the form of deductions made from their salaries at source. Alongside these customers, the Bank provides services to some 300 farmers' groups. Some of these groups were originally formed by the local Agricultural Station and the Catholic Mission and bought shares in the Bank when it was first set up. The manager went to meet the groups to discuss their needs with them. He has developed his own approach to the groups, and stresses that they should be concerned with working together rather than just obtaining credit. He has set up his own criteria for lending to the groups-, savings balances of at least 10 per cent of the loan amount; regularity of savings as an indicator ofgroup cohesion; and that the group should have been operating for at least six months. Repayment of the loan on time results in almost automatic qualification for a new loan the following year (although he had refused loans to a number of groups the previous year due to poor performance). (Source: Abugre, Johnson et al, 1995)
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-Informal financial services This bank manager may be exceptional. However, NGOs could provide an important bridge between these banks and savings groups and help to negotiate facilities and services for the groups by, for example, helping to gain access to funds which are used as a line of credit by the bank itself to such groups. In some cases as in the example below, such business turns out to be more profitable than the bank's existing portfolio! In Northern Bangladesh, the International Fund for Agricultural Development has since 1989 been financing the German Technical Assistance Agency, GTZ, to bring an NGO (RDRS: Rangpur Dinajpur Rural Services) into partnership with four banks including a government owned one (RAKUB). The NGO promotes and trains groups to the point where the groups go to the banks for loans. The banks bear all the lending risk. So far some 1,800 groups, of 10 to 20 members, have been trained. Repayment is good, and has probably been influenced by the ethos of the Grameen Bank and its imitators, so numerous in rural Bangladesh. The banks claim they are making a profit (of something like six per cent on each taka loaned) whereas they make a loss on most of their normal business. About US$1.8 million had been lent up to mid-1995- (Source: Chauduri, 1994.) A further example is a formal-sector bank in Sri Lanka, which has developed a concept of 'barefoot banking'. Its staff take their services to people in their homes, and the bank works with NGOs to make links to groups of microentrepreneurs, relying on NGOs to address the social needs of the entrepreneurs (Wijesundera, 1996).
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-2.8.4 Linking with specialised financial service NGOs
-If an NGO decides that direct provision of financial services is the best way forward, it may still not be necessary for that NGO to provide the services. A number of NGOs, local and international, have developed skills and experience in financial service provision and may be interested in starting work in a new area. It may prove more effective for these specialised NGOs to manage such an intervention separately from the existing NGO's activities.
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-2.8.5 Advocacy
-Another strategy for NGOs experienced in advocacy may be to persuade banks to extend financial services to hitherto unserved areas and to poor people in general (WWB, 1994).
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-2.9 Summary and conclusions
-While the overview of informal financial services given here has been brief, there is ample evidence to demonstrate that there is usually a range of such services in existence which poor people are already using. This is the background against whichany plan to provide financial services should be considered. Exploring the array of existing informal services available to different groups in an area can provide a wealth of information. Talking to users and assessing how existing financial intermediation interacts with other local markets and social and economic structures can help to establish the degree to which it is enabling or exploitative, and for whom. Where an NGO is considering intervention, an understanding of existing informal services may provide useful indicators for design, in terms of size, timing, and volume of savings and loans. However it cannot be assumed that NGOs should intervene directly. Indeed, experience suggests that NGOs may lack the ability to manage funds (rather than simply channel them). NGOs may inadvertently damage existing satisfactory financial services by charging interest rates that are too low (and therefore artificially divert demand) or may create indebtedness. There are alternatives to direct provision by NGOs which might involve promotion of services rather than provision. For example, an NGO might make use of its strengths in community mobilisation and training to link up with existing or potential suppliers of financial services in more sustainable ways. • The NGO should investigate the nature and characteristics of financial services already available in order to establish how, for whom, and under what circumstances these services enable or exploit the livelihoods of poor people; understand the services which people value and how they use them, in order to avoid undermining those aspects they find beneficial and would wish to retain; collect information on loan and deposit sizes, types, terms and conditions, which can contribute to the design of new services; and, where poverty reduction is the aim, relate proposals to an analysis of how poverty would be reduced by the intervention. • The NGO should carefully consider whether its staff have the appropriate skills and experience to provide financial services before embarking on a path of direct provision. • The NGO should consider alternatives to direct provision of financial services and explore the range of options that might exist, such as building relations with banks, developing internal credit facilities within groups, or linking groups to the formal sector.
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-3
-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people
-3.1 Introduction
-In the preceding chapter, the role of informal financial services, and how this can be taken into account when deciding whether and how to intervene, has been discussed. This chapter and the two subsequent ones discuss the design, performance, sustainability, and impact of interventions to provide financial services. In the recent past, the best-known microfinance institutions (such as Grameen Bank, Bangladesh, Bank Rakyat Indonesia, and Banco Sol, Bolivia) have achieved high repayment rates, yet most of the people who use them would not have been able to make use of the financial services provided by the formal sector. The design of such schemes has increasingly involved the use of innovative forms of loan collateral, and higher interest rates on loans. Little attention has been given to monitoring the uses to which loans are put, and much more attention has been paid to savings, including their use as a form of collateral. Table 31 summarises the rationale behind some of these design features, which are discussed in more detail below. However, a particular combination of design features will have different outcomes under different circumstances. As a result implementors need to look critically at this combination in understanding the results they see in practice.
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-3.2 Targeting savings and credit to poor people
-A major concern of NGOs involved in credit provision has always been how to reach poor people, and in the late 1980s and 1990s the rhetoric that NGOs are able 'to reach the poorest' has remained powerful. Some organisations target the poor by defining the criteria which users have to meet in order to be eligible for loans; but 'self-targeting' is increasingly becoming a feature of the design 35
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-Table 3.1 Design features for ensuring high repayment rates on loans and enabling poor people to access credit
-Design Feature Intended Effect
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-Access methods
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-(Means of ensuring that relatively well-off people do not crowd out others' access to loans)
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-Maximum Direct exclusion of better-off through eg land-holding ceiling income/assets Small loan size Loans are small enough that better-off are not interested in them Regular meetings Indirect exclusion of better-off through eg compulsory attendance at weekly meetings or contributions of physical labour to which the wealthy will not agree (Mechanisms for screening out bad borrowers and projects)
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-Screening
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-techniques
-Market interest rates Self-selected Encourages loan taking on basis of prospective returns not to capture subsidies Prospective members are asked to form groups themselves and hence screen in favour of those they believe will repay, they also screen proposed loan use Alternatively local officials or power structures may be used to approve loan applications
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-Character reference
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-B
-Incentives to repay
-Intensive supervision Peer group monitoring Borrower incentives Agency staff incentives Progressive lending Compulsory Savings
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-(Mechanisms for giving borrowers who have no collateral incentives to repay, or failing this, forcing them to repay) Regular meetings with extension staff in or near the homes of borrowers Repayment is made in public in front of the group with consequent loss of face if payment is not made For example, rebates of interest on loans repaid early Agency staff may receive financial bonuses directly related to the repayment performance of their clients Borrowers are able to gain repeated access to loans if they repay and these may also increase in size A small amount contributed regularly into a group savings fund provides insurance or collateral for the loans of all group members (Source: Adapted from Hulme and Mosley, 1996.)
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people of interventions, with members choosing to join the scheme as a result of the services on offer rather than the implementors of the scheme choosing them. NGOs have often implemented a first stage of targeting when they decide the geographical area in which to work, since they may have selected this on the basis of a range of poverty indicators. But geographical targeting alone may be imprecise. There are degrees of poverty in all communities. The next step may be to exclude those with whom the NGO does not wish to work. This can be done in various ways, for example, by defining an asset or landholding ceiling for members; many of the well-known schemes in Bangladesh impose a land-holding ceiling of half an acre. However, while it may act as a guide when field staff are recruiting new members, Rutherford (1995b) points out that NGO workers do not usually seek proof of the size of land-holding, and it is easy to disguise or conceal the amount held; as a result the rule is not strictly enforced. In a number of ACTIONAID programmes, direct exclusion is practised through the use of wealth-ranking exercises (see Pretty etal, 1995). On the basis of the results, project staff identify those in the lower part of the ranking whom it wishes to target; staff may approach these individuals directly to form groups as a basis for a range of development activities, including savings and credit. An alternative to directly targeting a particular group is to use design features which result in the better-off excluding themselves. Two such design features have been used by many schemes: small loan sizes and the holding of compulsory regular meetings to qualify for loans and to make repayments. Richer people are less likely to be interested in very small loans or in attending regular meetings, whereas repayment at weekly or fortnightly meetings may be attractive to poorer people who feel able to manage small, regular cash repayments out of their normal income. In practice, schemes often combine several methods of targeting. For example, having initially selected a relatively poor area to work in, the design of the scheme may include maximum loan sizes and regular meetings with a group who may have been selected using wealth-ranking techniques. Some organisations have assessed the proportion of 'non-target' households in their membership. Figures from BRAC's 1995 impact study (Mustafa et al, 1996) indicate that 10 per cent of members were from 'nontarget' households. Targeting is rarely an exact science and can be a timeconsuming, and therefore costly, activity. Indirect mechanisms which promote 'self-selection' are able to lower these costs. However, as the scale of operations increases, so these mechanisms are less easy to monitor and there is likely to be an increase in the proportion of non-target households involved. Some organisations regard this as an inevitable but acceptable trade-off.
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-3 3 Women as users of financial services
-Making women the beneficiaries of NGO credit schemes is also a targeting technique. Women — whether poor or not — suffer discrimination in the market (Kabeer, 1996). It is thus important to ensure that women can obtain loans provided by intervention agencies. It was pointed out in Chapter 1 that women can be targeted for reasons of efficiency in implementation rather than because of a concern for women's empowerment. This emphasises the need for clarity as to the reason for targeting women, the means of doing it, and the likely outcome in terms of gender relations. Microfinance interventions may lead to empowerment for women by increasing their incomes and their control over that income, enhancing their knowledge and skills in production and trade, and increasing their participation in household decision-making. As a result, social attitudes and perceptions may change, and women's status in the household and community may be enhanced. A useful distinction to be made is between receiving a loan and using it. The investigation carried out in Bangladesh by Goetz and Sen Gupta, demonstrated that, even when it was women who received the loans, gender relations within the household affected how loans were used, and the degree of control the woman borrower retained over their use. It is therefore important to understand what happens to a loan beyond its disbursement to a female borrower. In addition, attendance at regular meetings can involve a heavy cost in terms of time for women, especially for poorer women, who in many socioeconomic environments have heavier workloads than better-off women or men. There may, on the other hand, be circumstances in which the group approach and regular meetings have empowering outcomes for women (Hashemi etal, 1996; Osmani, 1996). One rationale for using groups is that where programmes are intended to reach women, group-based activities mean that women are able to defend their attendance as a social role and obligation. In addition, where women are socially isolated, for example as a result of purdah restrictions on their mobility, meeting other women at the home of a friend or neighbour may be of intrinsic value. The role of the group meeting is thus likely to vary in different social contexts; women borrowers themselves should be involved in determining the role and organisation of group meetings.
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-3.4 Lending through groups
-The well-known microfinance schemes in Bangladesh, such as those of BRAC and the Grameen Bank, tend to work through groups. Indeed, such
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people schemes are often referred to as 'group-based finance' or 'solidarity-group lending' schemes. Because group members are jointly liable for each individual's loans, this represents a form of'social collateral'. This contrasts to the physical collateral of land or assets which formal-sector services usually require and which poor people are unable to offer. The rationale of groupbased lending is that if a member is having difficulty with repayments, others in the group will put pressure on that member to repay. Further, that if this pressure fails and the member defaults on the loan, the whole group will repay the loan on behalf of the member. Despite the popularity of group-based lending as a design feature, the function which groups play in the scheme can vary: as we have seen, women may find meetings time-wasting, or an important social event, depending on their circumstances. Recent research into the way in which group solidarity operates in practice is illuminating in this respect. First, it is worth clarifying what is meant by 'groups'. Some microfinance schemes have small groups of five or six members, called 'solidarity groups'. A number of these small groups may then come together as 'development centres' or village organisations. Alternatively, a group of some 20 or so people may operate without subgroups. Weekly meetings for saving and loan repayment are usually organised at the level of the larger group. Staff of the scheme are thus able to meet more clients at one time and hence reduce the costs of providing the service. The ratio of costs to loan size is very high when loans are for small amounts. Of course, NGOs often have other motives for working with groups: they use them to implement other activities, such as literacy classes and health education; they may also see them as a means for further organisationbuilding in the area. 3.4.1 Functions of the group in microfinance schemes The role which groups play in the operation of microfinance schemes can be analysed as follows: Targeting: regular compulsory group meetings may serve to discourage better-off people from taking part, increasing the funds available for lending to poor people. Transparency: the openness and accountability which meetings can bring to the process of taking and repaying credit can also prevent certain members of the group colluding with field workers or bank staff over the allocation of credit. Screening of potential borrowers: where groups are formed through self-selection, the individual members effectively screen each other,
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction initially selecting those of their neighbours and friends whom they believe to be capable of repaying the loans. This is especially true in the case of small 'solidarity groups'. Incentives to repay: if repayments are made at group meetings it is immediately obvious to everyone involved if someone is falling behind with their repayments. Social pressure may then be exerted on these members to repay by other members and by staff of the scheme. Viewed negatively this is a form of public humiliation for those who start to fall behind with repayments. The social pressure is then expected to act as an incentive to them to either work harder or obtain the repayments from another source. Enforcing repayment: the group as a whole may be penalised by being refused further loans if a member defaults or falls behind with repayments. The policy may then be that the group's savings balances will be used to repay the loan if necessary. Two recent studies have looked at what happens in practice when members fall behind with repayments. Jain (1996) reports that, in the case of Grameen Bank, the concept of joint responsibility was much discussed, but when members fell behind with repayments they were in fact followed up on an individual basis by bank staff in household visits. Moreover, other group members were not penalised by having to make payments on behalf of defaulting members or through forfeiting further loans. Jain goes on to point out that the functioning of the Grameen Bank's development centres as autonomous groups is relatively limited. The leaders of the group have a minor role in credit management and it tends to be Bank staff who actually develop relationships with group members. Jain judges the importance of group meetings to lie in the fact that all transactions are open and staff are thus accountable to group members. This has the important effect of limiting the ability of staff to undermine the system by favouring particular individuals or using their position to further their own objectives. The routine of regular meetings also serves to enforce repayment discipline. In the case of BRAC, it was found that in the early stages of a borrower finding difficulty with repayment, she would first approach relatives and close friends for assistance (Montgomery, 1996). If the situation continued, it was the village-level group that was approached by the BRAC fieldworker rather than the five or six-member solidarity group. The most forceful sanction was the withdrawal of further loans from the larger village group as a whole, and it appears that the effect of this sanction was for the defaulting member to drop out of the scheme. The evidence from BRAC also 40
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people demonstrates that, while groups can be a source of social pressure on borrowing members to repay, it does not appear to be the case that group members always pay for an individual borrower's loans in the event of default.
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-3-4.2 Including the poorest
-A major concern in connection with the use of self-selecting solidarity groups for financial service provision is that, given the way in which members screen each other, it is the poorest who are least likely to be able to join the scheme. This concern appears to be supported by Montgomery's research on BRAC which showed that those who dropped out after repayment difficulties tended to be the poorer members. However, by contrast SANASA in Sri Lanka demonstrates how people with different levels of relative wealth can be included by operating a range of financial services which respond to the circumstances which poorer households face: SANASA has a three-tier structure of primary societies, district unions, and a national federation which accommodates 8,000 village-level thrift and credit co-operatives with 800,000 members. Village-level groups are highly heterogeneous and vary in size from 20 to 700 members, with the larger ones having turned themselves into small-scale banks. The second and third tiers of this pyramidal structure provide financial and technical support to the village-level co-operatives. SANASA has a strong ideology of self-reliance, savings mobilisation, and the profitable provision of financial services to its members. In practice the upper levels of the structure are strongly dependent on donor funds. Village-level co-operatives have an open and participatory structure with monthly meetings of the general membership, and are run by a small elected management committee. The financial statements of the co-operative and member's business are discussed at the monthly meetings. Financial information is in some cases also written on the wall of the book-keeping room. Such transparency at meetings reduces the likelihood of malpractice and take-over by elites, which has caused failure of co-operatives in Sri Lanka in the past. The financial services offered by the co-operatives are varied and flexible. A village group is autonomous and decides its own range of loan types and savings facilities, which evolve in relation to members' needs and local economic circumstances. A society of 60 members may have as many as ten different types of credit facility. SANASA has attempted to convince primary societies of the viability
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction of bringing poorer members into the co-operatives, and providing services which will meet their needs. One way of making it possible for poor people to join is to allow the member's share to be purchased in monthly instalments rather than as a single payment. Of particular interest to poorer members are 'instant loans', and facilities with interest rates varying according to type of access and length of deposit. Instant loans, even at high interest-rates but with overnight access, enable those facing a crisis to respond to it without further endangering their livelihoods. Such facilities act as protection mechanisms reducing the vulnerability of households to shocks and enhancing their coping strategies. Data from SANASA shows that poorer people tend to take smaller loans, because they do not wish to expose themselves to the additional risks that a debt burden represents. SANASA has come to understand the importance of 'hot' money. This is money generated from savings and member's shares, and default on loans from these funds constitutes 'stealing 'from other members. This is a further factor for enhancing peer pressure, and shows the importance of limiting the amount of 'cold' money (i.e. funds supplied by banks and external donors) in the system, which may encourage members not to repay.
-(Sources: Montgomery, 1996; Hulme and Montgomery, 1994.)
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-3.4.3 Other examples of group-based schemes
-The dynamics of groups, once in place, need to be carefully observed to ensure that the results are as intended. The case studies examined in Chapter 6 further demonstrate the different ways in which the group concept can be employed in practice. In three cases the groups involve more or less everyone in the locality and are therefore very large, upwards of 30-40 people and sometimes as many as 100. The sanction of refusing new loans if there is nonpayment is the main mechanism used to enforce repayment. In two of the schemes studied, Casa Campesina Cayambe (CCC) and ACTIONAID in the Gambia, groups are closely related to local institutional structures, which can present dilemmas for implementors. Groups of this nature tend to cut across socio-economic divisions and there is the potential for relatively better-off members to abuse the scheme by ensuring that they themselves get loans. They might also justify not allocating loans to poorer members by arguing that they are not creditworthy and will not repay. The use of joint liability and social collateral mechanisms can improve repayment performance. There are other ways of building a sense of identity
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people with the scheme and encouraging reliable repayment. Participation in the operation and decision-making structures of the scheme is likely to promote a sense of ownership on the part of users. In three of the case studies in Chapter 6, URAC, Ladywood Credit Union, and CCC, members are involved in committees which review performance, allocate new credit, and advise on policies and practice. Repayment is likely to be enhanced by the use of 'hot' rather than 'cold' money, as explained in the account of SANASA above. There is supporting evidence for this from India in the case of MYRADA, Community Development Fund, and ASSEFA (Bennett, Goldberg and Hunte, 1996, Copestake, 1996a). Members' sense of ownership of the scheme is less when loan funds are from external sources than when they are from members' savings. This has been compounded by the prevalence of cheap externallyprovided credit in the past, coupled with a lack of concern about repayment. While many schemes use groups, Hulme and Mosley concluded from their study of 12 microfinance institutions (1996) that groups are not always a crucial feature of scheme design. There are examples of institutions successfully providing financial services to poor people by dealing directly with individuals. Bank Rakyat Indonesia (BRI) (see Chapter 1) and BAAC in Thailand are two such examples. BRI makes use of the local knowledge of village-based agents in deciding whether to approve loans to new borrowers. The case study of Ladywood Credit Union in Chapter 6 provides another example of lending on an individual basis; in fact, credit union legislation in the UK stipulates that the privacy of the individual must be preserved.
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-3.5 Savings
-Poor people hold savings in many forms, including assets such as animals, grain or jewellery. The account of informal services presented in Chapter 2 demonstrates that, given the opportunity, people will save in cash. In discussing the design of a savings component, the purposes for which people save, and the characteristics that savings services need to have in order to meet their requirements, must first be clarified. Saving in the form of assets has limitations. Grain can deteriorate in storage or be lost to pests; animals require looking after and can die; moreover, when they are held as insurance against crises such as drought, they are often sold at a loss if the crisis occurs, because of deteriorating terms of trade or the need for a quick sale. Holding a visible and available form of savings, such as grain or assets, can make it hard to resist demands and claims from other relatives. Jewellery is relatively illiquid as an asset unless it can easily be pawned at times of need. When people save in cash, they often keep it in their homes,
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction where it is at risk of theft and loss in case of fire. Small amounts of accessible cash are always needed for emergencies, ranging in scope from unexpected guests to death or illness in the family. The purposes of saving can be summarised as follows: • daily financial management: the need to keep cash safely in order to manage and deal with day-to-day expenses and occurrences, including emergencies; • consumption smoothing: dealing with seasonality or unemployment by holding over income from one time period to another; • accumulation: building up savings balances in order to undertake future large expenditures, such as the purchase of housing materials or agricultural implements, or payment of school fees; • insurance: building up savings balances to deal with irregular events such as illness, marriages, and funerals.
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-3.5.1 The value of a savings facility
-People are well aware of the risks involved in saving and as a result value safe places to keep their cash. They may look for a range of attributes in a savings facility, including: • safety: will their savings be held safely by the bank or other depositor? • ease of withdrawal: can they get quick access to their money when they need it? • proximity to home or workplace: ease of access in terms of distance and time; • prizes or bonuses for good saving; • high interest rates: worthwhile monetary return on saving; • informality of procedures and polite treatment when making deposits or withdrawals. The above list is the result of a ranking exercise undertaken with BRI customers (BRI, no date). It is notable that safety and ease of access come very near the top of this list and that monetary returns in the form of interest rates and prizes are lower priorities. It is also likely that women and men will rank these attributes differently, since they may have different purposes in saving.
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people Until recently, savings services have been a relatively neglected component of microfinance debate and practice. Definitions of poverty based on the inadequacy of income focus on the shortage of capital available for investment, and many financial interventions attempt to alleviate this constraint by using external funds to make capital available. However, studies of informal financial services (see Chapter 2) show that poor people value a savings facility as a contribution to economic security. For NGOs and other donors, part of the emphasis on credit may have resulted from the fact that delivery of credit utilises donor funds whereas mobilising savings does not.
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-3.5.2 Compulsory or voluntary savings?
-A distinction is often made between 'compulsory' and 'voluntary' savings. In a compulsory system, saving is either required as a condition of membership or in order to receive loans. In contrast, voluntary savings schemes allow members to make deposits whenever they wish. Compulsory and voluntary savings are characteristic of two fundamentally different philosophies (Robinson, 1995). Compulsory savings schemes 'assume that the poor must be taught to save, and that they need to learn financial discipline. [Voluntary savings schemes] assume that the working poor already save, and that what is needed are institutions and services appropriate for their needs.'(p.6) It appears that people always need savings accounts but that loans are needed only occasionally. The fact that BRI has 14.5 million deposit accounts and only 2.3 million loan accounts supports such an argument. When compulsory savings schemes are tied to borrowing, very poor people may decide not to participate, because they are reluctant to take on debts; or they may be excluded by existing members who fear such people will be unable to repay the loans out of regular income. Rutherford (1995a) argues that savings facilities that are flexible and voluntary, and which allow people to build savings balances independently of debt, are an unmet demand of poor people in many of these schemes. It is this kind of service which can effectively reduce poverty by enabling people to protect their incomes. There is now, therefore, growing appreciation of the demand for flexible savings facilities for poor people. Saving small amounts regularly, and feeling a sense of obligation to do this, are positive features for many people, for whom the discipline involved is important. This realisation is resulting in new designs for savings accounts. Buro Tangail, for example, a financial services NGO in Bangladesh, is introducing a range of accounts allowing users to choose one which meets their needs. These include a fully flexible savings account, and accounts which involve a fixed weekly deposit over a number of years.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction Drawing on the successful experience of BRI in mobilising savings, Robinson has suggested some of the conditions which need to be in place in order to launch voluntary savings services. Thefirstof these is an enabling macroeconomic environment, with relatively low and stable levels of inflation, and an appropriate legal and regulatory environment, together with political stability and suitable demographic conditions. As she points out 'Beginning savings mobilization in the midst of hyperinflation, civil war or in a sparsely populated desert are not recommended!' (1995, p.2). However, few economic environments are as 'enabling' as Robinson would like. Indeed, in this context the meaning of the word is unclear (Yaqub, 1996). Moreover, the work of URAC in Mexico (one of the case studies) shows that voluntary savings schemes can work well even in the presence of high inflation. The second condition concerns government supervision arrangements for institutions taking deposits. In order to protect users, deposit-taking institutions must be regulated. Existing legislation in many countries is a constraint on NGOs' mobilising savings and taking deposits themselves. Organisations which are not formally registered as banks may face restrictions on their ability to take deposits. If the NGO facilitates the opening of savings accounts in local banks on behalf of its depositors, it cannot use funds from this source for on-lending to other members. There are good reasons for such regulations; NGOs are not necessarily suitable institutions to hold deposits. Third, Robinson stresses the history, capability, and performance of the institution. She emphasises the responsibility that taking savings entails (it is easier to learn to manage your own funds through credit first) and the complexity of operating a savings scheme properly.
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-3.5-3 Linking savings to credit
-Whether savings are compulsory or voluntary, there is often a link between the savings component and access to credit. The link can be formed in a variety of ways: • The amount of the loan may be a fixed multiple of the amount deposited (savings flow) over a given period. By making savings deposits of a certain level, the client demonstrates his or her ability to repay a loan with similar repayments out of regular income. • The amount of the loan may be a fixed multiple of the amount saved (savings stock). • Once a loan has been taken, the savings in the account may be retained as collateral for the loan, and withdrawals taking the balance below a certain level not permitted.
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people In these ways savings can act as part of the lender's screening process. By observing the savings behaviour of borrowers, the lender can judge whether borrowers are good risks, and their capacity to manage debt. This also helps to prevent the lender indebting a borrower by being over-optimistic about the borrower's ability to repay. The case studies in Chapter 6 illustrate the way in which these mechanisms have been applied in practice. In the case of SUNGI in Pakistan, compulsory minimum monthly savings are a criterion for receiving a loan, although the loan amount is assessed in relation to the purpose proposed. In Mexico, URAC operates a system by which an applicant for a loan must be making regular savings with the scheme, and the maximum loan amount is five times the savings balance. In the case of Ladywood Credit Union in the UK, loan size is a maximum of twice the savings balance, and the repayment plan is drawn up in discussion with the borrower and in relation to their savings record. In this way the scheme attempts to set instalment levels just below the amounts previously deposited in order to ensure that the savings balance continues to rise so that the borrower's financial security is not being eroded by taking the loan.
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-3.6 Forms of loan
-Some microfinance institutions make loans in kind as well as in cash; many require applicants to specify what they are going to use the loan for, with cash credit being 'directed' to particular uses, because lenders often prefer loans to be used for production rather than consumption. This sub-section considers the advantages and disadvantages of loans 'in kind' and directed credit. (Loans which are both given in kind and repaid in kind are not discussed here; see Fall (1991), Strachan and Peters (forthcoming) for accounts of cereal banks and similar schemes.)
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-3.6.1 Credit in cash or kind?
-Credit is sometimes provided 'in kind' by schemes, in the form of seeds, tools, fertilisers, larger agricultural tools such as ploughs and weeders, or as inputs for construction and home improvement. The main arguments given for such provision usually relate to the local unavailability of the goods supplied. The NGO may supply the goods directly or provide vouchers for redemption against specified items in particular retail outlets. Of our case studies, URAC provides vouchers for the purchase of building material through local suppliers under the terms of its construction loans.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction Direct supply by an NGO lender can lead to a range of problems: • It makes the borrower dependent on the NGO for inputs and the NGO will tend to be blamed if the tool or other input is in some way faulty or does not arrive on time. • It can prevent the development of a local market for the inputs if they are supplied from outside the area, making it unviable for suppliers to set up locally. An alternative is for the NGO to ensure that inputs are obtained from local suppliers. • The NGO is likely to incur large costs which are not usually included in the amount of the loan. In effect borrowers receive an additional grant in the form of transport costs, and they may not be able to afford to pay these costs when the NGO stops supplying. Most NGOs prefer to issue loans in cash rather than kind. The borrower is then able to use the credit as he or she sees fit and to purchase any materials required. The borrower then takes full responsibility for the result so cannot allege sub-standard and inappropriate inputs as an excuse for not repaying the loan. Furthermore, the costs of transporting cash tend to be lower than those of transporting seed, fertiliser or machinery, thus reducing the operating costs of the NGO. Local suppliers are likely to respond to the local demand generated and this in the longer run will reduce transport costs for everyone. Nevertheless, if the lending institution has proven integrity in supplying goods of high quality, it may work to the advantage of the borrower. An example in the case of URAC is the vet who provides animals instead of cash loans and with them a short-term guarantee of the animal's health.
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-3.6.2 Directed or undirected credit?
-In schemes where cash loans are given, credit may be 'directed' to certain purposes. It is often specified that loans should be for productive purposes, because lenders fear that if the loan were used for other purposes it would be less likely to be repaid. It is assumed that repayments need to come out of additional'income, accruing from productive investment. An alternative view is that the household economy has a range of production and consumption activities which are related in complex ways, so that a distinction between them is artificial. The borrower should be allowed to make use of the cash credit as she or he sees fit. Attempting to direct the credit to a particular purpose is inefficient, because it is very difficult for the lender to monitor the exact use to which loans are put. If loans are specified as
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people being for productive purposes only, the household may state such a purpose in the loan application but may not use the money in this way in practice. Evidence suggests that loans are likely to be split up and used to cover a range of household needs and expenditure. Therefore the lender should not be concerned with what the loan is used for as long as it is repaid. Demonstration of the interconnectedness of consumption and production activities can be illustrated using the case of pre-harvest loans in seasonal agriculture. In land-abundant areas, loans to make food for consumption available at this time can also be viewed as production loans, as they might enable farmers to continue to work on their fields and hence represent an investment in productive capacity. Farmers may no longer need to spend time undertaking casual labour on other people's farms to earn money to buy food; or loans may simply ensure that nutritional requirements are met so that farmers are able to carry out work on their own farm. Clearly these arguments do not necessarily apply where a scheme is lending to micro- or small-scale enterprises. Loans for such purposes tend to be larger in size and usually involve a more direct relationship between the lender and borrower. In the course of this relationship it is likely that the lender will undertake an appraisal of the investment with the borrower before approving the loan. (This is not an area examined in detail in this book; see Barrow and Barrow, 1992.) However, once undirected cash loans are in place, loan facilities directed to specific purposes have a role. In two of the case studies, URAC and Casa Campesina Cayambe (CCC), there are a range of loan facilities available. The 'normal' cash loans can be used for any purpose and carry no restrictions. But larger loans are available for specific purposes, such as house-building, constructing bathrooms, or for productive enterprises. The advantage of such directed loans are that the repayment schedules can be tailored to suit the type of investment being made. Housing loans, for example, tend to have longer repayment terms than other loans. Schemes which offer emergency loans are usually concerned to protect their members from the potentially impoverishing effects of events such as illness or death in the family. A loan which is easily available at short notice in response to such events might prevent the borrower having to sell valued assets such as livestock or jewellery. Of the case studies, CCC has this kind of loan facility, which provides special credit in the case of illness or domestic emergency. Loan approval in such cases by-passes the usual process but requires a doctor's certificate in the case of illness or endorsement by a member of the Community Committee in the case of other domestic emergencies. Similar procedures to enable quick disbursement of loans in emergencies are also available to members of URAC and Ladywood Credit Union.
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-3.7 Loan disbursement and repayment schedules
-The model of loan scheme that has become dominant in Bangladesh involves members holding loans on a more or less continuous basis. For example, in the Association for Social Advancement, disbursement follows a very strict schedule: once the member has saved for a certain number of weeks, usually 12, she or he is eligible for a loan which is repaid in fixed amounts over the following 50 weeks. As soon as this loan is repaid the borrower becomes eligible for another one. While this system can be seen as helpful in terms of its simple and mechanical rules, it has been criticised for its lack of flexibility; members take on loans when they are available rather than when the borrowers want them. It is a system which requires people to go into debt in order to make use of their capacity to save: the loan is a lump sum to be received now and repaid by saving over the next 50 weeks. Such a system can force people to adopt complicated strategies to manage the funds until they actually need them, if they do not wish to miss their turn to obtain a loan. This helps to explain the myriad of on-lending arrangements that usually exist between group members (Rutherford, 1995a). This problem is not encountered in systems where members can take loans at times appropriate to them. The case study scheme in Pakistan, run by SUNGI, which is most closely modelled on the Bangladesh schemes, also operates a system of loan applications to be made via the village organisations' credit committees, but there is no pressure to take a loan once a member is eligible. Flexibility in amounts and timing of disbursement seem to be significant factors in providing a credit mechanism which poor people can manage in relation to their livelihood strategies. An approach based on small cash-loans with simple and easily verifiable criteria, such as attendance at meetings, and appropriate savings deposits or balances, enables greater decentralisation in decision-making over loan applications. This, in turn, means that the lead time between application and disbursement is likely to be reduced, which is more convenient to the borrower. The timeliness of loan disbursement is crucial when loans are being used for seasonal activities such as agriculture. If a programme of seasonal loans is in place which farmers utilise to buy inputs or prepare land then complicated appraisal and approval procedures which might delay disbursement are unhelpful. Fanners will not be able to undertake farming activities when they would wish to, and the usefulness of the credit to them is much reduced. This can in turn worsen the prospects of repayment if they are highly dependent on agriculture for income. Repayment schedules involving small and frequent instalments are one of the principal features of the 'new' design of credit. As mentioned above, it has
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people been demonstrated that in a variety of circumstances, borrowers are able to repay loans out of regular income and need not rely on the income generated from a specific and identifiable investment. In the past, repayment schedules linked to income streams on investments have often been over-optimistic in their expectations and hence borrowers have not been able to keep up repayments. Loans for micro-enterprises are rather different in nature, but 'little and often' may also be a good rule of thumb for loan repayment instalments in these cases. However, in some areas where seasonality is a highly significant factor and cash is virtually unavailable at certain times of year, there is also a need for flexibility in repayment schedules. In these circumstances, lower levels of repayment could be arranged during particularly difficult months and higher ones at times when market activity and incomes revive. Even here, the principle of repayment of loans out of regular income can be retained.
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-3.8 Interest rates
-Interest rates are an issue over which there has been much debate among microfinance practitioners (see Chapter 1). Along with the diagnosis of the problem as a shortage of investment capital available to poor households goes the assumption that credit obtainable from local informal sources carries too high an interest rate. Before continuing this discussion it is important to understand what an interest rate is. Put simply, the interest rate is the price of money. As a price it is made up of a number of components as far as the lender is concerned. It is the means through which the lender: • pays for the cost of the funds that are being lent (cost of capital); if these are from savers then the savers are likely to expect a return which will at least cover inflation and so maintain the value of their savings; • recovers the costs of providing the service (costs of administration): the costs of the staff employed to give and recover loans, and the costs of the offices, vehicles and stationery that are necessary to provide that service; • covers losses as a result of those who default on their loans (costs of default). The interest rate which is charged to borrowers is usually called the 'nominal' interest rate. This may be different from the 'real' interest rate, which is roughly calculated as the nominal interest rate minus the rate of inflation in the country (this approximation works best at low rates of inflation). The rate of inflation indicates the degree to which money is
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction declining in value over time. If the nominal interest rate is higher than the rate of inflation, then the real interest rate is positive. For borrowers, a positive real interest rate means that they have actually paid something for the benefit of using the money that they have borrowed; and for savers, that the money they receive back will buy more than their original deposit would have done. In recent years many NGOs have accepted the need to charge interest rates which cover inflation and make a contribution to costs. This means interest rates which are positive in real terms and comparable to those charged by formal-sector banks (sometimes termed 'market' interest rates). As discussed in Chapter 1, this differs from earlier practice when the provision of credit by NGOs and state banks was usually at subsidised rates. This 'cheap' credit was attractive to borrowers outside the target group, and was diverted away from its intended purposes; and loans were often not repaid. This combination of 'cheap' credit and widespread default resulted in the rapid erosion of loan funds. The importance of charging a rate of interest which covers the costs of inflation, administration, and default is that the loan fund is able to revolve and maintain its value. In the past, revolving funds have often dwindled as a result of these costs. Where the loan fund is generated out of members' savings rather than given as a grant by donors, it is even more essential to ensure that its value is maintained. However, the ability to cover all of the administrative costs through the interest charged to borrowers is only likely to develop over a period of time, as the system of lending becomes more efficient and a greater number of borrowers are receiving loans. Attempting to recover costs in the early stages of a scheme is likely to result in interest rates which are excessively high. When comparing interest rates with those of formal-sector banks it is also important to recognise the hidden costs that poor borrowers face when they approach banks. They may be charged loan fees, have to organise 'gifts' for bank staff, and incur transport costs to get there. Worse, they may be treated with disdain and even contempt — not a monetary cost, but a cost all the same. The actual price that the borrower is paying for loans from these sources is therefore higher than the interest rate alone; and the attitude of bank staff can make the transaction even more burdensome. This is why loans which carry interest rates comparable to the formal sector are still likely to be positively regarded by clients.
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-3.9 Integrating financial services with other activities
-Few NGOs provide savings and credit services without getting involved in related development activities. For ACTIONAID and Oxfam an integrated approach is usually seen as essential in addressing the causes of poverty
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people identified in a particular area or by a particular group of people; it is rarely the case that savings and credit activities alone will reduce poverty. A range of other constraints are likely to exist, especially in making use of credit for production purposes. For example, numeracy may be a need for women who want to embark on petty trading and keep records to find out if they are actually making money; preventive health programmes may be the best way to reduce the need for credit to meet health-care expenses. NGOs may have a number of objectives in integrating savings and credit into their other activities, and a range of ways of doing so. Here we will distinguish between three approaches: first, where the NGO's objective is to form groups which will function as social organisations in their own right rather than being solely for the purposes of providing credit; second, where groups are an effective means of delivering related development activities, such as literacy and health education; third, where savings and credit activities overlap with other services, such as business and skills training, to promote economic activities. An integrated approach does not necessarily mean that staff are involved in delivering all aspects of the programme and are therefore generalists. Interventions may be operationally distinct, involving several specialist staff. We have argued for the need for strong staff skills in Chapter 2, and will suggest in Chapter 4 the benefits of keeping programme accounts entirely separate.
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-3.9-1 Savings and credit for group formation and institutionbuilding
-In some cases, forming groups is not simply a means of delivering savings and credit services but of building up group skills as part of a wider strategy of 'empowerment'. An analysis of poverty which holds that powerlessness rather than low income is the main problem may lead to the view that collective action has an important role in bringing about change. The NGO is likely to work with the group to enable it to develop its own analysis of the situation, and plan and implement solutions to problems, which might range from building a water supply to campaigning for land rights. In this context, savings and credit is sometimes used as an early intervention to create a sense of identity and shared interest among group members. The analysis of poverty may result in a design for savings and credit provision which concentrates on developing the group's own resources, in terms both of capital, through savings and management, and of group control of the rules and regulations governing the savings and credit systems. As in the case of SANASA (see 3.4.2), the internal services provided by the group to its members can be quite extensive. This approach promotes
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction internal control over savings and loan funds and is likely to bring about stronger identification with the scheme. Among the case studies discussed in Chapter 6, URAC in Mexico and ACTIONAID in The Gambia have made institution-building a core component of their approach. URAC is a peasant union whose agenda is economic self-sufficiency in order to reduce the dependency and exploitation which members have experienced in economic relationships. In the course of achieving this the involvement of members in the decision-making structures of the union is vital. ACTIONAID in the Gambia, on the other hand, sees its credit activities as a means of building up financial resources which village development groups (VDGs) can use to further their own development agenda. Alongside the credit programme there is a programme of training for groups to develop their management and organisation skills.
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-3.9.2 Social development programmes
-Even where the focus is not on enabling groups to manage their own development projects, savings and credit schemes often run alongside programmes of health and literacy. The need for transparency and accountability in financial transactions in such schemes is crucial, but not possible unless members can ensure that records are being properly kept. Sometimes training in literacy and numeracy are a necessary adjunct for a savings and credit programme if there are not enough group members who can fill in their own pass books or keep records. But many literacy programmes in the past have only added numeracy as an afterthought, and failed to provide adequate skills to enable participants to maintain records and ensure accountability. This is part of a wider failure of literacy programmes in general terms. Some new approaches to literacy have succeeded in shifting the balance to more relevant and practical numeracy and literacy skills (Archer and Cottingham, 1996).
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-3.93 Economic development activities
-In the past, NGOs have often used savings and credit as part of incomegeneration programmes. Such interventions have seldom been particularly successful (Mukhopadhyay and March, 1992; Piza Lopez and March, 1990; Riddell and Robinson, 1995). Like savings and credit programmes, this aspect of development work has also been undergoing some re-examination. Income-generation activities promoted by NGOs have usually concentrated on activities carried out by groups. Problems often resulted from difficulties of organisation and management within the group, as well as from
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people over-optimistic expectations of the income to be generated from the enterprise. This is not to say that there are no successful examples: rather, that these serve to underline the need for internal group cohesion and strong leadership and management, which not all groups possess. People coming together with a common interest of securing a service, such as savings and credit, or working on a common agenda of collective action, can still encounter problems but these are significantly different from the demands of time and energy, often with low returns, arising from a group economic project. The provision of savings and credit to individuals rather than groups has been one of the consequences of this past experience. The support given to micro-enterprises in terms of business and skills training is often referred to as 'non-financial services'. An argument is now being put forward that such services should be demand-led and selfsustaining (Tanburn, 1996). The rationale behind this contention is that services provided in the past by NGOs (and other providers) have not been particularly useful or appropriate to those trying to set up in business. Therefore if users are not willing to pay for the service, this indicates it is of little real benefit to them. We argued above that financial management is not necessarily a strong point of NGOs. Likewise, business management is not in general an area in which NGO staff have much direct experience. Therefore it may be more effective for an NGO to encourage entrepreneurs to choose their own training programmes, which the NGO then pays for (with loans if necessary), than to supply a service that is sub-standard. This strategy would appear to make sense where small businesses are welldeveloped and have fairly specific needs, and where training opportunities are available, for example, in urban environments. The strategy may encounter greater difficulties where people want to exploit skills or start businesses which do not exist in the area, and they may need additional support to make contacts and visit places where such businesses operate. In such circumstances the role of promoter rather than provider of support services may be more appropriate for the NGO. Further considerations for income-generation schemes relate to the economic opportunities already existing in the area. Credit supplied in quantity, where knowledge of what to produce and trading opportunities are limited, can quickly result in market saturation. Supporting moves to experiment and invest in new productive activities may therefore be important. There may also be good arguments for sharing risks with people as they go about experimenting with new activities. In one of our case studies, CCC in Ecuador, this has been done in the case of a trout-rearing project, an enterprise not known in the area and one which would be far too risky for
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction individuals to take on. However, there is obviously a need to distinguish between supporting experimentation and wasting money, particularly if enterprises are clearly not thriving and individuals have lost interest. Business skills and experience are of great value in making such judgements and NGOs often have a lot to learn from others.
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-3.10 Summary and conclusions
-This chapter has explained and discussed a number of central features in the design of microfinance for poverty reduction. The discussion has sought to illuminate the principles which underlie these features and point out that they need to be combined in different ways in different schemes. Poverty targeting: many schemes now practise 'self-selection' through keeping loan sizes small, and demanding regular attendance at meetings which better-off people would find time- consuming or socially difficult to attend. However, some schemes still use measures to directly target poor people, such as wealth ranking. 'Self-selection' lowers costs but cannot be assumed to exclude the better-off entirely, especially if loan sizes start to rise as the scheme progresses. Loan size as a feature of targeting can create a dilemma if it prevents poor people ever taking on larger loans. Women as scheme users: many schemes are designed to provide women with credit. However, it cannot be assumed that disbursing loans to women means either that they use them or that they are empowered. Scheme implementors need to be clear about the gender-related objectives of their intervention and to understand the implications that delivering financial services have for relations between men and women. They should also find ways of supporting women's own strategies for enhancing their position. Lending through groups: groups have been a common component of methodologies for lending to the poor but repayment does not solely depend on peer pressure; groups take different forms in different contexts and it is important to analyse the mix of circumstances which ensure repayment. This mix goes beyond peer pressure to include supervision, management, transparency, and accountability of the systems. Savings: voluntary and flexible savings facilities have so far been a largely unmet need of poor people. Interveners should consider developing flexible
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-The design of savings and credit schemes for poor people savings mechanisms. However, to operate a savings facility is to take responsibility for other people's money, and should not be undertaken lightly. Interest rates: there is now widespread acceptance of the need to charge interest rates which cover inflation and make a contribution to the cost of providing the service. This reassessment has recognised that it is often the availability rather than the cost of credit to poor people which is the constraining factor. Long-term availability requires that the loan fund does not become eroded through inflation, and that a degree of cost-recovery ensures sustainability (see Chapter 4 for further discussion). • NGOs should understand the design features they incorporate in a scheme in the light of local social and economic circumstances and the objectives of the scheme; there is now a continuously evolving set of design features that can be used in microfinance schemes but no single blueprint for use in all circumstances. • NGOs should continuously and critically assess design features in the light of the results they produce in practice. This is an important part of impact assessment, as will be discussed in Chapter 5.
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-Financial performance and sustainability
-4.1 Introduction
-As with any programme intervention, performance monitoring of microfinance schemes is essential. In the context of managing money the need for timely and accurate information about what is happening cannot be stressed too highly. This chapter does not provide guidelines for financial analysis but emphasises the importance of financial management — an area in which NGOs have tended to be weak. Financial sustainability, which will also be discussed in this chapter, is unlikely to be a feasible objective if financial management is poor. The ability of some of the best-known institutions which have been operating in this area to gain consistently high repayment rates of 90 per cent and above, and to extend their coverage to relatively large numbers of individuals (see Table 1, Annex 1) has raised expectations that such microfinance institutions may be able to become sustainable in the long term.
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-4.2 Managing and assessing financial performance
-Managers of a microfinance intervention need to know how well it is performing in financial terms. The first essential is to produce financial statements at the right time. Information that is produced late cannot give an accurate picture of the organisation's financial position. Next, the financial statements must be analysed to produce information about the performance of the scheme which can be used to improve that performance. The crucial question here is whether the portfolio of loans and savings that the scheme is holding is being effectively managed. We briefly discuss the repayment rate in order to highlight the importance of a proper understanding and appreciation of the intricacies involved in financial management. 58
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-Financial performance and sustainability (For more comprehensive guidance on financial management and analysis reference should be made to SEEP, 1995; IADB, 1994; Christen, 1990; and Stearns, 1991.) 4.2.1 The repayment rate The repayment rate is the indicator most often used as a measure of the performance of a credit scheme (see Annex 2 for an explanation of how it can be calculated). Despite its universality, the way in which the repayment rate is calculated and monitored is not entirely standardised as it must relate to the design of a particular scheme. This means that comparisons across schemes must be undertaken with an awareness of how repayment rates have been calculated. One of the mistakes that is often made in calculating the repayment rate on loans is that the rate is not clearly defined in relation to a given time period. The figure may therefore include loans which have been made and fully repaid, or it may include repayments which were made after they were due. The amount repaid might include early repayment of their loans made by some borrowers (called 'prepayments'), and these should be excluded from the calculation. Since the repayment rate should precisely measure the ratio of payments made to payments scheduled as due at a particular time, it can also be referred to as the 'on-time' repayment rate. The different methods used in calculation are well illustrated by the case study schemes set out in Table 6.2, page 88. ACTIONAID in The Gambia calculates its repayment rate as a historical figure reflecting the total amount that has been repaid out of the total ever disbursed. This is a relatively common method but is not standard banking practice and does not indicate the current status of outstanding loans. 4.2.2 Arrears and default Other indicators, such as default and arrears rates, are also useful financial management information. These indicators monitor the lending portfolio at different points. The arrears rate can capture loans that are past their scheduled time for repayment, i.e. are overdue, and need to be followed up. The default rate includes only those loans which require special action if they are to be recovered. An age analysis of loans outstanding is a standard technique of banking practice. This involves classifying loans in terms of the length of time they are overdue. Default is a subject that tends to make fieldworkers nervous. They feel that once a borrower knows that a loan is regarded as in default, then he or she will not bother to repay. This reflects the 'soft' approach to repayment in which there are few consequences for non-payment. The classification of a
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction loan as in default should precipitate action on the part of staff of the scheme. At the same time it is vital that the financial health of the scheme is monitored and the intervener knows what proportion of the capital is at risk. Action to recover loans can also be looked at in the context of other local financial systems. Borrowers who are falling behind with repayments may be indebted to other lenders as well, hence they may set about a rational calculation of which loan it is best for them to default on, based on their own view of the relative merits of different lenders and with which it is most important to retain a good credit record. This is when external schemes, such as those run by NGOs, are likely to encounter problems. The borrower may decide that the NGO is likely to leave the area at some future date, and hence is not likely to be a reliable long-term source of loans. Default on an NGO loan is likely to have less effect on the borrower's local creditworthiness (except in group-based lending systems, where non-payment is public knowledge). The borrower may also think that the NGO has welfare-related objectives and therefore is likely to be more 'understanding'. It is the syndrome of the 'understanding' NGO, with 'soft' repayment enforcement, which is most likely to lead to the failure of any credit scheme. While the group system of social collateral can provide an added incentive for individual borrowers to repay, there is evidence to suggest that much repayment enforcement is actually carried out by scheme staff. The problem is different if the whole group decides that repayment is not in their interests. This is most likely to occur at the outset of a scheme, when the NGO (if an external one) and the borrowers may not know much about each other. It is because NGOs and other institutions, including governments, have not enforced repayment in the past that the community may collectively decide not to repay. In such cases, if the NGO is serious about the scheme being credit rather than grants, then it must demonstrate this either by taking action to recover loans (for example, asset seizure) or suspending all further loans until existing loans are repaid.
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-4.3 Financial sustainability
-High repayment rates have been reported in schemes where interest rates are high enough to partly cover the costs of providing the services. The circumstances in which long-term financial sustainability might be possible have become a subject for research. A recent study of 11 large established microfinance institutions (Christen, Rhyne and Vogel, 1994) identifies three levels of financial sustainability:
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-Financial performance and sustainability Level 1 Subsidy dependent: the costs of the organisation are funded through grants and subsidies from donors. Level 2 Operational efficiency: the non-financial costs of operation (salaries and other administrative costs) are covered out of programme revenues (interest on loans and fees). Level 3 Fully self-sufficient or profitable: the institution is generating positive (inflation adjusted) returns on assets. The financial costs of operation are also covered: capital for on-lending is raised through commercial loans and income is enough to cover the costs of these loans. Ten of the eleven organisations studied had reached level 2, operational efficiency, and five had reached level 3- The study therefore concluded that 'it is consistently possible for competent microfinance programs to achieve operational efficiency within a reasonable timeframe' (p.5). However, they are a little more cautious about the potential for full financial selfsustainability, suggesting that 'it remains an open question whether full selfsufficiency is consistently possible in a variety of settings' (p.5; authors' emphasis). It is with studies of this type in mind that Otero and Rhyne (1994) propose that 'it is incumbent upon governments and donors that currently support micro-enterprise programmes to demand movement toward viability' (p21). Discussions of the potential for sustainability sometimes suggest that a microfinance institution can become financially sustainable between seven and ten years after starting operations. Branches of the Grameen Bank can become operationally self-sustaining in the space of five years (Khandker, Khalily and Khan, 1995). Branches of the ASA network in Bangladesh appear to be able to reach this level within eight months of commencing their operations (Rutherford, 1995b). This is achieved by the rapid mobilisation of group ('samity') members and their savings; and the issuing of the first wave of loans within three months of mobilisation. As the ASA branch receives the groups' weekly savings and interest payments it is able to utilise the savings and interest to make more loans, and the interest rates charged allow the salaries of workers to be covered. 4.3-1 The pros and cons of 'scaling up' Ways of achieving financial sustainability are currently the subject of debate among practitioners. Much emphasis has been put on microfinance operations reaching a sufficiently large number of users so that economies of scale can be made, and the cost of servicing numerous small transactions starts to
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction fall. This emphasis is a cause for concern, as increasing the scale of the operation may become an objective in itself. There are major organisational and management problems to be faced as operations scale up. For many organisations, scaling up may not be appropriate. Two of the schemes described in Chapter 6, URAC in Mexico and Ladywood Credit Union, partly derive their strength from their relatively small scale. For URAC it is the objective of building a peasant union that is important, and the financial services component is one aspect of its work which is contributing to this end; extending its financial services more widely might undermine the core objective. In the case of Ladywood Credit Union, it is the closeness of the service to members, and the time which can be given to helping them address their financial difficulties, which are significant features of the service, and these benefits would be compromised if scaling up was an objective. A further problem that can arise in the pursuit of financial self-sustainability is that of retaining a focus on the poor. Some organisations find that their users who do well need larger loans over time. This is termed 'graduation', as the users can be seen to be 'graduating' out of the target group which the scheme initially defined. The organisation is then under pressure to increase the size of its loans and continue to work with these people. Although costs per loan fall when loan sizes increase, the disadvantage is that better-off users are likely to be attracted to the services. The potential for fully self-sufficient microfinance institutions in all settings is questioned in a study of nine interventions in West Africa (Webster and Fidler, 1995). Their findings lead them to believe that while every attempt to move to full cost-recovery should be made, 'the costs of reaching very poor people in remote, rural areas of this region will always exceed possible revenues and [that] subsidies will always be needed to fill the shortfall if the institution is to remain in operation.' A similar conclusion is reached for remote and mountainous areas of Nepal and Pakistan in comparison to more densely populated areas of Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and India (Bennett, Goldberg and Hunte, 1996). However, Bennett etalsuggest that it is not only geographical inaccessibility that raises costs but also female seclusion, illiteracy, and poverty. 4.3.2 Issues in sustainability: the experience of 'village banking' The 'village banking' model illustrates some of the issues in sustainability outlined above. It is a model of financial service delivery set up by the Foundation for International Community Assistance (FINCA), and is employed by a range of NGOs, including Catholic Relief Services, Freedom From Hunger, and Care, in a number of countries.
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-Financial performance and sustainability The original model is one in which a sponsoring agency lends 'seed capital' to a village bank. Village banks ideally consist of between 20 and 50 members. The loan agreement is signed by all members and first loans are for approximately US$50. They are payed back on a weekly basis and the member is also expected to save approximately 20 per cent of the loan during each loan cycle. Loan amounts for clients increase after each one is repaid. Through this process, the village bank is expected to build up its internal capital, pay back the seed capital to the organisation, including interest, and reach internal sustainability within three years. Experience has been varied but there have been few cases where individual members have been able to 'graduate' to become clients of the formal financial system; nor are there many examples of the village bank itself being able to graduate away from the support of the sponsoring agency to reliance on formal banks alone for loan capital. One of the problems encountered is that members all tend to participate in similar productive activities and hence the demand for loans peaks at a particular time. The need for an external source of capital is therefore crucial and without this the scheme is likely to revert to a rotating savings and credit association. While financial sustainability has been an objective it has not been vigorously pursued. Interest rates have not always been set to cover costs and the detailed accounts which might enable this to happen have not been kept. The experience suggests there is need for a certain degree of scale and dispersion of loans and savings for financial intermediation to function effectively, and this is unlikely to be found within one village. The theory and the practice have therefore diverged quite significantly, and adjustments and adaptations have been made in implementing the system. While the methodology has demonstrated an ability to reach poor people, and especially women, on whom the programmes have often focused, the vision of financial sustainability is yet to
-become reality. (Source: Holt, 1994.)
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-4.3.3 Sustainability through extending coverage
-One of the issues raised by this example is the need to operate on a scale larger than village level, since the demand for loans may be simultaneous among a group of people with similar livelihood strategies. Extension of coverage could include wider geographical regions and diverse social groups, which could spread the demand for loans more evenly throughout the year. Ladywood Credit Union is an example of a scheme where better-off
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction members, through taking and repaying loans, support the sustainability of the scheme. The same is true of Casa Campesina Cayambe, where the taking and repaying of loans by relatively wealthier members has enabled the scheme to survive. The difference between LCU and CCC is that the former has made loans only for consumption. Providing bigger loans for productive investment to the relatively wealthier can increase inequality, further skew power relations, and increase relative poverty. Moreover, research for the CCC case-study showed that wealthy households were often the worst repayers. The example of Garu Rural Bank (see 2.8.3) also demonstrates how offering services to local salaried workers such as teachers and civil servants provides the bank with a secure source of income. It is interesting to consider the sustainability of the informal financial systems described in Chapter 2. Mechanisms such as ROSCAs are financially sustainable since their managerial inputs are voluntary. However, in the course of making procedures more formal, additional costs may arise, such as a salary for a paid manager. Informal schemes also differ in the ways they make use of existing informal structures which may in some cases involve voluntary inputs. A scheme for financial service provision that works with pre-existing ROSCAs may find its costs much lower than one which sets out to establish new groups. Whether or not financial sustainability is an achievable objective is still the cause of much debate and enquiry, as these experiences illustrate. However, one of the emerging points of consensus is that, even in cases where the scheme is not able to operate in a way that will make it financially sustainable, any subsidy provided by an NGO should be to the operational costs of the scheme rather than in the form of low interest-rates and lax repayment policies. Providing public or donor money to maintain the institution can be viewed as building financial infrastructure. There are some dangers even with this approach, in that access to donor money can lead to a lack of financial discipline on the part of the institution, which may undermine the objective of building up such institutions to survive in the longer term. 4.3.4 Measuring financial sustainability While the debates described in the previous section continue, NGOs are increasingly being challenged by donors to examine the financial sustainability of their programmes. Exercises of this type can be important in stimulating critical thinking about a programme's direction. Calculating sustainability can be a complex matter but here we will consider two relatively simple measures that can be used to assess where a programme stands financially: the sustainability index and the break-even interest rate.
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-Financial performance and sustainability Sustainability index A straightforward way to look at the financial sustainability of the savings and credit operation is to look at its income compared to its costs (Havers, 1996).
-Sustainability Index (SI) = Percentage of total costs covered by income _ total income earned from credit programme duringthe period total credit programme costs during period xlOO
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-The income received includes interest and fees on loans. Programme costs include all staff, office, and other costs necessary to run the programme. It is suggested that even costs which are not directly incurred should be included for the purposes of this calculation. For example, if office space is free because of a special arrangement, a figure for notional rent should be included, so that the programme can be evaluated as if it had to cover all its costs out of income. However, in schemes where inputs are voluntary and likely to continue into the future, there is a case to be made for not including these costs in the calculation of financial sustainability. In Chapter 6 we discuss the example of the Ladywood Credit Union in the UK in which volunteers provide much of the labour. This is a characteristic of the project and it would therefore be inappropriate to suggest that the project was not financially sustainable as a credit union because of this free labour. It must be stressed that the loan fund and savings deposits are not part of this calculation. However, if the loan fund has been received from donors as a grant, the calculation should include an imputed cost for this (i.e. the interest that it would be necessary to pay if the funds were to be raised from another source). The interest rate charged by banks in the formal sector is often used to calculate this cost. The purpose of including such a cost is to make clear the dependence of the scheme on donors or other sources of subsidised capital. Attempting such a calculation demonstrates the benefits of keeping savings and credit scheme accounts separate from those of other activities. In cases where staff are shared between programme activities it is necessary to make an estimate of staff time and resources spent on the savings and credit component. Overleaf is an example of the calculation for one of the casestudy schemes, URAC in Mexico.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction The calculation is presented for URAC on the basis of 1995 figures. It is an illustration only and is not intended actually to portray the sustainability of URAC.
-Costs 75% of salary costs of 4 development workers' Operational costs2 Computers — estimated depreciation Main office utilities Main office maintenance Vehicle — petrol Vehicle — maintenance Vehicle — depreciation Interest paid on savings Total costs N$ 248,850 96,060 6,500 1,756 4,000 18,000 14,000 15,400 163,996 568,562
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-Income
-Interest received on loans and bank interest on deposits Total income 268,395 268,395
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-Calculation of SI: Income Costs x 100-47%
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-Notes:
-1 These figures are based on estimates of the proportion of vehicle use and development workers' time devoted to the savings and credit part of URAC's work. It is estimated that the development workers spend 75 per cent of their time on the savings and credit programme and the remainder on their other activities. 2 Operational costs include: clerical salaries, stationery and other consumables, bank commission, free gifts, transport to committee meetings (for cashiers) and the costs of the mobile office.
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-Financial performance and sustainability In the case of URAC it has not been necessary to estimate a cost for the loan fund because it is generated from savings and hence is being paid for by paying interest on savings. This calculation of the sustainability index demonstrates that URAC is covering 47 per cent of the costs incurred in running the scheme out of income generated through its own operations. This means that in order to continue its operations if donor funds were withdrawn it would have to either double its income or halve its costs or both. The strategies for raising income would include raising the interest rate on loans and charging fees for certain services or transactions. The major element of cost is clearly salaries of the development workers and currently these staff are essential to the integrity of the programme. The break-even interest rate An alternative approach to looking at financial sustainability is to calculate the interest rate that the scheme would have to charge its borrowers if it had no source of income other than interest income and fees. This is referred to as the break-even interest rate. If the rate turns out to be extremely high compared to the formal sector and local informal rates, it is likely that the demand for the scheme's loans would collapse and it would have to adjust its operations to survive. Below is an example of the calculation for URAC. Total costs incurred in 1995 were N$568,562. The loan volume in 1995 was N$749,000. For the purposes of this calculation we will assume that this figure represents an average volume of loans outstanding at any point during the year. The interest paid by URAC on savings is included in the costs (see previous calculation). On the basis of these figures, URAC would have to charge an interest rate of 76 per cent on the N$749,000 of loans it has outstanding in order to bring in income of N$568,562; 76 per cent is therefore the breakeven interest rate. This compares with the current interest rate charged of 30 per cent. In the economic situation in Mexico in 1995 formal bank interest rates ranged from 50 to 70 per cent. The break-even rate for URAC would appear to compare quite well with such rates. However, those rates in the commercial sector caused massive rates of default on the part of middle-class households; and whether URAC's clients could cope with such levels is open to question. However, separating the costs of fieldworkers and management time between savings and credit activities and other programmes as in this calculation does not necessarily mean that the organisational form which this implies would be viable. Since at present programme activities are integrated
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction and costs shared, the removal of funded components might mean that the way in which groups and service delivery are organised would not be sustainable.
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-4.4 Managerial and organisational sustainability
-Even if it was clear that the organisation was able to cover its operating costs, this would be only one factor in moving a savings and credit scheme towards an independent future. The structure and management of the organisation are equally important considerations. NGOs do not necessarily possess the most appropriate skills for managing financial services. As well as carrying out regular and efficient financial monitoring, the management of the scheme must demonstrate integrity and accountability in dealing with other people's money. (It is only necessary to consider what type of organisation you, the reader, would trust with your own money to understand some of the qualities needed.) 4.4.1 The role of staff in microfinance interventions One of the critical issues is staffing. Not only is it important that staff feel motivated to undertake the intensive supervision that most financial services programmes entail, but the honesty and integrity of the institution and its staff in dealing with the funds must be apparent. Without this, the credibility of the organisation in the eyes of its users will soon suffer and demand for services will decline. Jain (1996) describes how, in the case of Grameen, group meetings promote the transparency and accountability of staff as well as members. Members can see that funds are not being mishandled and claims from individuals to their entitlements under the scheme are not being denied. Experience in Casa Campesina Cayambe revealed that when procedures for loan application only required the approval of the Credit Delegate, a very small number of cases occurred in which he would require 'fees' for nonexistent administration or a percentage of the loan. As a result the policy was changed to involve three members of the community in supporting loan applications. The transparency which village meetings can promote benefits the users by helping to control the behaviour of scheme staff or volunteers. It is also necessary to prevent staff colluding with scheme users to abuse the scheme. In the case of Ladywood Credit Union, interlocking committees made up of staff and members check on each other. One of the most important debates in this context is how to structure staff remuneration and incentives. Some schemes offer incentives for loan
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-Financial performance and sustainability collection related to the performance of the groups with which a staff member works. There is a danger that quantitative performance targets of this kind may lead to a neglect of institution-building among members (Montgomery, 1995), which is fundamental to sustainability. In the case of URAC, group cashiers at first worked on an entirely voluntary basis. They were offered an incentive in the form of a points system related to the supply of basic goods, which was another element of the programme. This has resulted in co-operation among them to improve the quality of the recordkeeping on behalf of the group. As such it is an example of an incentive that has been structured in a way which improves the capacity of the cashiers and hence the institution-building objectives of the project as a whole, as well as contributing to the efficient running of the scheme. For NGO workers who interact daily with users, often on a wide range of issues, becoming debt-collectors on behalf of a savings and credit scheme can put them in a difficult position, and it is this tension that has so often in the past led to a 'soft' approach by NGOs interested in poverty alleviation. Staff may find themselves in an ambiguous relationship with users which impairs performance. 4.4.2 Organisational sustainability and change Effective management also requires continuous adaptation and change on the part of those in control. Circumstances are continually changing: macroeconomic conditions, legal requirements, the needs of users, and the availability of other financial services in the area. All of these changes mean that the scheme must continually adapt its operations as new information comes to light and experience is built up. Flexibility is essential. (See Chapter 5 for a discussion of adaptability as an indicator of impact.) In Chapter 2 we argued that financial services are not something which should be here today and gone tomorrow. If providing them is to make a significant contribution to the alleviation of poverty, a long-term approach is needed. The organisational framework which will enable this future sustainability must be considered. Throughout this book we have discussed a range of different organisational forms: ROSCAs, village banks, credit unions (SANASA and Ladywood), schemes run and managed by NGOs itself (AATG, URAC, SUNGI and CCC), and organisations which have the status of banks (BRI and Grameen Bank). These projects offer a rich and diverse range of experience from which to draw in considering what forms of organisation might be most appropriate and enduring. The most obvious organisational form for sustained financial service provision is a bank, and we have given two examples of organisations that
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction started out as banks: BRI (a state-owned bank) on a very large scale in Indonesia and Gam Rural Bank on a much smaller scale in Northern Ghana. Two organisations, BancoSol in Bolivia and Grameen in Bangladesh, started out as NGOs and have been able to convert themselves into banks, which might suggest that this is a course of action many more schemes should follow. However, the feasibility of this approach for other organisations in other circumstances is in question. Grameen had to gain unique governmental dispensation to convert itself into a bank, whereas BRAC has so far been unsuccessful in obtaining a similar concession. Apart from legal difficulties of this type, some commentators do not agree that such a process should be an objective of NGOs, believing 'that the competitive advantage of NGOs is in their capacity to reach the poorest and engage in activities which help people change, but which cannot necessarily be financially supported by the recipient of the assistance' (Dichter, 1996). Dichter concluded that NGOs should concentrate on what they do best rather than trying to become banks. Such debates are unlikely to be easily resolved. Meanwhile, NGOs with microfinance interventions are considering how they might establish organisations that are able to survive. Legal status is clearly one of the main concerns, and we have argued above the need for government regulation of organisations taking deposits (see Chapter 3). The major legally-recognised alternative to banks is the credit union. Credit unions, in being owned by their members and savings-based, present two characteristics for survival that the above discussions have shown to be particularly important, and which NGOs may feel to be strongly convergent with their own values. However, there is still much to be learned in this area, and many countries have no legislation or regulations to deal with credit unions. An alternative strategy for NGOs is to persuade national banks and private financial institutions to extend their services to poor people. Groups with whom the NGO has developed a relationship can then be encouraged to transfer their custom to a sympathetic bank, so removing the need for the NGO to provide long-term support. Another role for NGOs is to engage with governments in discussing how the financial needs of the poor can best be addressed. Organisations such as Women's World Banking, for example, have worked to raise the issue with governments and policy makers (WWB,1994).
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-Financial performance and sustainability 4.5 Summary and conclusions This chapter has emphasised the critical importance of continuous monitoring of financial performance. Financial sustainability should be explored, using some relatively simple calculations which, even if not entirely accurate, can give an impetus to debate about the future of the programme. However, financial sustainability should not be seen solely within the context of this narrow financial calculation, in which, for example, voluntary inputs such as labour are costed. Some organisations are fully capable of sustaining the flow of such voluntary inputs, which can be integral to the achievement of their objectives. Even within the context of debates about financial self- sustainability there are questions about whether it is achievable, especially where there is low population density, or where physical constraints, such as poor infrastructure and communication, and social constraints, such as illiteracy and female seclusion, increase the costs of delivering services. These factors reduce the likelihood of being able to recover costs through charging appropriate interest rates. Financial sustainability is only one component of ensuring that schemes are able to provide services in the long term; aspects of management and organisational structure are equally critical. The organisational form may be the most significant design element in relation to long-term sustainability. Some NGOs have turned themselves into banks, but this is not likely to be an option for most NGOs. Pressures for financial self-sustainability are likely to produce dilemmas for the organisation. An institution which increases loan size may lose its focus on poor people; the strategy of deliberately including better-off people in order to subsidise lending to the very poor requires a clear organisational vision if it is to succeed. • The monitoring and management of financial information is a specialist area and should be recognised as such by building the necessary skills among NGO staff or using outside specialists. • Considerations of sustainability in both organisational and financial terms need to be made from the outset; but even when a project is already underway prospects for financial and organisational sustainability should be addressed. • In order to develop a sustainable organisation within the national regulatory framework it may be necessary to undertake advocacy work to change existing government policies. • The progress of the institution towards financial and organisational sustainability is not the sole indicator of achievement. For organisations with an agenda for poverty reduction, assessing the impact of the services on users is crucial. This is the subject of the next chapter.
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-5
-Assessing impact
-5.1 Introduction
-As we have seen in the last two chapters, microfinance technology can take many forms, and interventions with microfinance components have been designed in varied ways. This chapter is concerned with understanding how the consequences of microfinance interventions can be measured and attributed. If financial service provision has had poverty reduction as a goal, it is particularly important to know whether, by how much, and for whom poverty has reduced (or increased) and the extent to which these changes have occurred as a result of the intervention. The chapter begins by discussing conventional approaches to measuring impact and explores some of their methodological and practical problems. NGOs have made substantial progress in promoting alternative methods of collecting information. The third section draws on this new body of work in examining ways of overcoming some of the problems associated with conventional impact assessment. A crucial source of information is users' own accounts of the usefulness and relevance of the services in supporting their livelihoods. In the fourth section, it is suggested that rather than addressing impact as a question to be answered only once, usually after an intervention has been made, the relevance and usefulness of services should be continually assessed. Through this learning process, the organisation can adapt its services to better meet the needs of users.
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-5-2 The difficulties of assessing impact
-Development project managers and their funders have long engaged in linear thinking about the consequences of their actions. Inputs, in terms of people, resources and activities, lead to outputs which themselves have outcomes. These outcomes have an impact on people, often a targeted group. In order to
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-demonstrate to themselves, their donors, and supporters that their work is proceeding as planned, organisations endeavour to assess the impact of their activities. It is particularly important for organisations like Oxfam and ACTIONAID to understand the impact of their work. They each rely on support from large numbers of voluntary donors, who give money on the basis that it will be used to further the organisation's mission. Oxfam's Mission Statement refers to 'working with poor people....in their struggle against hunger, disease, exploitation and poverty'. Such a commitment to poor people implies that Oxfam should also be accountable to them for its actions. Indeed, for NGOs in general, it has been argued that impact assessment is important in enabling them to remain true to their mission; and that poor quality impact assessment is likely to leave them more vulnerable to co-option by others (Edwards and Hulme, 1995). Yet poor people 'are not static "targets" waiting to be "impacted" upon by credit programs' (Abdullah, Rutherford and Hossain, 1995). People's actions, ducking and weaving through staictural constraints and opportunities, have their own consequences. These actions, whether freely chosen or not, can combine with the processes and outcomes of planned intervention to enhance or diminish well-being. Interventions, generally less nimble, continue, and outcomes and impact over time are very difficult to predict. How, then, should NGOs measure the impact of their work? In Chapter 1 we outlined three ways of defining poverty: lack of income, vulnerability to income fluctuations, and powerlessness. Interventions could attempt to reduce poverty by raising incomes (income promotion); increasing income and livelihood security (protection); or empowering people who lack control and choice in their lives. Impact assessment of NGO-funded financial services has usually focused on the first of these: income promotion. Emphasis has been placed on measuring changes in income levels following credit programmes, especially those where loans have been directed to specific uses. This approach raises a number of methodological problems especially where the impact of directed credit is being assessed: • respondents may give false information if loans have been used for a purpose other than the stipulated one; • establishing a causal relationship to the actual loan in question involves knowledge of all the beneficiary's sources and uses of funds; • it is difficult to establish what would have happened if the loan had not been made (Mansell-Carstens, 1995).
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction 5.2.1 Establishing loan use The first of these dilemmas has at its heart the 'fungibility' of cash, that is, the potential for funds to be used for purposes other than those stated. Microfinance interveners may or may not insist that loans be used in certain ways. If they do impose conditions for loan use, they may find themselves wasting resources trying to discover if these have been fulfilled. As ACTIONAID Vietnam (AAV) lament in the proposal for an impact evaluation methodology for their Son La Programme, 'in practice it is very difficult to determine the use to which fungible loans are put. It would be interesting to know whether the microfinance activities have enabled households to improve food security or to invest in a profitable activity, but AAV does not consider that a loan use survey is likely to generate conclusive information on this' (1996). For these reasons, the village-level research for the case study of SUNGI in Pakistan (see Chapter 6), focused much more on asking respondents to compare streams of income with the size of repayment instalments than on attempting to determine whether loan use was as stated on the application form. However, similar problems arise when poverty is defined in broader terms, and when credit is not directed to specific uses. Investigators carrying out . one-off impact assessments rarely have the time to talk to people for long enough to find out the complexity of their livelihood strategies and the details of how they manage their finances. (This was also true of the assessments attempted for this book which could not by their very nature involve longterm engagement.) In addition, respondents themselves have little incentive to discuss their personal finances openly. People may disguise the real purpose to which loans were put for fear of offending project staff; or because they believe that action may be taken against them; or because they calculate a possible advantage in doing so; or simply because to do so can be quite amusing in the course of a boring interview. 5.2.2 Measuring change: controls and baselines A related and more general difficulty is that of establishing from respondent recall the changes that have occurred over time as the result of an intervention. One of the major problems here is the relationship of both researcher and respondent to the microfinance institution itself. Both have interests in the outcome of the impact assessment. For example, a respondent might want a further loan and think that a positive story about the way a previous loan had improved her or his life might help to get that loan. Similarly, an investigator hoping for re-employment might not wish to offend the agency hiring her. It is very difficult to establish what would have happened in the absence of a loan. For quantitative analysis a control is
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-required: a sample of people, similar in every other way, who have not received a loan, compared with a sample who have. As well as being costly and time-consuming, to establish a perfect control is virtually impossible (Copestake, 1996b). An alternative to using a control group is to use a baseline against which to assess change. Unfortunately, good baseline data rarely exist. Experience with quantitative baseline surveys of household income and assets has shown that it is costly and difficult to collect adequate data. Such surveys often raise as many questions as they answer, and staff who originally collected the data may no longer be available to explain the intricacies of the data when it comes to using them to answer questions about impact. Moreover, if project objectives have changed in the course of time, the original baseline data will give an inappropriate or irrelevant picture of the pre-project situation; for this reason, some information can only be collected at the end of a project (Newens and Roche, 1996). Capturing the unintended impacts of interventions is also problematic. We have argued in Chapter 2 for the importance of looking at an intervention in the context of other locally available services. If 'enabling' aspects of these existing services have actually been undermined by an intervention, then this information also needs to be part of the assessment of impact. A further unplanned impact may occur if the provision of credit to one group allows them to invest in a particular market opportunity, with the result that established producers or traders are displaced. The concepts of 'controls' and 'baselines' also raise moral questions for interveners. What do people gain from spending time monitoring or being monitored for the impact on them of notbeing beneficiaries of a project? One possible solution to this problem is to include new users as the 'control' group, and to use recall to make comparisons with how things were before the intervention.
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-5-2.3 Proving causality
-A final and major obstacle is the difficulty in being able to attribute any change that is found to the intervention. Other events and changes occur while the intervention is taking place, and this may make it virtually impossible to separate out the impact of a savings and credit programme. Further, even if apparently successful in terms of raising incomes, reducing vulnerability or challenging unequal power relations, an intervention may make very little difference to people's overall well-being. The positive changes may be dwarfed or negated by other factors in the local context or by macroeconomic or political changes, and therefore be marginal. This points to the
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction need to frame objectives of what can be achieved by providing financial services, in more modest terms.
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-5.3 Innovations in impact assessment
-The response of many microfinance specialists to the methodological and practical difficulties of impact assessment has been to argue that it should not be attempted at all. Rather, the financial health of the microfinance institution should be taken as a proxy indicator of positive change. They argue that the very popularity of the services among poor people is enough to demonstrate that they find the services of benefit. It has been suggested, therefore, that impact studies should be replaced by indicators of scale and institutional sustainability (Rhyne, 1994). If the institution is increasing the outreach of its services to a growing number of people, and indicators of financial sustainability are improving, the impact of the institution is viewed as positive. However, while the fact that increasing numbers of people are using the services is in itself a positive indication, it does not tell enough of the story. Aside from the fact that increasing scale brings its own problems, and can even undermine the sustainability of the institution itself, as discussed earlier in this book, it is necessary to investigate further to find out who is using the services. Users should be differentiated by wealth, gender, and location; and information should be gathered on how various groups are using the services to support their livelihood activities. Understanding how people use the services in practice makes it possible to analyse what makes them relevant and usefuho poor people. Answers to the question of whether relatively better-off or poorer people are using the services can be found by undertaking wealth-ranking exercises with members and non-members (Pretty etal, 1996). Discussions with them in 'focus groups' can reveal their views on why others do not join the scheme or why they may have dropped out. Following up users who may have dropped out or become inactive is particularly helpful in understanding why the scheme may not be able to meet these users' needs, as are interviews with non-members. It may be that a member has dropped out because her income-earning husband has died, or her son has stopped sending back remittances from outside the area. This would raise the question of how financial services can support her in dealing with this situation. Or perhaps discussions with non-users might uncover difficulties for in-migrants to an area in being accepted in groups which rely on social collateral. We have earlier emphasised the distinction between access to and use of scheme services. When considering who is using services, it again becomes important to understand women's roles, particularly in relation to loans.
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-Female members may be able to describe the process of decision making before and after taking the loan, their role in it, and how they felt about it. How repayments are made, and how women who may not have direct access to income develop strategies for ensuring repayment, are essential aspects of appreciating the relevance of the services to them. For example, women in Bangladesh often find the money to make weekly compulsory savings deposits required for group membership by taking a handful of rice from the daily household allocation and saving this up to sell (White, 1991). To assess how services are relevant and useful to users and to what extent requires answers to a range of questions: how users see them in the context of other locally available services; how the amounts and timing of loans and ease of withdrawals from savings accounts relate to their priorities in meeting consumption needs and production opportunities (across seasons); how repayment schedules and any compulsory savings deposits relate to flows of income available to individuals and the household as a whole. The views of a range of users can be elicited via semi-structured interviews (Pretty etal, 1995). However, questions need to be carefully framed, so that respondents are encouraged to share their experience of using the services, and how the services relate to their circumstances. For example, asking 'Why did you withdraw savings at this time?' or 'Why did you take a loan at this time?' might result in more useful responses than questions such as 'What did you use your savings for?' or 'How did you use this loan?' (ACTIONAID Vietnam, 1996).
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-5.3.1 Researching usefulness: a case study
-The following account of research into the usefulness of locally available financial services in The Gambia can illustrate many of the points raised: During case study field work in The Gambia, preference ranking was used to understand better how AATG's credit programme related to other sources of credit available to the villagers. AsAATG knew little about how villagers saved, a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of various types of savings proved illuminating. Research was carried out sometimes with women only, but usually with both women and men. As the researchers movedfrom village to village, they became more adept at ensuring the women's participation in a mixed group discussion. The discussions took about two hours and were facilitated by two field workers, who began by asking about the different sources of credit available to people. Since villagers often emphasisedformal sources and failed to mention their own group systems it was usually necessary to ask probing
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction questions to find out about the latter. Then advantages and disadvantages of these sources were discussed. For example, in the village ofjiffarong, sources of credit included The Gambia Co-operative Union Ltd, Village Savings and Credit Association (VJSACA), Freedom From Hunger Campaign (FFHC), Co-operative consumer shop, and the Department of Community Development (DCD), as well as the AATG Group Revolving Fund. The Co-operative had provided three carts to its members to carry farm produce, people, and goods to and from the village. The Cooperative Society used to provide cash credit for subsistence purposes but no longer did so. Only registered members who sell their produce (usually groundnuts) to the Society could obtain credit and the majority of members are men. The Co-op applied strict measures in their credit-recovery programmes, and this discouraged farmers from applying for credit. Some time ago FFHC also supplied three carts on credit to some community members and provided some production inputs on a small scale. The VISACA has been newly introduced and provides cash credit, but also with stringent loan-recovery measures. A village bank has been built through VISACA where registered members and the VDG are able to deposit savings and gain interest. The DCD also provided one cart to the village some years ago but no longer provides credit in kind. Funds from the Group Revolving Fund had been used for the purchase of basic commodities such as rice, sugar, and oil which were supplied to members during the time of food shortage. The group members also borrowed cash from the GRF to buy seeds for planting, to be repaid during the course of the trading season. Part of the GRF was also used to set up a village bakery to generate income. The consumer shop set up by the group also provides some savings and credit facilities to its members. The group has saved the sum ofD2300 ($230)which yielded an interest ofD232 ($23) over a one-year period.
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-5.3.2 Assessing impact on social relationships
-There are other questions which might be asked about the dynamics that the intervention itself can catalyse: • Is social differentiation (inequality) and thus relative poverty increasing as a direct or indirect result of the intervention?
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-Assessing impact • Do gains in financial security and material well-being by relatively betteroff people among the poor increase practices of exploitation and exclusion of even poorer people? • Can the impact of an intervention inside poor households be identified? • If services are not used by the poorest people are there other resources and services which should be made available for them? Who is using the service and what happens as a result is a function of social relations which can themselves change as a result of financial services interventions. Yaqub (1995) has shown convincingly how attempting to use peergroup pressure to screen borrowers and enforce repayment can have unintended consequences if the lending organisation is unaware of changes within social institutions. Referring to the experience of BRAC in Bangladesh, Yaqub argues that the very empowerment which repeated borrowing can bring to an individual may turn a good repayer into a defaulter. Over time, wealth differences emerge within the group and the social sanctions imposed on a defaulting group member may become less threatening: the member has less to lose by letting down the group if she has built up her own resource base. Yaqub uses this to support the case for a permanent subsidy for institutionbuilding at the group level. If the intervention is enabling empowerment of its members, it will become more difficult for the groups on which its success is based to function, and work will be needed to maintain group solidarity. 5.3.3 Impact assessment as a dynamic process It is clear that the usefulness of financial services varies over time, as well as between different groups of people, as can be seen in the varying use made of those services. The example given in Chapter 2 of a study of low-income people from diverse ethnic backgrounds in the UK illustrates this point. Each group mixed formal and informal financial services in different ways. The financial institutions to which people already had access seemed to affect the demand for new financial services. The implications of this are that it is necessary to engage in continuing dialogue with a representative cross-section of scheme members, who are likely to have different needs and uses for the services (women and men, landed and landless, different ethnic groups, and so on). Such a process should be designed to ensure that all relevant views are gathered. It should allow the 'facts' to be cross-checked and thus overcome the problem of respondents giving false information. Also, by collecting multiple views of performance the chances of establishing causality are increased. The way in
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction which this monitoring process is designed should enable conflicts of interest between different users to emerge and less powerful as well as more powerful people to speak freely. Then rather than looking in a linear way at intentions versus outcomes, performance standards can be set according to 'the criteria or factors which relevant people are likely to use when making a judgement' (Fowler, 1995). 5.3.4 Validating qualitative data A process approach such as this, which relies heavily on qualitative information collected through methods such as semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions with users, can appear arbitrary and is often criticised for this reason. However, it can be made more rigorous by paying attention to the process involved and being able to evaluate the validity of the information. Pretty (1994) has suggested criteria and characteristics for judging the trustworthiness of data generated through qualitative enquiry, which include: • prolonged engagement: with users so that trust can build up over time; • observation: both of users' behaviour in relation to the services and of the context in which this happens; • cross-checking: (triangulation) of information by using multiple sources of information, multiple ways of finding out that information, and a number of investigators; • analysis of difference: allowing a wide range of perspectives to be brought into the analysis and not necessarily seeking consensus; • making use of negative findings: allowing findings which do not meet with expectations to revise the results and reformulate the expectations, rather than dismissing such findings as exceptions; • peer checking: exposing analysis to colleagues not involved in the enquiry at an early stage and continuing to do so in order to expose biases or assumptions which might remain implicit; • checking the data with users: after collecting information using participatory approaches, checking the interpretation with those from whom the information was collected and so establishing its credibility as representing users' actual views; • giving reports: explaining hypotheses about impact and the context in which they have been developed, and using direct quotations of people's personal experiences and detailed descriptions of context to substantiate these reports; 80
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-Assessing impact • keeping reflexive journals: recognising the central role played by investigators themselves, they use these journals to record information about themselves, their feelings, and decisions; journals need not be shared with others but can be used at a later stage to remember the immediate reasons for methodological decisions and interpretation of data; • conducting an inquiry audit: this should be carried out by someone unconnected to the inquiry who looks at the process followed and the results to confirm that the findings are supported by the data and are internally coherent. Our suggested approach to impact assessment focuses on understanding who uses the services on offer, and in what ways those services are relevant and useful to poor people in supporting their livelihoods. 'Relevance' and 'usefulness' are highly subjective, so criteria such as those proposed by Pretty can be important in adding credibility and legitimacy to findings. Nevertheless, as White has argued 'sharing through participation does not necessarily mean sharing in power' (1996, p6). The relationship between the interests of the donor agency or implementing organisation in establishing whether it is reaching its overall goals, and the interests of its users in addressing the same question, is an unequal one. Information from impact assessment exercises can be ignored if inconvenient, or can be used for political purposes inside an organisation. On the other hand, for an organisation which is based on attracting savings, users have ownership rights in a very real sense, and the organisation should pay great attention to users' assessments.
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-5.3.5 Using quantitative data in impact assessment
-The ways in which members use services can be explored and cross-checked using quantitative as well as qualitative data. Computerised managementinformation systems are important for the efficient and timely generation of quantitative data. It should be possible to analyse the following information: • savings behaviour: size, frequency and timing of deposits and withdrawals; • savings balances: size of balance held by different categories of people: women, men, better-off, poorer, etc; • loan sizes and types taken, when and by whom; • repayment performance of different categories of people.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction This information can be analysed in relation to aspects of the local economy and livelihood systems to further establish how useful and relevant the services are to particular groups of people. For example, the timing of savings and loan activities could be analysed in relation to local events such as agricultural seasonality, festivals, and so on. A good database should enable creative use of the data to be made in answering a range of questions. If records are kept at the level of the individual borrower then it is possible to examine the number of loans that have been taken by each borrower. This allows the extent to which people are making repeated use of the service to be analysed. For example, finding out whether loan sizes are rising or falling with second or third loans can provide insight into borrowers' confidence, or lack of it, in taking larger or smaller loans. Analysing the timing of savings withdrawals in relation to loan disbursement may indicate whether savings are only being made in order to obtain loans.
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-5.4 Learning and adaptability
-To develop a package of services which responds to a specific context requires a willingness to learn and to change. It requires a good information flow between all those 'stakeholders' involved: users, staff, management, and funders. Assessment must be continuous because people, their circumstances, and their aspirations change. The extent to which an organisation learns from experience and adapts accordingly can itself be used as a measure of success. Indicators could be, for example, how well an organisation listens both to users and funders; how efficiently it learns and adapts as a result; and the degree to which it rewards learning and innovation (Roche, 1995). Changing organisational practice to encourage learning and adaptation has obvious advantages in that it increases the likelihood that mistakes will be admitted and corrective action taken. However, any process approach of this nature can be used to support changes which are more to do with satisfying the interests of particular, already powerful, people — whether management, staff or particular groups of users—than with a focus on successful poverty reduction. Moreover, learning, adaptability, and understanding must take into account the wider environment in which the institution operates and not be confined to the organisation's own services. Microfinance institutions, userowned or otherwise, need good sources of information on the nature of and changes in other financial services institutions locally. As Howes has concluded for membership organisations in general; ... successful outcomes nearly always seem to rest, in the first instance, on a sound understanding of existing institutions. 82
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-Assessing impact A capacity to identify and utilise present sources of social capital1 can often give new initiatives a head start. Conversely, where the institutions which are in place constitute part of the problem to be addressed, a thorough knowledge of how they operate is indispensable as a means of anticipating and managing the conflicts which will inevitably arise (Howes, 1996). Perhaps because of the inherent difficulties of gathering so much information and keeping in touch with changes; ... NGOs should start slowly, pilot-testing new ideas carefully with small groups ofpeople ... Institutional development is a long-term undertaking, and strategy must be harnessed to a process approach to ensure flexibility in the light of evolving external circumstances (Howes, op. cit.).
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-1 'Social capital' refers to the networks, relationships and mutual obligations which lie behind collective action and exchange.
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-5.5 Summary and conclusions
-We have discussed the failings of conventional approaches to impact assessment which have taken a linear view of the relationship between an intervention and its consequences. These approaches encounter methodological and practical problems when put into practice. Problems include the difficulties of getting accurate data, and whether the consequences observed can in fact be attributed to the intervention in question. In recent years substantial progress has been made in developing methodologies which involve users more deeply, in order to capture the diversity of experience which exists among them. Such approaches to impact assessment do not necessarily assume that services will have a measurable impact, but instead seek to increase understanding of the ways in which the services are relevant and useful in supporting users' livelihood strategies. Approaches which involve continuing engagement with users in a more dynamic dialogue make it possible to meet their needs more effectively. At the same time, if done well, they have the potential to enhance users' identification with the institution, and are therefore in the interests of that institution and its funders. Impact assessment becomes a process of continuous feedback rather than a one-off exercise. • NGOs interested in poverty reduction should be concerned with the impact of financial services, and especially loans, on poor people's livelihoods. • In addressing the question of impact, NGOs need to go beyond quantitative information detailing the numbers of users, and volumes and sizes of loans disbursed, to an understanding of how and for whom these services support livelihoods. • In using qualitative methods to understand the usefulness and relevance of services to poor people, NGOs should develop ways of increasing the trustworthiness of data, by involving a wide range of both users and staff in the process. • An NGO which is modest and honest in setting its initial objectives, and which is prepared to admit its mistakes and learn from them, is more likely to provide services which are useful and relevant to a wide range of users and so have a more significant impact in supporting their livelihoods.
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-6
-Case studies
-6.1 Introducing the case studies
-The purpose of this chapter is to explore further the concepts and approaches already laid out in earlier chapters through discussion of five case studies of microfinance interventions. Each case study is presented thematically in terms of its background, design, performance and sustainability, and impact assessment to correspond to the four preceding chapters. Tables 6.1 and 6.2 present information in summary form on the background, design and performance of all five microfinance interventions. Each case study is then discussed in detail. Information on impact was gathered using brief one-off studies. While an attempt was made in each case to assess the usefulness and relevance of the financial services, it was not possible to use all the methodologies for impact assessment advocated in Chapter 5. This was because the approach to learning and adaptation set out in that chapter requires long-term processes involving users, staff, and volunteers. The five examples discussed are connected with ACTIONAID and Oxfam (UK and Ireland). The Union Regional de Apoyo Campesino in Mexico has received modest financial support from the Mexico programme of Oxfam (UK and Ireland) for a number of years. SUNGI in Pakistan has worked with Oxfam Pakistan, although not in microfinance activities. The study of Ladywood Credit Union in Birmingham UK has been done jointly for the purposes of this book and as a preliminary study for Oxfam's recently established UK programme. ACTIONAID has been working in The Gambia since 1979, and this provides an example of a long-term project where an international NGO has been directly operational. Casa Campesina Cayambe in Ecuador has been a partner project of ACTIONAID and Ayuda en Accion since 1988.
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-Table 6.1 Summary of Information about Case Study Schemes
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-Mexico
-Union Regional de Apoyo Campesino(URAC) National GDP per capita (US$1993) Location Definition of intended users/size Scheme membership Savings facilities 3,610 Rural Rural households in 26 communities
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-Pakistan
-SUNGI Development
-(SUNGI)
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-430
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-Rural 47 villages
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-4591 active members (1995) Voluntary savings: savings balance must be 20% of loan size General purpose 'normal' loan max N$700 (US$ 100) over 7 months; also loans for housing, family purposes and small-scale agricultural production 18 (note 1) 30 (note 1) 20-70 members organised for savings purposes with one cashier; loans signed by 5-10 other members
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-1260 saving; 137 borrowing Compulsory: Rs30 per month minimum Max Rs 5000 (US$150) for productive purposes for 6-24 months
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-Loan facilities
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-Interest rates (%):
-Savings: Loans: nominal real nominal real
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-profit-loss share 18 (service charge) 8 Village Organisations, men and women separately, size variable. Has credit
-management committee
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-Way of working (through individuals or groups)
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-1 Inflation rates in Mexico have fluctuated significantly in the last two years resulting in both positive and negative rates in real terms, currently rates have become significantly positive again but were not at the time which the study was undertaken
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-UK Ladywood Credit Union (LCU) 18,060 Urban Unemployed / lowincome and other families on innercity housing estates 270 adults 400 junior savers Voluntary: loan size 2 x savings balance Max 2 x savings balance+£300; max loan size £5,000 (US$7,500) over 2 years
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-Gambia
-ACTIONAID The Gambia(AATG)
-350
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-Ecuador
-Casa Campesina Cayambe (CCC) 1,200 Rural Small farmers / rural householdsof 2 cantons with a population of 3,150 families
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-Rural Small farmers / airal households in 523 villages
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-Approx. 11,000 households Individual coverage have received credit figures not available to date None None
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-Inputs for agricultural production in kind: range from seed to carts, ploughs etc. Max term 5 years
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-'Ordinary' loan max. lm.sucres (US$400) over 15 months. Other types of loan available
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-1% dividend in 1995
--2% 12%
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-n/a
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-n/a 52 (note 2) approx. 27 Indigenous community committee structures and credit delegate represent communityinterests with CCC.
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-9 Credit Union as a whole defined by 'common bond'of residence: financial services provided to individuals
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-0 approx-10 Village level groups administer credit; AATG provides training. Group level responsibility for repayment
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-2 52% calculated as an annual percentage rate; 43% calculated on the declining balance basis
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-Table 6.2 Performance indicators of all Case Study Schemes in 1995
-(All figures in US$)
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-S 2
-0)
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-375,741
-
-941 bor
-
-Approx
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-ccc Ecuad
-
-0
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-2
-
-350
-
-n/a
-
-n/a
-
-!
-
-m
-Ml
-
-CN
-
-X
-
-00
-
-!5 TheG
-AATG
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-(4
-
-o
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-V &gt;
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-8
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-x: "5
-
-Appro; househ
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-60% (1;
-
-107,10(
-
-n/a
-
-n/a
-
-177(2)
-
-i
-
-itol ans
-0
-
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-
-x:
-
-»n
-
-\r\
-
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-
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-
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-
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-z'-S
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-
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-•8
-
-CO
-
-5;
-l-H
-
-668
-
-(N
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-
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-
-NO
-
-O O
-
-ro
-
-5Z
-
-WN -&lt;f
-
-ON
-
-it available
-
-85 loans
-
-&lt;AC exico
-
-5,000
-
-3,485
-
-m
-
-u
-
-c
-ers % ofuse | who arefemale
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-ON
-
-3
-Average• loan siz &lt; u
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-CN
-
-in
-ON
-
-i-
-
-1 No. ofoLi rrent 1 borrowiB rs/loan
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-Volume ofsavinj
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-Volume of loans
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-Noofsa vings account
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-0
-
-i/i
-
-Indicat
-
-*w t_
-
-c
-
-1
-
-0 v^ 0 •
-
-1 indicates number of women members of village development groups having access to credit in one area with 140 villages rather than number of women actually taking loans. However, coverage within the group for seasonal loans was 70% upwards. 2 estimate
-
-Arrears rate
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-&lt;u
-
-a
-
-Average loan siz as%ofCiDPper capita (1 993)
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-Average savings balance
-
-Repaym ent rate • currenit on tim ;nt rate
-
-&lt; &gt; /
-
-Si
-
-XI
-
-i/i V
-
-&gt;
-
-evertakien and r pai
-C D
-
--a
-
-1
-
-10%
-
-270
-
-194
-
-I
-
-g .2
-
-0
-0 IA CN"
-
-0
-
-0 in in &gt;n
-
-not a vail
-
-0 0
-
-iwe
-
-•a
-
-«
-CTS
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-Case studies
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-6.2 Union Regional de Apoyo Campesino (URAC), Meaco
-6.2.1 Background
-The Union Regional de Apoyo Campesino (URAC) is based in Tequisquiapan in the Mexican state of Queretaro. It was started in 1989 by Union de Esfuerzos para el Campo, (UDEC), a four-person NGO which began working around Tequisquiapan in 1984. URAC has a broad vision of building an alternative peasant economy in the region by encouraging the production of goods which campesinos (peasants) consume and the consumption of what the peasant union produces. Much of the work involves training villagebased volunteer workers, and encouraging the organisational capacity of campesinos in the region. It is clear about its identity as a peasant organisation, rather than a savings and credit scheme, although the backbone of the work is currently the provision of financial services. Mexico underwent radical economic reforms following the 1982 debt crisis. Low inflation, high capital in-flows from outside the country, and moderate economic growth masked a growing divide between rich and poor. This divide was expressed through a peasant uprising in the Southern state of Chiapas in January 1994. A series of events, including the assassination of the ruling party's presidential candidate, caused investor confidence to decline. This resulted in a new economic crisis in late 1994 when investors began to withdraw funds from short-term bonds and precipitated a run on the government's reserves of foreign exchange. Since then rescue packages have been organised by the IMF and World Bank to maintain Mexico's debt repayment obligations and secure the banking system. These efforts have not prevented inflation rates in the region of 50 per cent and similarly high interest rates. These in turn have resulted in defaults by middle-class borrowers on mortgages, car loans, and credit cards. The four municipalities around Tequisquiapan in which URAC works have seen significant social and economic change in recent years. Rapid industrialisation in nearby towns had improved employment opportunities in the area although wages were poor, but these industries have suffered in the recent economic crisis. Agricultural employment is still provided on local estates and large farms, while some households have land-use rights under the terms of the land reforms of the 1930s, and others cultivate their own small plots. Male out-migration is high, both on a short-term basis to nearby towns and for longer-term work in the US. Remittances are therefore a major source of income.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction 6.2.2 Design URAC is active in three main areas: financial services, agricultural and livestock production, and a programme to supply basic goods. The programme puts strong emphasis on organisation building and encouraging the involvement of members in monthly meetings at village level. The programme had some 5,000 members in 27 villages in 1995- There has been constant and steady growth, with a 60 per cent increase in membership between 1993 and 1996, reflecting the popularity of the programme in the villages in which it operates. With its philosophy of self-sufficiency, URAC started with a savings-based approach. Members pay a membership fee and can save as much or as little as they wish. Members are organised into groups of between 20 and 70 people, and there may be two or three groups within a village. There is a monthly village meeting to give an update on the position of each group, including overdue loan instalments; information about the basic goods supply; news about URAC and about events in the region; followed by discussion of a broader issue, often a national or international theme, as well as technical discussions about agricultural production. The function of the smaller groups is for saving. There is one cashier per group whose task it is to collect the savings and take them to the URAC office on a weekly basis. The savings facility is subject to a minimum deposit of 1 peso (US$0.15 in March 1996). The cashier decides when during the week she is willing to accept deposits, and the fact that this facility is available within the village makes it very convenient: members have been known to move between groups on the basis of the efficiency of the group's cashier. Withdrawals can be made on demand, but require more effort as they can only be made at the URAC office or mobile unit. However, the facility is wellused, and there is constant activity at the URAC office. Although this is not encouraged by staff, members sometimes ask the cashier to make withdrawals for them. The savings facilities have also been adapted to suit local needs over time. URAC's 'optional' savings accounts are an interesting example of this. Members faced particularly high expenditures around periods of childbirth and school leaving. (It is customary for parties to take place in school and at home to celebrate school leaving. In almost every household there is a celebratory lunch involving the extended family.) The optional savings accounts were designed to meet these needs. Savings are regular but withdrawals can only be made three times a year when school semesters end, or at the time a baby is due. URAC has also established children's savings schemes. Children's groups are subsidiary to the adult ones and use the same cashiers. Loan sizes are linked to savings balances. There is a requirement that 20 per
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-cent of the loan is on deposit, which allows loans of five times the savings balance to be taken, up to a maximum for normal loans of N$700 (US$100; exchange rate N$6.6 = US$1 in March 1996). There is no restriction on what these loans can be used for. Quick-access loans in emergencies are also available under certain circumstances. Additional criteria for loan eligibility are attendance at meetings (a member must have attended the last three monthly meetings) and savings record (members must save at least N$l per week). A range of loan facilities are available, the main one being 'normal' loans described above; these are repayable over seven months. Loans for housing up to N$900 and 'responsible' loans of N$1000 are also available, on condition that members have demonstrated their ability to repay a normal loan and have 25 per cent of the loan amount in their savings account. A 'family' loan of up to N$4,000 for investment in a micro-enterprise requires applications to be made directly to URAC's Board. This loan also requires physical collateral or guarantees for half the value of the loan from other members. A further range of small-scale loans has recently been introduced for homestead production of small livestock and vegetables. These loans are administered through the savings and credit programme, partly because URAC finds them easier to monitor than loans issued through the agricultural production programme. The group-based mechanism operates fairly loosely in terms of peer monitoring. Loan applications have to be endorsed by other members of the group (a group can in practice have up to 70 members) but this endorsement does not require that they take responsibility for repaying the loan in the event of default. However, if a member defaults, the group is denied access to further loans; individual defaulters lose access to their savings, which are used as collateral. Repayments are not made in public at group meetings but are taken by the individual borrower to URAC's office or to the mobile unit. The groups are not the only way in which members participate in the Union. For example, group cashiers are involved in monthly decisionmaking meetings with URAC. They were involved in the recent decisions to tighten up the repayment policy and to allow loan instalments to be made in the villages as well as at head office. Interest rates on savings and loans facilities differ depending on the service. In March 1996 the rate on 'normal' savings was 18 percent per annum and on 'normal' loans was 30 per cent p.a. With inflation at rates of 50 per cent and above in Mexico since the peso crisis at the end of 1994, both savings and loan rates have been negative in real terms (see section 3-7 for an explanation of nominal and real interest rates). However, these interest rates were set by URAC before inflation rose so sharply and were initially highly positive in real
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction terms. Now that inflation has again declined, URAC's real saving and borrowing rates are positive once more. The project employs four full-time development workers (promotores) who undertake the main work of mobilisation at community level. They are assisted in this by two technicians — one agronomist and one vet (volunteer). Additionally, the URAC office has two clerical staff dedicated to the savings and credit programme and is open five days a week for members to transact their business. A mobile unit staffed by the development workers is open twice a week in Cadayreta, the part of the region furthest from Tequisquiapan. But the scheme depends heavily on the work of the group cashiers. Their role is to collect weekly savings and take them to the URAC office at least once a week, as well as to represent their groups in URAC meetings. In 1995 an incentive system was introduced to motivate the cashiers. It consisted of a points system for accurate record-keeping, with the points redeemable through the basic goods supply programme or as savings instalments or loan repayments. Performance has improved dramatically. Loan disbursement is carried out from the URAC office and until recently repayments could only be made at the office or mobile unit. Now, the development workers also collect loan instalments at the monthly village meeting, which reduces transport costs for borrowers. Interlinked with the savings and credit scheme is the basic goods supply scheme which members qualify to use if they attend meetings and save regularly. Through a volunteer from the village, orders are placed fortnightly from a printed list of about 300 items and delivered to the village. Payment is made after two weeks at the time of making the next order. If an individual fails to pay on time the whole group is disqualified from using the facility.
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-6.2.3 Financial performance and sustainability
-URAC collects a wide range of financial information which can be used to calculate either arrears, default rates or both, and reported a healthy repayment rate of 95 per cent in March 1996. Arrears are defined as loans for which full repayment has not been received seven days after the final due date. The number of loans in arrears has fallen consistently over the three years to 1995, as has the total volume outstanding. Arrears in 1995 represented some 14 per cent of the level of 1995 loan disbursement. The relationship between the arrears and defaults is especially interesting. The proportion of loans in arrears which eventually became defaults (defined as loans due for repayment in a particular year which are still not paid) rose from 8 per cent in 1994 to 27 per cent in 1995. This suggests that recent macro-economic contraction beginning in late 1994 has had a knock-on effect on URAC's loan
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-performance by making repayment more difficult for members. Loan numbers declined in 1995, especially loans for housing construction; savings deposits remained steady in nominal terms, but this represented a fall in real terms. From the start, URAC's philosophy has been one of self-sufficiency. This led to initial emphasis on savings mobilisation, and the core loan fund has never been dependent on donor capital, although loans in the separate agricultural production fund (not part of URAC's savings and credit component) have utilised donor money. As the calculations shown in Chapter 4 demonstrated, URAC reported a financial sustainability index of 47 per cent and a break-even interest rate of 76 per cent. This suggests that URAC is half-way towards achieving financial self-sustainability in its microfinance operations. The questions arising for URAC is how it might move towards full financial sustainability, and what the implications of this might be for the form and sustainability of the organisation. As was pointed out in Chapter 4, one of the main elements of URAC's operating costs is the salaries of the four development workers. At present these workers are essential to the integrity of URAC's operations. In organisational terms, the challenge for URAC is therefore to find a strategy which enables costs to be covered without undermining this integrity.
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-6.2.4 Impact assessment
-To understand the relevance and usefulness of the work of URAC, one of the 27 communities where the Union works was selected. The criteria for its selection included the programme having been in operation for at least three years, its being a village of average size, and one where URAC felt confident about the work it had done there. The focus of the research carried out was the savings programme. The village of La Laja is adjacent to a deer-hunting ground, and includes a large working commercial dairy farm {hacienda). Campesinoscultivate land in privately owned smallholdings and use communal lands for grazing. However, there is extensive migration out of the area to find work. La Laja lies on the main road between Tequisquiapan and Queretaro. According to URAC, the village is not ethnically differentiated. All the inhabitants are mestizo by race and most are Roman Catholics. Most of the residents support the ruling Partido Revolutionario Institutional (PRI). There are four URAC groups in the village, two each for adults and children with each of the two cashiers working for one adult and one children's group. Given the large size of the groups, up to 70 members, it was decided that the study would select a sample of households from just one group. Group
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction membership involved more than one member of the same household, with 39 members covering a total of 26 households. A wealth ranking exercise1 offered insights into perceptions of what it meant to be relatively wealthy or relatively poor in La Laja. Respondents placed households into three categories: the wealthiest were referred to as those who 'tienen el modd (translated as 'those who have got it'); the middle group 'losamoladotf (the ground-down) and the poorest group' losfregados" (literally, the buggered). Indicators they used included: • size of house, its condition, kitchen equipment (most importantly whether gas or wood was used for cooking) and bathroom; • regularity of income and whether this is in the form of remittances from the USA; • family size and ratio of workers to dependents. Of the 19 respondents only one was male, a boy of 13; and in this case, most of the answers were provided by his mother. The main sources of income were remittances from male family members temporarily working in the USA; male workers in the construction industry (skilled and unskilled); and agricultural production (male and female), whether as paid workers on the local hacienda or as crop producers in their own right. Women were involved in petty trade, including the buying and selling of snacks and cheap jewellery in the village, small-scale food preparation, and domestic employment. One other woman traded on behalf of a company as an abonero, collecting payment instalments towards purchase of consumer durables selected from a catalogue. The incomes of people in La Laja have been squeezed drastically by reduced opportunities for industrial employment (an estimated drop of 35-40 per cent between 1994 and 1996: Alfonso Castillo, personal communication) and escalating prices, especially for health care and education. In early 1996 the national inflation rate was running at approximately 50 per cent. The URAC services have helped members to survive in times of difficulty and cope with unemployment following the 1994 crisis. Members used URAC to maintain economic security, despite savings deposits losing purchasing power through the operation of a negative real rate of interest. Its savings and loans components offer ways of saving that work out cheaper than alternatives such as abonero and less embarrassing than borrowing from relatives. Most of the households operate more than one savings account. Often l The wealth-ranking and semi-staictured interviewing in La Laja was carried out by Martha Romero.
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-women have accounts for themselves and for each of their children to which they contribute regularly. Most save weekly, although the amount may vary. Savings have been withdrawn for medical expenditure (including urgent treatment), survival in hard times (including sporadic unemployment), utility bills, raw materials for making household adornments, consumer durables (fridge, cupboard), clothes, shoes, school fees, and registration of a truck. Of those currently saving, half have taken loans for purposes such as house building and repair, school fees and uniforms, consumer durables (refrigerators), organisation of festivals (each year two villagers have to take this role), onlending to non-members (including relatives outside the village), truck repairs, and credit instalments. Because the biggest category of loans are those for which no purpose needs to be specified, this data on loan use is likely to be reasonably reliable. The advantages of the URAC services referred to by members included not having to save a fixed amount weekly (unlike ROSCAs); easy access to loans ,with minimal regulations and red tape; easy access to savings (including for urgent requirements); and the fact that individuals can safeguard cash without informing other household members. Members adapt their use of the services to their preferences. Thus some people like to save and withdraw but would never consider borrowing; others take loans because they like the additional incentive to keep up payments. People who are very indebted cannot normally save and are thus unable to join the scheme; heavily indebted people who are already members become inactive. One respondent, a non-member, had previously saved in a co-operative bank (caja). However, faced with a serious illness in the family, she has had to live on withdrawn savings and has been unable to make new deposits. It is important to understand how individuals make use of several financial services simultaneously; in particular how they borrow or withdraw from one source in order to meet commitments to another. One household reported paying school fees under a credit arrangement with monthly instalments. If these instalments are paid late, they increase by 10 per cent. A loan from URAC was used to ensure payments did not fall behind. Credit taken from local shops for groceries (a regular weekly practice for many members) was repaid from URAC savings. Half of the members interviewed had been actively involved in tandas (ROSCAs). In La Laja, one tanda was run by the hacienda owners; workers could opt to have 50 pesos per week deducted from their salary to be put into the group fund. Savings were also used for tanda instalments. In more than one case, members had also used cooperative banks based in Tequisquiapan for savings and loans. But this was common only among those who had relatively large amounts to save.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction Members also used formal bank services on a one-off fee basis to receive remittances transferred from the USA. 6.2.5 Conclusions URAC's savings and credit programme demonstrates the feasibility of operating a savings-based scheme from the outset. This savings base has limited the dependence of the programme on external funds to running costs alone. URAC's flexible savings facilities are clearly appreciated by its members and used by them to support a wide range of livelihood needs, including food purchases, emergency health care, and insurance for periods of unemployment. In this way the services have demonstrated their usefulness and relevance to members and enabled them both to protect and improve their livelihoods. The development of URAC's savings accounts to meet special needs, and those developed for children, demonstrates URAC's practice of continuously learning and adapting. URAC has achieved a high level of internally generated funds. Much of this success has been due to the hard work and commitment of the staff, whose salaries, in effect, have been funded from external sources.
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-6.3 SUNGI Development Foundation, Pakistan
-6.3.1 Background SUNGI Development Foundation (SUNGI) is an NGO formed in 1989 and operating in Hazara Division of the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) of Pakistan. The Hazara Community Support Programme (HCSP), which SUNGI runs, grew out of a response to floods which hit the area in 1992. The HCSP began in 1994 and by December 1995 was working in 120 villages spread over four Districts. Apart from the small enterprise development component of the programme it includes work in health and sanitation, small-scale infrastructure, and forest management. Compared to Pakistan as a whole, NWFP has fewer people below the income poverty line. While approximately half of all agricultural households in Pakistan rely on income from wage labour, in NWFP the proportion is less than one-third. Moreover, although agriculture is an important part of the regional economy, there is a relatively high reliance on non-agricultural income (Gazdar etal, 1996, p29). The position of women in the society and economy of NWFP is particularly constrained in relation to enterprise development. Cultural norms limit their mobility outside of the homestead to engage in economic activities such as production and trade.
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-6.3.2 Design
-SUNGI works with village organisations (VOs). These are set up for men and women separately. SUNGI will not work in a village unless there is both a men's and a women's organisation. The small enterprise development component is a savings and credit scheme. The VO elects a Credit Management Committee of at least four members. SUNGI works with this group to develop the credit policy of the village organisation, so detailed rules of operation vary from village to village. A membership fee is levied as a contribution to the VO. Of the five case studies, SUNGFs way of working most closely resembles the Grameen model, in which members are organised into 'solidarity groups' of five and offer guarantees in case of non-repayment by group members. However, while this is organisational policy, the operation of this mechanism varies significantly in practice between villages, as will be seen below. Savings are compulsory for all members at 30 Rupees (about 90 US cents) per month. Members' savings are deposited by the village organisation into a bank account, in which they earn a 'profit and loss share'. (Islamic law prohibits interest being charged on loans or paid on deposits.) In theory savings are retrievable from this account, but policies guiding the terms and conditions of access had not been worked out with the VOs by the time of the case-study research. Loans are available to individuals up to a limit of Rs5,000 (about US$150). All loans are subject to an annual service charge of 18 per cent in the context of an annual inflation rate of 10 per cent. The interest rate income is divided as follows: 14 per cent to SUNGFs loan fund, 2 per cent for SUNGI's operational costs, and 2 per cent for the Village Organisation. All loans are intended for productive income-generating purposes and vary in term from six to 24 months. Repayment schedules are designed to reflect the income stream of the investment. Physical collateral is not required, but guarantees must be sought from other members of the five-member groups into which people are organised. The co-guarantors of the loan must keep a minimum of 15 per cent of the loan value in their savings accounts. SUNGI's village-level workers are called Field Coordinators. It is the Coordinator's job to undertake a feasibility study to investigate whether the economic activity proposed is viable. The application for credit is submitted by the Credit Management Committee through the Field Coordinator to the SUNGI monthly management meeting, where a decision is made. In one village, it was found that, due to the dynamic leadership of the village organisation by a local teacher, the operation of the scheme was largely conducted by him on a house-to-house basis, and those taking loans were not necessarily even aware of who the other four members who had signed their loan applications were. 97
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction 6.3.3 Financial performance and sustainability SUNGI started disbursing loans in 1995 and to date has not had any problems with repayment. It is difficult to discuss its performance so far given the small number of loans that have been made. In particular it is too early to judge financial sustainability. Organisational sustainability for NGOs working in this area may require a more enabling legal framework, especially with regard to the collection of savings deposits. 6.3.4 Impact assessment It is also too early to attempt detailed investigations of the role loans have played in relation to members' livelihoods. The case study therefore concentrated on understanding the way in which SUNGI's model was working out in practice: the relationship of the scheme to other informal financial services; and the way in which different groups within the community were participating in it. The experiences of women in obtaining and using loans were of particular interest given the system of purdah (female seclusion) predominant in the area. The case study was confined to two villages selected by SUNGI. Livelihood activities in this part of NWFP include manual work (male) on the railways; livestock-rearing and dairying (female and male); and wheat cultivation (male). Casual work for men is available in the enormous Jepsum quarry adjacent to one of the villages. In Barilla, a large village consisting of a number of separate hamlets, with a total population of 10,000, the male VO had existed prior to involvement with SUNGI. It started in 1991 in one hamlet to carry out infrastructural work and repairs, and by 1995 had 119 members across the village as a whole. The driving force behind this organisation is a local teacher. The executive council of 15 members is selected rather than elected, with some based outside the area; two members of the Credit Management Committee were based in Islamabad for most of the week. The Women's Organisation is also led by a local teacher. Its formation is more recent but its success in mobilising savings has already drawn the attention of other (larger) financial services providers. One of these is the First Women's Bank of Pakistan, which has visited Barilla to study SUNGI's methods. In the other village, Karach, the male VO had been formed in 1994 as a result of SUNGI's work and its parallel women's organisation started soon afterwards. A total of 17 semi-structured interviews were carried out, with male and female members, some of whom had already taken loans, and with two nonmembers. A relatively high proportion of those interviewed had access to regular salaries or were relatively well-remunerated from self-employment.
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-Only one household relied on income from agriculture, and the majority had multiple income sources. The researchers were immediately conscious of obvious wealth differences on entering the villages; and the sensitivity about wealth and poverty made a wealth-ranking exercise inappropriate. As a result, respondents could not be selected to represent all social ranks and wealth groups. However, because of the small number of loans, it was possible to meet a large proportion of borrowers. On the savings side all members were making the minimum compulsory contribution of Rs30 per month. However, understanding of the profit share and withdrawal options was confused. The SUNGI system operates savings as a relatively inflexible component. It is one thing to have to save but quite another to have to save a fixed amount and not to have automatic withdrawal rights. The fact that none of the respondents saved more than the required Rs30 per month suggests that for most of them at least the compulsory savings are part of the price they have to pay for their loans. Sources of informal finance in Barilla and Karach included loans from neighbours and ROSCAs known locally as kamitis. Loans from neighbours were considered very pressurising because of the degree of shame involved if the loans were not repaid on time. There was very little evidence of highinterest private informal lending, and only one woman was reported to be an interest-charging money lender in Barilla. (VO leaders attached importance to not charging interest as it was forbidden in Islam.) Kamitis were used in general by better-off respondents and were more common in the wealthiest part of Barilla. The kamitis in Barilla involved groups of between 9 and 25 people and equal monthly instalments ranging from Rs30 to Rs2000 per month and pay-offs of Rs300 to Rs32,000. Some households were involved simultaneously in more than one kamiti. The uses to which kamiti pay-outs were put included house building, deposit into a formal-bank savings account, payment for sons in higher education, and marriage of daughters. None of these purposes would have qualified for a loan under the SUNGI scheme as none of them fell into the five possible categories of productive loan. This indicates that for households involved in kamitis the SUNGI intervention is to an extent complementary. The stated purpose for loans taken by interviewees included livestock rearing and small businesses such as shops, sewing, and rope making. However, without fairly expensive monitoring and follow-up systems on SUNGI's part, which do not currently exist because responsibility is taken by the VO's credit management committee, there can be no assurance that loans are being used for the purposes stated. While it did appear that loans were being used for income augmentation rather than 'protection' alone, it was also clear that those on the lowest incomes tended not to take part. The
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction situation of two non-members reinforces this view. They were unable to make the necessary savings to join the scheme, and were dependent on private loans to cover their needs or were paying-off earlier loans. Almost all of those interviewed were paying their instalments on time. This is probably due, in Barilla at least, to the personal involvement of the organisation's office-holders in repayment enforcement. Thus the operation of the model in practice differs significantly between the villages. Within the household, loans are managed in different ways. Intrahousehold loan management and control was discussed with six borrowers — five women and one man. Below, the experiences of three women borrowers are given, to illustrate terms of control of the asset purchased and associated tensions within the households. The first woman, who is 22 years old, and lives in Barilla village with her husband and three small children, described their main sources of cash income as the clerical salary her husband earns (Rs2000per month) and her own occasional embroidery (Rs20-40 per month). Her husband went to market to purchase the two goats she bought with her loan ofRs4500. She carries out most of the tasks associated with the goats' upkeep and her husband provides loan repayment instalments from his salary. Sometimes there are arguments with her husband when she needs cash. The goats themselves do not provide an income stream; in fact, one of them died. However, the remaining one is a source of milk for the children, and she hopes to earn some cash when she sells the animal. Although she very much values the savings component of the women's organisation's work, she has had to oppose her brothers who advised her to deposit money in the bank to gain more interest. Another woman borrower, much better-off and living with her husband and three salaried sons, was the mother of one of the leading members of the Barilla village organisation. Her monthly income is over Rs4000. She received Rs5000for rope-making (for string cots) and travelled to Faisalabad herself to purchase the raw material. The income she makes, which was not revealed, is controlled by her alone. She attends monthly meetings regularly and plans to apply for a loan for a bigger business. A third woman, 35 years old and an office-holder in the Karach women's organisation, took a two-year loan ofRsSOOO to start a shop. She lives with herfive children. Her husband is employed as
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-Case studies a daily labourer in Islamabad. He brings back Rs1300-1500per month and she earns Rs320per month for stitching clothes. Once her brothers-in-law came to know about her loan, they took over the management of the shop, and gave her Rsl50-200per month income (her loan instalments are Rs250per month). She has been subjected to violence by her husband who used to beat her during arguments about money, even before she took out the loan. Recently, although pregnant, she says she was badly beaten as her husband wrongly thought she had received a high per diem for taking part in a SUNGI training exercise. Once this loan is repaid she plans to take another loan for livestock rearing. She is more confident that she will be allowed to manage the work involved herself.
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-6.3.5 Conclusions
-SUNGI's small enterprise development programme started in 1994. Using a model based on micro-enterprise loans, compulsory savings, and small lending groups, with guarantees on loans provided by other members within the group, SUNGI's approach resembles that of the Grameen Bank. Short visits of a few days to each of two villages revealed differences in the ways VOs disbursed loans and collected savings. Early indications suggested that in those villages repayments were being made on time. In one case actual repayment enforcement was carried out by VO office-holders rather than the members of the small borrowing groups. The few women borrowers interviewed reported diverse experiences. While in one case, the borrower retained control over the whole small enterprise (including purchasing inputs from Faisalabad), in another, the enterprise was taken over by male relatives.
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-6.4 Ladywood Credit Union, UK
-6.4.1 Background
-Ladywood is an inner-city area of Birmingham, UK. The Ladywood Project has set up a range of initiatives, including a drop-in centre for parents and small children, a women's group, a domestic violence forum, and a furniture exchange, where poor families can obtain second-hand donated furniture. The Project operates from a Community and Health Centre. It was workers on the Ladywood Project who began the Ladywood Credit Union (LCU) in 1987 with the support of the Birmingham Credit Union Development Agency. Registered unemployment in the area is 29 per cent for men and 20 per cent for women, compared with 10 and 5 per cent respectively in the UK as a
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction whole (1991, Census of Population). The result is a high dependence on state welfare benefits. Earlier experience of the Ladywood Project had revealed the high extent of indebtedness and personal financial difficulties in the area. LCU is not a commercial organisation and its activities are closely defined by the restrictive framework of the 1979 UK Credit Union Act. This requires that members must have a 'common bond' defined by either workplace, location or faith. Workplace or employee credit unions are quite distinct from community credit unions, as members of the former have regular incomes and assets can therefore be built up rapidly. However, the maximum savings that an individual can hold in a credit union is ±5000. Savings are held in the form of shares and the maximum dividend payment allowed on them, by law, is 8 per cent p.a. As part of the Ladywood Project, the role of LCU goes beyond financial service provision, although many members use it solely for that purpose. Activist members, including the former and current development workers, and the staff of the Ladywood Project, see its role as more broadly supportive of members in financial difficulties. The informal and flexible way of working which has been developed at LCU, together with a friendly and open attitude towards new members, makes it more than just a service provider. Also the history of the LCU, which has relied on voluntary labour, sharing office space with the Ladywood Project, and calling on members to share skills which would have been prohibitively expensive on the market (such as book-keeping and accountancy), distinguishes it from commercial providers of financial services. Its core members also explicitly set out to provide (through both voluntary work and financial security) a means of building self-esteem, of being in control of one's own life, of being valued and able to contribute and develop personal skills2. 6.4.2 Design The LCU is staffed by one full-time development worker who has been funded by Birmingham City Council since 1991, and a number of volunteers who are either from the community or are associated with the Ladywood Project in some way. Volunteers are vital to the project and LCU could not survive if it had to pay them salaries. LCU operates through a series of committees which are part of the structure prescribed by law. These committees involve community members as well as staff of the project. Their role is to monitor each other. There is a Board of Directors, a Loans Committee, a 2 Much of this analysis of the impact of LCU's work was written by (and almost all the semi-structured interviewing was carried out by) Helen Derbyshire.
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-Credit Control Committee, and a Supervisory Committee which carries out regular checks on the operation of the other committees. LCU offers a voluntary savings facility. Members can deposit as little as they like. Withdrawals of up to £10 (about US$17) can be made at the main office (open four afternoons a week) or at one of the various satellite collection points which operate on a part-time basis. Larger amounts may take longer, but for those who suffer mobility problems, these rules are implemented very flexibly. LCU has only been able to pay a dividend on savings for the first time in 1995 at a rate of 1 per cent. Up to this point, it had used its income from loan interest to build reserves against bad debt. Members of LCU conduct their activities entirely independently. Security for loans is provided by savings balances and the 'common bond' of local residence, rather than group collateral. While loan size can be a maximum of twice the savings balance plus £300, (US$500), subject to a legally prescribed ceiling, a crucial component of judging applications is examining past savings deposits and attempting to set the loan instalments to levels just below the amount, and at the intervals at which, the borrower usually saves. This is done in order to try and ensure that savings balances continue to rise. Quick-access loans in emergencies are also available. Interest rates on loans stand at 12 per cent p.a, resulting in a real rate of around 9 per cent. However, credit of the type LCU offers to its members (much of which is used for consumption) would only be available at rates of interest of at least 20 per cent from the formal sector in the UK. LCU members would also face many other barriers in trying to obtain such loans. Members automatically qualify for life insurance cover, which LCU purchases in bulk via the Association of British Credit Unions. This would pay off any outstanding loans and provide twice the value of savings to a previously named beneficiary in the event of death. LCU is involved in two important innovations. The first is the Junior Savers Scheme. Three of the four satellite collection points are in schools, and there are now 400 child members, some of whom get involved in keeping computerised records for the scheme. LCU has also been involved in a scheme run by Birmingham Credit Union Development Agency to connect up three inner-city credit unions by using modem links between computers, enabling members to use the offices of any of the three to undertake transactions. In addition, LCU took part in research to establish the business potential for a bill-paying service. Bills for utilities (gas, electricity, water) are major expenses for poor people. Not only do they often find it difficult to organise their payments on a regular basis but they also incur high transport costs and fees in paying bills. The business plan suggests that a service could be provided more cheaply than the one the Post
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction Office currently provides, and that it would be commercially viable in the long run. The capital funding for the project has not yet been raised.
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-6.4.3 Financial performance and sustainability
-Ladywood Credit Union has experienced some difficulties with the timing of repayments. In about one-third to one-half of all loans there are gaps of three weeks or more in repayment instalments, which are usually weekly. However, part of Ladywood's service is that it investigates non-payers and is flexible in repayment schedules. Such a situation is only possible because of the small number of members, and the close supervision available. Some 58 per cent of borrowers can be in arrears at any one time but at present serious default cases run at approximately 10 per cent of the loan fund and involve some 25 per cent of those with loans outstanding. This suggests that it is those with small loans who find it difficult to repay, and this is likely to be explained by the earlier observation that the scheme also has members who have salaries and take out loans for relatively large consumer items such as cars. This profile of membership and lending, in which better-off members are able to take larger loans which involve lower risks for LCU, suggests that to some extent these users are helping to ensure the availability of LCU's services to its poorer members. LCU's accounts show a healthy situation in which profits were made in the second half of 1995- However, this calculation does not include staff costs. At present the work is carried out by volunteers and a full-time development worker whose salary is paid by Birmingham City Council. Office space is free as part of the wider Ladywood Project. A sustainability index calculated on the basis of costing all inputs would probably indicate that Ladywood was not financially sustainable. However, LCU has demonstrated an ability to mobilise the voluntary work and other inputs required to sustain the union, and UK credit union law does not allow it to operate at a financial loss. Indeed, the voluntary work of the staff and their commitment are integral to the project in supporting an element of social interaction which is central to the project's way of working. This demonstrates the limitations of evaluating financial sustainability on the basis of a narrow financial calculation, especially in cases where it is possible to sustain voluntary inputs in the long term.
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-6.4.4 Impact assessment
-In order to understand the role LCU plays for its members, semi-structured interviews were carried out with 19 individuals. The respondents were selected by the current and former LCU development workers to reflect the
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-range of members' socioeconomic backgrounds in terms of income, race, gender, age, and location. It was emphasised that interviews with poorer members and ex-members were of particular interest. Overall, members could be divided into two groups: • Those living on government benefits and/or very low employment income, often single parents, who used the Credit Union to control domestic finances. If they took loans, these members would tend to use them to pay domestic bills, cover the costs associated with Christmas or other festivals, and the purchase and repair of items of household equipment such as cookers and washing machines. • People with more regular incomes, including professionals employed in the Ladywood Project, for whom the main attraction was low-cost loans for larger items such as holidays, weddings, and cars. However, the credit union membership did not generally include the very poorest Ladywood residents, i.e. people living in debt. Kempson, in a wider study of those excluded from the banking system in the UK (HMSO report, 1994), classifies credit unions as 'mid-market'. As Kempson explains, creditunion members need to save in order to access loans. Most people without current accounts in high-street banks are not in a position to build up savings. In a separate study among poor people of Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Carribean origin in the UK, Herbert and Kempson (1996) found that, despite differences in credit use between these groups, all of them relied either on informal rotating savings and credit associations or friends, relatives, and the private informal sector (including pawn-brokers and foreign exchange agents) rather than credit unions. The interviews demonstrated that some members see LCU as a preventive measure to keep themselves out of a downward spiral of indebtedness to private credit-companies. The savings facilities of LCU, like those of URAC, are extremely useful to such people. It is those who are already heavily indebted who find it hard to manage a regular savings commitment as any income is already committed to existing creditors. In Ladywood indebtedness to private loan companies is common and mostly affects those people whose income is derived from benefits and various forms of casual labour. They borrow to meet consumption needs, such as clothes and household items, by obtaining them through mail-order catalogues or with high-interest loans taken from private credit-companies. A government-run Social Fund provides loans for items of essential domestic expenditure, such as cookers and beds, with repayments being deducted at source in fixed amounts from benefits. Private credit-company loans are
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction provided in the form of vouchers for particular shops, or immediate unsecured cash loans to be repaid at very high rates of interest. There are increasing numbers of private credit-companies offering cash loans and shopping vouchers to people living in Ladywood. Their services are advertised in local shops and through leafleting door-to-door. Creditcompany agents, who are paid on a commission basis, visit people at home to provide loans and to collect repayments. Interest rates on loans are high: in most cases more than 50 per cent per annum. The credit-companies are providing a service which is extremely widely known and widely used, and to which, for those not in a position to save, there is often no alternative. Respondents described how the private credit-companies often tried to persuade people to take on more loans, even when they knew they were already heavily indebted. They therefore saw the purpose of the credit union as useful for the thrifty, preventing indebtedness through savings, and providing a means of building security against uneven cash needs. One of the clear advantages of the private credit-companies was the immediate nature of their loans, given without collateral. There is thus a philosophical difference between the credit union and the private loan-companies. While the former promote an ethic of thrift, providing people with a means of being in control of their own finances, and living within their income, the latter tempt people to spend, live beyond their means, and count the cost tomorrow. LCU users who live on benefits or very low incomes tend to save in irregular small amounts. They reported using loans to help to pay for items such as TV licences, utility bills, and life insurance. Such members felt they could not use banks due to embarrassment at the small amounts they deposited. They also make extensive use of the other sources of credit described above. Some who had tried to save in the credit union, found themselves unable to keep up with their initial expectations of their own savings capacity. Those people on benefits who use the credit union are very positive about it, stressing in particular the understanding approach of staff, the flexibility, the chance it provides to save in small amounts, the low rate of interest on loans, and the greater sense of control it offers them in difficult circumstances. The majority of LCU members fall into the second category: they are people who have a regular income, including some professionals. All of these people have bank or building-society accounts into which their salaries are paid, and make contributions to LCU by means of automatic transfers. A minority of people in this category save with a building society as well as with LCU, as a way of diversifying assets. Some people in African-Caribbean communities combine LCU savings with revolving savings and loans ('partner' arrangements). One of the advantages of such arrangements is the
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-discipline in savings required which is enforced through strong social sanctions. But for those who find it impossible to meet the fixed weekly commitment, LCU offers a flexible alternative. 6.4.5 Conclusions The case of LCU illustrates a number of points of relevance to the themes of this book. First, the difficulties of reaching those who are already highly indebted and unable to make even small but regular savings which might eventually qualify them for a loan. Second, the combination of a financial service with a strong social support structure which encourages people to take control of their finances. Third, the role that other members of the local community can and do make in providing the service. These better-off people contribute by investing their capital and hence providing the funds for on-lending, taking and repaying loans so providing LCU an income. Some can also be counted among the volunteers from all income groups who give their time to assist in the running of the credit union.
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-6.5 ACTIONAID in The Gambia
-6.5.1 Background
-ACTIONAID has been working in the small West African state of The Gambia since 1981. With a population of approximately 1 million, The Gambia has a GDP per capita of US$350 (1993). The bulk of the population is rural and dependent on agriculture. There is a single rainy season and only limited irrigation facilities along the Gambia river, and food security is a major concern. Agricultural development activities have always been central to the ACTIONAID The Gambia (AATG) programme. AATG works in over onesixth of the villages of The Gambia (591 villages in all). It is largely funded through child sponsorship in the UK, and in the early 1980s operated by giving grants to individuals and organisations. Many grants were given in kind in the form of seasonal inputs of seed and fertiliser as well as agricultural implements, such as ploughs, sinehoes, and weeders. By 1987, this was changed to a 'half grant: half credit' approach in which the credit repayments were used to finance further input supply. This approach moved to a 'full credit' system in which the full value of the credit was repaid; and since 1992 the strategy has been to locate this credit system within the village organisations and groups with which AATG works. These Village Development Groups (VDGs) have in many cases grown out of existing village institutions, including local savings and credit groups (kafosand osusus). AATG disburses interest-free loans to the VDG. The VDG
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction allocates loans among members and may charge interest to members if it wishes. Repaid credit is kept in a Trust Account for each particular village. Since 1992, if the original loan capital has been repaid in full, AATG has made it available once more to the VDG to use for its own purposes ('recycling'). This can include on-lending to individuals. Thus AATG is attempting to use financial capital to build the resource bases of existing village institutions. 6.5.2 Design AATG has done little to stimulate saving by groups. However, groups are helped to open bank accounts in up-country branches of commercial banks into which they deposit membership fees. When AATG returns their Trust Account funds to them, this is done by a transfer to their bank account. Loans available from AATG have generally been provided in kind. They have covered seasonal inputs, such as seeds and fertiliser, which are repayable within a year; medium-term loans for agricultural implements, such as seeders and sinehoes, for between one and three years; and long-term loans of animal carts and oxen. Repayments are usually scheduled annually on the anniversary of the loan. The AATG fieldworker receives applications from the group for loans, and these are passed on to the project's credit committees for vetting against a range of criteria, including whether the community has overdue loans. If it has, it should receive no further loans. This rule was introduced in 1992 after loans had been issued to many communities and not repaid. However, repayment is often related to the strength and attitude of the village group, some groups being better organised and more interested in development activities than others. The 'recycling' of money to communities has acted as an incentive for some groups to pay-off outstanding loans in order to gain access to their Trust Funds. Others believe that what they have received should be treated as a grant, a clear hangover from AATG's past programming approach. AATG undertakes a range of activities including work in education and health. It has also worked with the groups and village organisations to expand their organisational and management skills. Training is provided to group executive committees, which are encouraged to extend their membership to all households in the village. Many of the organisations are almost entirely composed of women. In its early days, AATG worked mainly with group enterprises and farms and, since women's groups were common, tended to work with them. However, the degree of women's representation currently varies from village to village. Some of the groups have only a very small number of male members.
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-Case studies AATG has never charged interest on loans. It takes the view that the loans are made to the village groups who can on-lend them with interest if they want to. However, in practice there is no evidence that this occurs for loans given directly by AATG. Where AATG has returned repaid loan funds to the group to utilise in their own way, evidence suggests that they are being lent out by the group at interest. These rates are difficult to calculate because the groups undertake a range of activities, such as purchase of food or seed which is stocked locally (very similar to the basic goods supply scheme in URAC), which may be offered in kind and repaid in cash. Groups tend to offer a range of terms on the type and nature of the loans. 6.5.3 Financial performance and sustainability In AATG, the repayment rate of 75 per cent is calculated as a historical figure taking account of the whole period of the scheme; the 'on-time' repayment rate is likely to be lower. The method of calculation is related to the programme's policy of 'recycling' funds to the VDGs once they have repaid their loans. This shift of policy has improved recovery rates in a number of villages since villagers have realised that they can receive more resources if they put pressure on those who have not repaid. There is evidence that groups have seized assets from non-payers as a result. AATG takes a very different approach to the issue of organisational and financial sustainability. It argues that it has never been and does not intend to be a microfinance institution. Rather its objective is to develop the institutional mechanisms that exist in the villages in which it works. Its change of strategy in 1992 from service delivery to institutional development underlines this approach. While it continues to offer credit to villagers, the way in which repayments are paid into Trust Funds for those villages means that the village is building its own capital fund through repaying. Against certain criteria of organisational development, the village is then allowed to apply for the return of those funds to be operated under its own management. This is an example of how this is now operating in one village: The VDG in Demfaye Njaga has 58 women and five men, representing a total of 29 households. It is well-organised and operates by dividing into small cells within which D5per month is collected. This money is deposited in the village safe and is used for emergencies. The village safe is not allowed to 'go dry'. If loans are neededfor an emergency, a small number of members of the loans committee are able to decide and report to the next executive meeting. Emergency loans are interest-free if repaid quickly (within a month).
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction The group has received D28,253 back from AATG ($2,500) via its group bank deposit account. It withdrew D8,000, of which D7,000 was given out to members as cash credit at 15per cent interest over four months, to be repaid at the end of the dry season. D1000 was given out as loans for small business operations, which made D1280 profit. A further Dl 1,000 was then withdrawn and distributed as cash loans, some of which were used to buy food, others for trading. There have been no problems with repayment so far. None of the loans are given directly to men because the women feel that they have no authority over them to ensure repayment. This group has also taken a loan from the Gambia Village Development Trust which was offered at a rate of interest of 18 per cent over one year. It was used for buying carts which were given as loans to men and for ram-fattening activities. The profit made on this loan was D570. AATG is now building on the experience of recycling funds by looking at how it can support the continued development of financial services through training and support. Not all village groups are as well-organised as the group in Demfaye Njaga, and some have had problems with repayment. AATG's approach is still being refined. Among the 591 villages in which AATG works, not all will want to run, or be capable of running, their own financial institution. Some VDGs may invest in development projects and not revolve the capital fund. Some are likely to be development organisations with financial resources at their disposal, rather than village banks. 6.5-4 Impact assessment For the AATG case study semi-structured interviews were carried out with a sample of 42 individuals in eight villages. This was one part of a research initiative which included establishing information on coverage and other sources of credit. The individuals selected included men and women, those with short- and long-term loans, and non-borrowers. Seasonal loans had been received by upwards of 70 per cent of VDG members. However, this had sometimes meant very small amounts of seed or fertiliser (such as a quarter of a bag of fertiliser) as the VDG would decide to distribute the inputs it received equally to all members. The extent of coverage of long-term loans for agricultural implements was much more varied, ranging from 5 to 67 per cent of VDG members. The differences in coverage between villages often reflected the fact that villages which had not repaid had not been given further loans.
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-Case studies Five individuals interviewed reported non-repayment of more than one loan. This can be related to AATG's relatively 'soft' policy on loan repayment, especially prior to 1991. In three of these cases the village had received no new loans since 1991 as a result of this non-payment. In the remaining two cases further new loans had been received by the village in spite of the policy change. Of the 30 respondents who summarised what a loan had meant to them, only one mentioned a negative impact. (The loan was for a donkey which had had to be sold following non-repayment due to a bad harvest.) The remaining 29 reported increased production, improved yield, more food, less need to borrow from elsewhere, and reduced length of the 'hungry season'. One respondent, the President of one of the VDGs, had taken three longterm, fixed-capital loans for a sinehoe, seeder, and cart, and claimed he was unable to repay any of them due to poor harvests. In this case, the use of social position to obtain a relatively high number of long-term loans was combined with non-repayment. (It is interesting to contrast this with the example of one village in the Casa Campesina Cayambe project (Ecuador), in which relatively wealthy office-holders took more loans than others, but repaid them; and with the Ladywood Credit Union in Birmingham which relies on larger loans taken out by relatively well-off people to generate income for the organisation from interest payments.) The evidence suggested that seasonal working-capital loans had expanded the supply of relatively scarce inputs. Although yields have improved as a result of fertiliser use, it appeared the increases had not reduced the length of the hungry season and there was no evidence that they had enabled processes of accumulation and expansion of agricultural production to take place over subsequent seasons either. The impression of researchers was that women borrowers and poorer borrowers were more likely to repay, but also that the poorest exclude themselves from larger loans, not wanting to jeopardise their access to future credit through gaining a reputation for being uncreditworthy. Indebtedness has increased in some of the AATG villages, however, partly because of the inter-annual variation in rainfall: most loans are agriculture-related and agricultural production is rainfall dependent. However, non-payment is also due to the 'soft' line on repayment taken by AATG. A tougher stance might have led to higher repayment but also to more self-exclusion by potential users. Of the eight villages where the study took place, six had received recycled funds. The main use of these funds, which are allocated entirely by the VDG, has been to provide hungry season consumption loans, often through setting up small retail shops within the village. (This indicates a similar need to that addressed by URAC, for the convenient supply of basic consumer items.) There had been a limited supply of loans for consumption purposes
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction previously, with capital available to groups only from pre-existing group savings. Because most kafo groups already have experience of providing small cash loans out of their own savings, the recycling of funds was taking advantage of an indigenous system, which was already working well. Loans made out of recycled funds carry relatively high interest rates, but also achieve high repayment rates. Recycled funds have also been used to provide agricultural implements, such as sinehoes and seeders, on credit to members. The seasonal loans made by AATG and the consumption loans made out of group revolving funds have enabled many women to cope with immediate needs. However, assets received in women's names as long-term loans are owned and controlled by the male household head. In one group, women reported that men were habitual non-repayers and that they did not have the means to enforce repayment from menTherefore they did not give loans to men. AATG's main objective since 1992 has been the establishment of village institutions and it now sees credit as a means through which group organisation and management can be strengthened as well as provided with financial resources. The need for 100 per cent repayment before further loans are sanctioned, and the system of recycled funds, has introduced incentives for group cohesion and management which did not exist prior to 1992. While earlier policies had resulted in poor loan repayment in many villages, there was no evidence that this had resulted in non-payment of kafo loans. This contrasts with the findings of research which suggests that 'soft' policies might 'contaminate' indigenous lending practices (Nagarajan, Meyer and Graham, 1995). In one village, Sinchu Tamsir, where the AATG scheme is not performing well in terms of loan repayments, indigenous group activities continue to be effective. Non-payment in the AATG system in this case had been a result of the abuse of the system by the village head, an option that was clearly not open to him in the indigenous system. The apparent success of recycling funds raises questions about the necessity of the continued existence of the AATG credit work. An alternative approach would be to make capital grants into pre-existing group revolving funds (where such funds can be seen to be working well) to expand their capital base. However, with declining profitability on marketed groundnuts, reduced remittances from urban migrants due to increasing unemployment, and the shrinkage in the tourist trade, rural livelihoods are under pressure. AATG's credit-cum-grants and the recycled funds make a small contribution to the capitalisation of village institutions and to the coping mechanisms of poor households. Seasonal loans in particular have enabled poor households to protect their livelihoods, through the use of otherwise inaccessible agricultural inputs which result in greater yields. 112
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-In some cases better-off households are able to use the capital to accumulate wealth without respecting the repayment requirements. There is insufficient evidence to judge whether this increases socio-economic differentiation. The recycling of repaid loans to village groups has meshed well with existing systems for group investment and allocation of loans. There is also no evidence to suggest that the soft line on repayment enforcement in the AATG credit scheme negatively influences the working of indigenous kafos. However, it is possible that this experience will complicate the efforts of other external agencies aiming at sustainable microfinance initiatives.
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-6.5.5 Conclusions
-AATG is the largest operational NGO in The Gambia where it has been working since the early 1980s. Its size and history influence current performance both in terms of users' attitudes to the project as well as the organisational constraints in deciding and implementing major changes in policy and approach. Changes are often piloted with smaller numbers of villages before being extended as general policy. Such constraints mean that change takes time to agree, experiment with, and then implement throughout the agency. The understanding of fieldworkers and community members is key and it is often more difficult to communicate changes in policy during a programme than when starting up in new areas. AATG has decided that its main aim is to build strong rural institutions rather than to become a sustainable financial intermediary itself. The shift to community-based management systems which was introduced in 1992 was brought about as a result of lessons learned from its own work and a desire to move its own practice forward. This major shift in policy has taken time to implement, but interesting results are beginning to show, with groups demonstrating their ability to manage recycled funds. The strength of local communities' existing skills in management of osusus and kafos have contributed to the success of this policy. In turn this indicates what can be learned from an exploration of indigenous systems of financial services.
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-6.6 Casa Campesina Cayambe, Ecuador
-6.6.1 Background
-Casa Campesina Cayambe (CCC) was set up by a Salesian priest in 1987 as an extension of work that Salesian fathers had been undertaking for several decades. It works with indigenous Quichua Indians in four parishes, 80km north of Quito, at an altitude of some 2,800 metres in the Andes.
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction The villages depend on agriculture and livestock. They farm land regained after the collapse of a co-operative system, which had taken over land from large estates after land reform legislation. The land-holdings of poorer households are typically as small as two hectares and necessitate seasonal migration of family members for agricultural labour or to the cities. Annual family incomes are approximately US$300 compared with a national per capita average of US$1200 (1993 figures). While literacy is high, at 87 percent, child malnutrition is also high, at 50 per cent. CCC's financial services are an example of NGO credit-provision in a closely defined geographical area. Loans were initially allocated through the Centros Infantiles Campesinos, the creches for children aged three to six. Loans were available to the children's parents, funds coming directly from Ayuda en Accion. At the same time, Foderuma (the government programme for which the charismatic CCC leader had worked as promoter) was allocating loans through village-level organisations. Foderuma loans were given in kind in the form of agricultural inputs. Foderuma was dissolved in 1994. 6.6.2 Design The project operates in the three sectors of production, education, and health. The credit programme exists as part of the production programme but is not exclusively credit for production. There is no savings component. CCC does not operate a group mechanism of its own, rather it operates through the Quichua's indigenous system of Community Committees, which exist independently of CCC. The loan application must be approved by the Community Committee and be signed by the Credit Delegate and Community Directorate before being passed to the Inter-Community Credit Committee (CIC). This committee, which consists of a delegate from each of the villages, meets monthly. It approves applications for loans and decides on the allocation of credit between communities. The sanction of no further loans to the community is applied when an individual defaults. Continued nonpayment results in legal proceedings being brought against the borrower by the CIC. Credit is provided in a number of categories. 'Ordinary' credit is the main type of loan with a maximum amount of 1 million sucres (Approx. US$400 in 1995) which can be used for any purpose. This amount has been raised over the years as inflation has been high, but the project has attempted to retain this limit at a level which would ensure a degree of coverage for poorer members, and to correspond to the debt-carrying capacities of households. Other loans available are: 'special' loans in cases of illness or domestic emergency; loans for the installation of bathrooms — a total of 600 have been
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-installed to date; credit for housing construction, involving a group of about ten people who apply together, and the provision of building materials in kind through a supplier; and credit for new productive activities — these are micro-enterprise ventures usually in fish production or cheese making in which the project also carries some of the risk of failure and provides a large degree of training and technical support. Further categories of credit available are for grassland and seed improvement. CCC charges 52 per cent (APR) on ordinary loans or 43 per cent if calculated on the basis of declining balance. (APR is Annual Percentage Rate. For example, CCC charges 325,000 sucres for a loan of 1,000,000 which is repaid in five equal three-monthly instalments; 325,000 interest is therefore paid on an average loan balance of 500,000, representing 65 per cent over 15 months or 52 per cent over 12 months.) This is in the context of an inflation rate that varied between 45 and 55 per cent p.a. in the period 1990-1993. Since mid1995 the inflation rate has virtually halved, to 24 per cent, so CCC interest rates have become strongly positive in real terms. Other types of loan carry interest rates of 32.5 per cent, also presenting a positive but lower real interest rate. There is no rule against applying for more than one loan: for example a borrower of an ordinary loan can access another loan for a different purpose. However, as CCC became more aware of the need to try to avoid the concentration of loans in a particular family, it instituted a new rule whereby any new applicants had priority over those who were applying for further loans. 6.6.3 Financial performance and sustainability CCC measures the numbers of loans (rather than loan volumes) for which payments are on time and records non-payment after the loan term is complete. Out of 1,333 loans issued since 1990 and on which loan terms have been completed, 13 per cent have been paid late and only in 2 per cent of cases has legal action been taken. In cases of default the CIC has initiated legal action to seize the possessions of the borrower. Any community with four unpaid repayment instalments forfeits the right to further loans. The system is then intended to involve pressure both from within the household and within the community for timely loan repayment. The number of overdue instalments needed to invoke the bar on further loans was increased after borrowers were found to be unable rather than unwilling to repay. In the case of CCC, movement towards financial sustainability has been strong. At the end of 1994 interest rates were raised in the context of high inflation which then fell in 1995 leaving real interest rates positive, at approximately 27 per cent on ordinary loans and 10 per cent on other types of
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction loan. In 1995, the costs of operating the scheme were 4 per cent of the loan fund implying that interest rates a little above this level were needed to break even. (In fact, interest rates would need to be slightly higher, since a proportion of the capital is inactive, having been repaid and awaiting further applications.) Expansion of staff and new capital equipment in 1996 will result in increased costs but these still stand at only 10 per cent of the loan fund. However, the loan fund is partly sourced from a Canadian-Ecuadorian fund on which 32 per cent annual interest is paid. Even when this fund has been repaid and removed from the current loan fund the costs of operation in 1996 would represent approximately 10 per cent of the loan fund and hence suggests that CCC is very near full financial sustainability. However, in terms of organisational sustainability, the fund may not be sustainable without the supporting framework of CCC. The scenario presented here allows the scheme to cover costs of administration and follow-up and suggests a situation in which the credit fund can continue to operate as a cost-covering arm of the project. It is less clear what framework the credit scheme could operate within if the whole structure of CCC did not exist. Proposals for the CIC to take over the loan fund encountered resistance. This was related to the recent history of co-operatives in the project area, when management groups had used their position to take advantage of the co-operative's benefits, which has made people wary of management by such organisations, fearing that conflicts of interest might arise. 6.6.4 Impact assessment A study was carried out in the community of Turucucho. Most of the land in the community is irrigated, with average holdings per family of nine hectares, making it a community of moderate wealth by local standards. Main crops are barley, beans, potatoes, and grass (for dairy herds). Through loans specifically for grassland management many members have improved milk output and raised incomes. Turucucho has benefited from several externally funded projects, including the opening of a bridle path, the construction of a community building, and provision of CCC credit. The programme has encountered particular difficulties in this community. Its directorate has recently disbanded and been replaced. There has been a repayment problem, which has meant that access to new loans has been delayed until all past loans have been paid; and some members have only repaid under the threat of legal action. The distribution of loans to families in this community has produced substantial coverage but has at the same time been highly skewed. While the majority of families had received at least one loan, investigation revealed that
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-three families had received 46 loans out of a total of 104. These three extended families are headed respectively by the President, Vice-President, and Credit Representative, who are the wealthiest individuals in the community. Of the nine families who had not applied for a loan, five were those least involved in agricultural production, and included single mothers, and young families from which adult male members migrate to the city in search of employment. Since loans in Cayambe were often used for economic investment, in particular to purchase cows, there is a danger that economic differentiation within the community could increase, as the better-off are able to increase their incomes by much more than poorer people. This widening gap could increase relative poverty. 6.6.5 Conclusions The case of CCC presents an example in which there has been good movement towards financial sustainability. In this context the institutional arrangement preferred by the project (making the Inter Community Credit Committee the managing body) was rejected by the members themselves and left CCC in search of a new organisational form. CCC has developed a variety of credit services catering to a range of local needs including the specific need to protect a family's asset base in the face of medical emergencies. This case study again illustrates the difficulty of designing credit for very poor people, who prefer not to take on the risks of indebtedness. As in CCC, working with existing community structures may be a deliberate choice to respect the local social context, and take advantage of their inherent strengths. At the same time, agencies have to be aware of the intragroup and intra-communal struggles which inevitably occur, and find ways of counterbalancing these, as CCC has done by instituting rules to avoid loan concentration.
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-Conclusions
-In focusing on microfinance, emphasis has been laid on the need that poor people have for a wide range of financial services. These needs are evidenced by the uses made of financial services that already exist but which are usually informal in nature. This shift in emphasis away from the provision of credit solely for income generation towards a range of financial services is consistent with an understanding of poverty which looks beyond low incomes to vulnerability and powerlessness. Providing microfinance can give poor people the means to protect their livelihoods against shocks as well as to build up and diversify — also a means of protecting — their livelihood activities by investing loan capital. The role of credit in promoting incomes has been the rationale for NGO programmes in this sector in the past. However, obtaining one or two loans has rarely resulted in sustained improvements in income for poor people. Moreover, even if very poor people are able to invest successfully, unexpected shocks can undo any gains very quickly. Thus, the poorest are likely to need to build up a degree of security before investment and growth become possible. In any place at any time, the needs of poor people for financial services are many and varied depending on individual circumstances: some will be saving for the future, while others will be facing a crisis, and still others wish to obtain a loan to invest. A programme of flexible services which can be adapted to meet these different needs is more likely to be relevant and useful to poor people. Many informal financial services are a response to the saving requirements of poor people, and we have described how developments in the technology of lending to poor people have been based on the demonstrated ability and willingness of poor people to save. However, the further establishment of flexible savings facilities requires appropriate regulatory environments. There is still relatively limited experience on the part of NGOs in insurance, hire purchase, and related financial services. Thinking in terms of microfinance rather than credit therefore encourages NGOs to develop and try out a wider range of services to support poor people's livelihoods.
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-Conclusions We have proposed an overall approach that NGOs should adopt to microfinance for poverty reduction. The first point is the need to consider any proposal for intervention within the context of existing informal financial services. Extensive study and documentation of informal financial services has taken place all over the world. This work has demonstrated that diverse facilities already exist; some are highly exploitative but others provide for needs ranging from buying household items and clothes to trade credit. Research has demonstrated that these informal facilities are enduring features of the local economy. We have categorised them into those which are owned by their users and those which are provided 'for profit'. While demonstrating the flexibility and diversity of the myriad of informal ways in which people's financial needs are dealt with, we have argued that these services can harm as well as enable poor people. Financial relationships, especially those of debt, are one way in which the powerlessness of groups of poor people is entrenched. The analysis suggests therefore that intervention in local financial markets is an area that should be approached with great care. It is necessary to understand for whom, in what ways, and under what circumstances the array of local services adds to the options they have for maintaining and developing their livelihoods, or contributes to their further impoverishment. To assist in making this assessment we have suggested that services which are owned by their users are less likely to contain an exploitative dimension for those users than those which are offered on a 'for profit' basis. This approach to understanding pre-existing services should be followed by a consideration of whether or not the NGO in question should intervene. There is evidence that NGOs do not necessarily possess the right range of skills and experience to effectively implement and manage the provision of financial services. When NGOs do this they in effect set themselves up as bankers: a role few would be likely to contemplate if expressed in this way. Consequently we have suggested that the NGO should carefully and honestly assess whether it has the appropriate skills and resources before beginning work. Acquiring or developing the specialist skills is a long-term commitment which itself requires substantial investment of funds. Poor people's needs for financial services are enduring and long-term. An NGO considering whether to provide services must understand the need for a commitment to do so for a considerable length of time: the 30 years or more of a bank's existence, rather than the three to five years of donor funding arrangements. There are alternatives to becoming a direct provider of services. An NGO can play a useful role in promoting financial services. This can make use of an NGO's skills in mobilisation, training, and management in establishing
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction groups who undertake internal savings and credit; promoting user-owned small-scale initiatives such as thrift co-operatives and credit unions; linking groups to banks; bringing in an NGO which has special expertise in financial services (of whom there are a growing number); or undertaking advocacy within the country to involve the formal banking system in microfinance. If a decision to intervene is made, we have argued that it is necessary to understand the rationales for different combinations of recently developed design features including small loan sizes, regular repayment, group lending, higher interest rates, and savings. Cutting out the need for physical collateral (whether through peer-group lending or locally based loan-officers providing character references for individuals) is based on a process of screening borrowers which uses local 'inside' information. The local loan-officer or the other members of the loan group will probably know better than a bank does who is likely to repay a loan, and the appropriate size of that loan. This understanding can enable designers of microfinance schemes to more effectively adapt their technology to local circumstances. Features such as small loan sizes, regular repayment, and regular meetings have been used as low-cost means of discouraging better-off people from joining schemes. Small loan sizes and regular repayment may also be useful in preventing indebtedness among poorer borrowers. Meetings can be a means of bringing together women in contexts where they are otherwise unable to leave their homesteads. The effectiveness of these design features will also depend on the particular situation: the appropriateness of the loan size in relation to local circumstances, the cost of time lost to users attending regular meetings, and the regularity of their income streams in relation to loan repayments. A focus on lending to women has become common for microfinance schemes. Some commentators suggest that this is the result of practical considerations about the efficiency of operation. Evidence has shown that it cannot be assumed that loans received by women are necessarily empowering. Gender-related objectives need therefore to be made clear when embarking on scheme design, and steps taken to ensure that women are supported in developing their own uses for financial services. In discussing financial services we have emphasised the role of savings. Schemes involving a 'compulsory' savings component have demonstrated the ability of users to save on a regular basis from regular income. However, in these schemes savings are not usually accessible and therefore the need remains for voluntary savings facilities — safe places to store money to meet planned as well as unexpected, immediate as well as long-term expenditures. However, while highlighting the advantages of voluntary savings facilities,
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-Conclusions we have also emphasised the heavy responsibility that operating any savings programme entails. The provision of credit at interest rates below those in the formal private sector has in the past resulted in the failure of many development finance institutions to reach their target groups and provide an effective service. Subsidising interest rates tended to attract unsuccessful projects and at the same time prevented the institution from covering its costs. More recent experience has suggested that poor people can take and repay loans at interest rates which contribute to costs, especially if repayments are organised in ways that relate to their flow of income. It has therefore become more acceptable for interest rates to be set at levels which cover inflation and make a contribution to the costs of administration and default. In the initial stages of a microfinance programme, however, costs will inevitably be high, and setting interest rates to cover them is likely to price the organisation out of the market. Interest rates will remain a sensitive political issue in many countries and environments, and NGOs surely would not wish to become the 'new exploiters' (Rutherford, 1995b, pl51). Setting realistic interest rates should not be a license for high costs and inefficiency. Poor people need financial services on a long-term basis and sustainability is thus important. In the past NGOs which have provided credit as part of a short-term package of inputs have not been able to meet the repeated demand for credit and savings facilities. In this context, there are two main aspects of sustainability: financial sustainability and organisational sustainability. The financial sustainability of microfinance schemes can be enhanced by charging interest rates which make a contribution to costs, and by reducing default rates. An emphasis on measuring financial sustainability for an operational programme can enable important debates about the direction of the programme to have a financial basis. However, financial sustainability does not guarantee organisational sustainability. Organisational sustainability will depend on a range of factors such as management, staffing, and organisational structure. The incentives used to motivate staff to avoid collusion with scheme users is critical, as is their integrity in handling money. Organisational structure is an area of some controversy. Some have argued that the role of NGOs is not to convert themselves into banks but to retain anNemphasis on innovative work with the poorest which others will not undertake^eg Dichter, 1996). While there are notable examples of NGOs turning themselves into banks, this course of action is only one of many in the provision of financial services to poor people in the long term. We have already discussed the alternatives to direct provision which involve NGOs in a more promotional role — examples such as village banks, credit unions, and thrift co-operatives are models which are
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-Microfinance and Poverty Reduction being tried out. Credit unions have a good record of success in a number of countries. It is in considering the potential for these long-term structures at the outset that an NGO might be convinced that a promotional role rather than one of direct provision is more appropriate. While we have argued that the potential for sustainability is important, NGOs aiming for poverty reduction will need to assess the impact of their services on users' livelihoods. Conventional approaches to impact assessment have focused on a set of causal linkages from the intervention to reduced poverty. This type of impact assessment has proved extremely difficult, and costly, since there are many methodological pitfalls. In the past ten years 'participatory' approaches to research have become widely used. These methodologies applied to microfinance can enable institutions to capture more of the diversity of their impact. However, even from among those most closely associated with development of 'participatory' approaches, warnings about their limitations have emerged (Guijt and Cornwall, 1995). Involving a representative cross-section of users in impact assessment is essential in order to explore the ways in which financial services are able to support livelihoods; protect them through savings, and consumption or emergency loans; and promote them through savings accumulation and loans for investing in livelihood activities. Approaching impact in this way leads to a concern with the usefulness of services to poor people in securing livelihoods rather than in meeting NGO's expectations of what financial services can achieve. The diversity of users' socio-economic circumstances even within what might appear to outsiders to be an homogeneous environment will affect demand for financial services. Even poor women will differ significantly in their socio-economic status, life-cycle effects being a particular feature: the needs of young unmarried women will differ from those of young married women with growing families; and from the needs of older women with grown-up sons or those who are widows. Putting this into practice means understanding the diversity of users' situations through, for example, wealth ranking and focus group discussions. A process of dialogue with users can be structured in ways which increase the weight that can be given to the findings. Thus obtaining multiple accounts and cross-checking them, and exposing findings to critical review by users themselves as well as other staff and peers are means of ensuring that qualitative information is not misinterpreted. Channelling this information into a structured and continuous process of feedback enables the organisation, if it is willing, to learn useful lessons and to adapt its services to meet the needs of users more effectively.
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-Conclusions In the course of this book, we have demonstrated the ways in which poor people use financial services to support their livelihoods. Developing a microfinance intervention which can respond to these demands, and which is able to meet the varied needs of people within the same location at the same time, is a challenge for NGOs. This challenge involves understanding what exists, deciding on an appropriate role, designing in relation to local circumstances, focusing on sustainability, and being willing to learn from experience. Responding to this challenge offers the prospect that microfinance interventions will play an important role in reducing poverty.
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-BancoSol Bolivia BRAC Bangladesh SANASA Sri Lanka K-REP Kenya
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-BRI Unit Grameen Bank Desa Indonesia Bangladesh 1.4m 650,000 1,177 51 267 310 75 107 143 540 220 50 700,000
-
-No. of borrowers (1992)
-
-50,000
-
-1.8m
-
-% women borrowers
-
-74 150 220
-
-24
-
-94
-
-Average borrower income level (US$) 360
-
-296
-
-GNP per capita US$(I992)
-
-680
-
-670
-n/a 68 approx. 173
-
-Average borrower income as a % of poverty line before 1 st loan 80
-
-480
-
-195
-
-n/a
-
-Average loan size (1992, US$)
-
-i
-75 15
-Compulsory savings, Tk 2/week, 5% of loan to 'savings fund' 4% to VO fund, 1% life insurance Weekly at group meetings
-
-322
-
-600
-
-50
-11
-
-347 9
-Compulsory 20% Voluntary savings available deposit plus and compulsory voluntary savings savings for borrowers Monthly at cooperative HQ Weekly at group meetings
-X' n"
-
-Real interest rate % (1992) 15 Compulsory savings, Tkl/week, 5% of loan to 'group fund' and 5% to 'emergency fund' Weekly at group meetings
-
-45
-
-6
-
-Savings/Insurance arrangements
-
-Compulsory Voluntary 10% deposit plus savings voluntary savings
-
-3
-
-1
-4.0 8.9
-
-Loan collection method
-
-Fortnightly or monthly at bank branch
-4.5
-
-Monthly at bank branch
-
-6 month arrears rate % (1992)
-
-0.6
-
-3.0
-
-3.0
-
-Source: Adapted from Hulme and Mosley (1996)
-
-Annex 2
-Repayment rates
-The repayment rate can be defined as: repayments made repayment rate = repayments due Since the repayment rate should precisely measure those payments which have been made among those which are scheduled as due at a particular time, it can be referred to as the 'on-time' repayment rate. The on-time repayment rate needs to be calculated regularly in relation to a time period of relevance to the programme. If the majority of loan repayments are made on a monthly basis then the repayment rate should be calculated on a monthly basis. This figure will be independent of the rate for the previous month and the month before that. When monitoring the performance of a scheme it will be important also to look at the trend in repayment rates. Rates of repayment might fluctuate over the year, if borrowers have difficulty in making instalments at certain times, such as during the dry season before harvests are due.
-
-Arrears rate
-Loans which are not being repaid can be shown by the arrears rate, which also needs to be defined in a manner appropriate to programme policies. If, for example, experience showed that loans tended to be repaid within three months of their due date then a figure of particular interest might be loans outstanding after three months: value of loans outstanding on which repayments are more than 3 months overdue arrears rate = total value of loans outstanding This shows the proportion of the total loan portfolio which is at risk of turning into default at any given time. The classification of a loan as in arrears may prompt certain types of action on the part of the project, such as intensive follow-up of the individual lender, or the withdrawal of further loans from a group of co-guarantors. These actions would be designed to prevent the loan moving from being in arrears to being in default.
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-126
-
-Default rate
-The default rate needs to be defined in relation to the programme's default policy. The point at which a loan is defined as being in default will vary. For example, some schemes may classify loans as being in default if repayments are overdue one month after the loan term is complete; others define default as two loan instalments not being received according to the repayment schedule. When a loan is regarded as in default it should be monitored. For financial purposes it must be entered into a loan loss provision. In definition a default rate is virtually the same as an arrears rate: default rate = value of loans which are defined as in default total value of loans outstanding While the arrears rate indicates the proportion of the loan portfolio which might be at risk, the default rate shows the proportion of the loan fund which has gone a stage further towards being lost. However, this does not necessarily mean that the loan will never be recovered. It might be at this stage that any savings balances or loan guarantees from other members of the community are called in.
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-127
-
-References
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-<p><strong>Brett Favre</strong> couldn't get away from the "what ifs."</p><p>The Minnesota Vikings QB said Wednesday that the specter of the team's overtime loss in last season's NFC title game hung over him all offseason and helped drive his decision to return for a 20th NFL season on Tuesday.</p><p>"I couldn't help but think about football all the time, but I didn't want to think about it," Favre said after practicing with the Vikings for the first time since training camp opened.<a href="http://i.usatoday.net/communitymanager/_photos/the-huddle/2010/08/18/favrespeaksx-large.jpg" target="_blank"><img src="http://i.usatoday.net/communitymanager/_photos/the-huddle/2010/08/18/favrespeaksx-inset-community.jpg" alt="" width="230" height="212" cutline="Brett Favre practiced for the first time with the Vikings on Wednesday." credit="By Brace Hemmelgarn, US Presswire" keywords="Brett Favre" style="margin-left: 5px; float: right" /></a></p><p>"I was so close, so close to getting these guys to the Super Bowl."</p><p>Favre, wearing a  gray t-shirt and a new Vikings hat, said winning the Super Bowl -- and the bond he feels with his Vikings teammates -- were the factors that drew him back to the NFL and helped him overcome "chronic" pain in his surgically repaired left ankle.</p><p>Favre described months of indecision that ended on Tuesday when teammates <strong>Jared Allen</strong>, <strong>Ryan Longwell</strong> and <strong>Steve Hutchinson</strong> arrived at his Mississippi home and convinced him to fly back and rejoin the team. But he said the questions about what would happen if he couldn't replicate the "magical season" of 2009 haunted him.</p><p><strong>BRAD CHILDRESS</strong>: <a href="http://content.usatoday.com/communities/thehuddle/post/2010/08/brad-childress-vikings-felt-teammates-could-convince-brett-favre-to-return-in-person/1">Coach says Vikings felt players could convince Favre to return in person</a></p><p>"I'd love to win the Super Bowl," he said, "but what happens if you don't?"</p><p>Last Thursday, Favre met with Dr. <strong>James Andrews</strong> to discuss the left ankle from which the doctor removed bone spurs in May. Favre said he's surprised his ankle has not recovered as much as he expected it to, and learned that new bone spurs have cropped up since the surgery.</p><p>"The fact is," he said, "it's just something you have to deal with."</p><p>Favre, 40, has started 285 straight games since 1992. He wouldn't predict if he would be able to maintain that string of health this season. "I can't promise you if I'll make it through the season," he said. "I couldn't tell you that if I was 21."</p><p>The "hoopla" that surrounded his decision-making and his return to the Vikings was over the top, Favre said. "No one is deserving of all he attention," he said. "Heck I'm not. But that's the way it is."</p><p><strong>PHOTOS</strong>: <a href="http://mediagallery.usatoday.com/Brett%20Favre">Brett Favre in pictures</a></p><p><strong>Other highlights from Favre's speech</strong>:</p><p>-- The QB said he "could make a case for both playing, not playing" but the Vikings' chances for winning the Super Bowl won him over. "I think had we gone 8-8 (in 2009), then (not coming back) would have been a no-brainer."</p><p>-- Favre did not address his contract. The Minneapolis Star Tribune reported the Vikings would increase Favre's salary to as much as $20 million this season (from $13 million), and Favre told teammate <strong>Bryant McKinnie</strong> on Tuesday that money was not a factor in his decision. Vikings coach <strong>Brad Childress</strong> also declined to address it other than to say "we've got a great, great owner."</p><p>-- The Vikings next preseason game is on Sunday in San Francisco, and Favre said he wants to play. Childress said of the potential for Favre playing, "We've got to protect them from themselves sometimes."</p><p>-- Favre said the billboards that Vikings fans rented near his Mississippi home urging him to return had an effect on him. "Believe me when I left New Orleans (after NFC title game loss), a big part of me was ... I don't want to say done..." But Favre said the Vikings' chances for going to Super Bowl (which he called "much greater than other places") drew him back.</p><p>-- Adding to his records (Favre holds every significant passing mark in NFL history) was not a factor, the QB said. "I've done it all," the three-time NFL MVP said. "There's nothing left for me to prove."</p><p>-- Sean Leahy</p>
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-        <h1>Stress Hormones Could Predict Boxing Dominance</h1>
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-                    By <a href="http://www.wired.com/playbook/author/bmossop/" title="Posts by Brian Mossop">Brian Mossop</a>                    <a href="mailto:brian.mossop@gmail.com">
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-                    August 18, 2010                    &nbsp;&#124;&nbsp;
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-                    4:16 pm                    &nbsp;&#124;&nbsp;
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-                   Categories: <a href="http://www.wired.com/playbook/category/data/" title="View all posts in Data" rel="category tag">Data</a>,  <a href="http://www.wired.com/playbook/category/science/" title="View all posts in Science" rel="category tag">Science</a>                </li>
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-            <p><img src="http://www.wired.com/playbook/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/fight_f-660x441.jpg" alt="" title="fight_f" width="660" height="441" class="aligncenter size-large wp-image-1700" /></p>
-<p>On November 25, 1980, professional boxing&#8217;s two top welterweights, Sugar Ray Leonard and Roberto Durán, squared off against each other in a rematch from five months prior, when the hard-hitting Panamanian won a 15-round, unanimous decision over the champion Leonard.</p>
-
-<p>During the first fight, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_Ray_Leonard">Leonard</a> unsuccessfully went toe-to-toe with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Dur%C3%A1n">Durán</a>, so the rematch obviously called for a change of strategy. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_M%C3%A1s_Fight">second time around</a>, Leonard zipped around the ring, taunting Duran with both trash talk and wild punches. Durán became increasingly frustrated, and with only a few seconds to go in the eighth round, he turned his back on Leonard, walked toward his corner, and ended the fight by uttering the now famous words to referee Octavio Meyran: <em>No mas</em>, Spanish for <em>No more</em>. Durán’s refusal to fight stumped fans and his corner men alike. No injury occurred. No bloody gashes were to blame.  Durán <a href="http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/espn25/story?page=moments/66">simply quit</a>.</p>
-<p><object width="660" height="520"><param name="movie" value="http://www.youtube.com/v/HPoWrWwwi8M?fs=1&amp;hl=en_US&amp;rel=0"></param><param name="allowFullScreen" value="true"></param><param name="allowscriptaccess" value="always"></param><embed src="http://www.youtube.com/v/HPoWrWwwi8M?fs=1&amp;hl=en_US&amp;rel=0" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" allowscriptaccess="always" allowfullscreen="true" width="660" height="520"></embed></object></p>
-<p>That was nearly 30 years ago, yet scientists have uncovered evidence that may spur a re-examination of the psychological aspect of competition, so utterly embodied by Durán&#8217;s shocking capitulation. What does it mean to be “psyched out”? Well, it may actually be linked to hormonal changes in the body. </p>
-
-<p>A <a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2010/06/24/1007411107.abstract">recent study</a> by Victoria Wobber and colleagues from Harvard&#8217;s Department of Human Evolutionary Biology showed that apes have rapid fluctuations in stress hormone levels right before a physical encounter, and whether the hormone increases or decreases pretty much dictates who will win &#8211; even before the competition begins.  </p>
-<p><span id="more-1685"></span></p>
-<p>Non-human primates in the ape superfamily are particularly well-suited for testing the physiology of competition, as these animals live in highly stratified communities, and a male quickly figures out his rank among his companions. Wobber&#8217;s study looked at the physiological changes in hormones circulating in the body in two of the closest relatives of humans, chimpanzees (<em>Pan troglodytes</em>) and bonobos (<em>Pan paniscus</em>). However, chimps and bonobos approach competition in two very different ways. Chimpanzees are highly aggressive, while bonobos get stressed out in situations where they must go head-to-head for limited food. Nonetheless, there is always a dominant male &#8211; and he’s the one that ends up with most of the food.</p>
-
-<p>Armed with cotton swabs coated with pulverized Sweet Tarts candy, researchers took saliva samples minutes before two monkeys engaged in a staged competition for a pile of food. When dominant males won, there was a clear increase in the stress hormone right before the competition. In these cases, the dominant male was ready. He had sized up his opponent and knew, no doubt, that he’d prevail.  </p>
-<p>Conversely, when the dominant male lost, the hormone level decreased before the food game. Although these apes live in very well-defined social societies &#8211; and the dominant male had more than likely battled with this opponent before and won &#8211; something had psyched him out.  </p>
-<p>Human data <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/1098-2337%281981%297:3%3C215::AID-AB2480070305%3E3.0.CO;2-M/abstract">shows</a> that the level of both of these stress hormones &#8211; cortisol and testosterone &#8211; changes during competition. So while it’s hard to extrapolate the exact findings in this study to humans, chances are our hormones are also going up or down depending on whether we’re ready for competition or not.</p>
-
-<p>Boxing fans may never know for sure why Durán walked away from his championship fight with Leonard. Perhaps, with Sweet Tarts and a simple hormonal test, we might have seen it coming.</p>
-<p><em>Image by © Bettmann/CORBIS<br />
-</em><br />
-<em>Citation: Wobber, V., Hare, B., Maboto, J., Lipson, S., Wrangham, R., &#038; Ellison, P. (2010) Differential changes in steroid hormones before competition in bonobos and chimpanzees. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(28), 12457-12462. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1007411107</em></p>
-<p><em><a href="http://thedecisiontree.com/blog/brian-mossop/">Brian Mossop</a> is Community Manager at the Public Library of Science and blogs regularly at <a href="http://thedecisiontree.com/blog/">The Decision Tree</a>. For more, follow on Twitter at <a href="http://twitter.com/bmossop">@bmossop</a> and <a href="http://twitter.com/wiredplaybook">@wiredplaybook</a> and on <a href="http://www.facebook.com/pages/Wired-Playbook/133512760023541">Facebook</a>.</em>
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-<a href=http://www.wired.com/playbook/author/bmossop><img src=http://www.wired.com/playbook/wp-content/gallery/biopics/bmossop.jpg></a>Brian is a freelance science writer and the Community Manager at the <a href="http://blogs.plos.org/">Public Library of Science</a>.<br/> Follow <a href=http://www.twitter.com/bmossop>@bmossop</a> on Twitter.<p></div>
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-                        <option value="http://www.epicurious.com/">Epicurious</option>
-
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-                        <option value="http://www.golfdigest.com">Golf Digest</option>
-                        <option value="http://www.golfworld.com">Golf World</option>
-                        <option value="http://www.gq.com/">GQ</option>
-                        <option value="http://www.hotelchatter.com/">Hotel Chatter</option>
-                        <option value="http://www.jaunted.com/">Jaunted</option>
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-                        <option value="http://www.modernbride.com/">Modern Bride</option>
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-                        <option value="http://www.reddit.com/">Reddit</option>
-                        <option value="http://www.self.com/">Self</option>
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-                        <option value="http://www.vanityfair.com/">Vanity Fair</option>
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-	        <li class="b_li"><a  href="#" onclick="javascript:dj.util.Url.openWin('http://www.google.com/chrome/intl/en/landing_chrome.html?hl=en','browserDownload3',600, 600, 'scroll,resizable', true);" class="b_br br-chrome"><span class="br-icn"></span>Google Chrome</a></li>
-	        <li class="b_li"><a  href="#" onclick="javascript:dj.util.Url.openWin('http://www.mozilla.com/en-US/firefox/fx','browserDownload4',600, 600, 'scroll,resizable', true);" class="b_br br-firefox"><span class="br-icn"></span>Mozilla Firefox</a></li>
-       </ul>
-    </div>
-
-    <div class="b_action"    >
-    	<a href="#" id="actClose" class="act act-close"  >Close</a>
-
-      <div class="act act-check">
-	      <input type="checkbox" class="input_check" id="inputCheck" />
-		   	    <label for="" class="input_lbl">Don't show me this message again</label>
-    	</div>
-    </div>
-
-  </div>
-
-
-
-
- <![endif]-->
-  <!-- end module ie6banner -->
-
-<div class="wsjMainNav">
-
-  <ul class="linklist mainnav_wsj">
-
-
-      <li class="linklist_item linklist_dropdown linklist_item_world linklist_first">
-        <div id="wsjmn_dropdown1-0" data-panel-service-uri="/public/page/0_0_WG_HeaderOne_Dropdown-na-world.html?path=false&business=false" class="wsjmn_dropdownTree wsjmn_ddState-collapsed">
-          <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-            <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-              <p class="mndType-more">
-
-			<span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-global-world.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_world_main" class="mnLabel">World</a></span>
-
-                <span class="mnIndicator">
-
-                  <a href="#" data-dropdownIndex="wsjmn_dropdown1-0" class="mnExpand _exp" style="opacity:1">&raquo; More</a>
-                </span>
-              </p>
-            </div>
-          </div>
-          <!--[if lte IE 8]>
-          <div class="tmp_shim">
-          <iframe class="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe" id="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe1" src="/static_html_files/iframe.html" marginwidth="0" marginheight="0" scrolling="no" frameborder="0"></iframe>
-          </div>
-          <![endif]-->
-          <div id="wsjmn_dropdown1-0_content" class="wsjmn_dropdown-expansion">
-            <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-
-              <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-                <p class="mndType-more">
-                  <span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-global-world.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_world_main" class="mnLabel">World</a></span>
-                  <span class="mnIndicator"><a href="#" class="mnExpand">&raquo; More</a></span>
-                </p>
-              </div>
-            </div>
-            <div class="wsjmn_dropdownPanel">
-
-              <div class="wsjmn_dropdownContent">
-                <div class="pmLoadingIndicator">
-                  <span>Loading&hellip;</span>
-                </div>
-              </div>
-            </div>
-          </div>
-        </div>
-
-      </li>
-
-      <li class="linklist_item linklist_dropdown linklist_item_us linklist_selected">
-        <div id="wsjmn_dropdown2-0" data-panel-service-uri="/public/page/0_0_WG_HeaderOne_Dropdown-na-us.html?path=false&business=false" class="wsjmn_dropdownTree wsjmn_ddState-collapsed">
-          <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-            <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-              <p class="mndType-more">
-
-			<span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-world-business.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_us_main" class="mnLabel">U.S.</a></span>
-
-                <span class="mnIndicator">
-
-                  <a href="#" data-dropdownIndex="wsjmn_dropdown2-0" class="mnExpand _exp" style="opacity:1">&raquo; More</a>
-                </span>
-              </p>
-            </div>
-          </div>
-          <!--[if lte IE 8]>
-          <div class="tmp_shim">
-          <iframe class="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe" id="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe2" src="/static_html_files/iframe.html" marginwidth="0" marginheight="0" scrolling="no" frameborder="0"></iframe>
-          </div>
-          <![endif]-->
-          <div id="wsjmn_dropdown2-0_content" class="wsjmn_dropdown-expansion">
-            <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-
-              <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-                <p class="mndType-more">
-                  <span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-world-business.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_us_main" class="mnLabel">U.S.</a></span>
-                  <span class="mnIndicator"><a href="#" class="mnExpand">&raquo; More</a></span>
-                </p>
-              </div>
-            </div>
-            <div class="wsjmn_dropdownPanel">
-
-              <div class="wsjmn_dropdownContent">
-                <div class="pmLoadingIndicator">
-                  <span>Loading&hellip;</span>
-                </div>
-              </div>
-            </div>
-          </div>
-        </div>
-
-      </li>
-
-      <li class="linklist_item linklist_dropdown linklist_item_new_york">
-        <div id="wsjmn_dropdown3-0" data-panel-service-uri="/public/page/0_0_WG_HeaderOne_Dropdown-na-newyork.html?path=false&business=false" class="wsjmn_dropdownTree wsjmn_ddState-collapsed">
-          <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-            <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-              <p class="mndType-more">
-
-			<span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/new-york-main.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_newyork_main" class="mnLabel">New York</a></span>
-
-                <span class="mnIndicator">
-
-                  <a href="#" data-dropdownIndex="wsjmn_dropdown3-0" class="mnExpand _exp" style="opacity:1">&raquo; More</a>
-                </span>
-              </p>
-            </div>
-          </div>
-          <!--[if lte IE 8]>
-          <div class="tmp_shim">
-          <iframe class="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe" id="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe3" src="/static_html_files/iframe.html" marginwidth="0" marginheight="0" scrolling="no" frameborder="0"></iframe>
-          </div>
-          <![endif]-->
-          <div id="wsjmn_dropdown3-0_content" class="wsjmn_dropdown-expansion">
-            <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-
-              <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-                <p class="mndType-more">
-                  <span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/new-york-main.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_newyork_main" class="mnLabel">New York</a></span>
-                  <span class="mnIndicator"><a href="#" class="mnExpand">&raquo; More</a></span>
-                </p>
-              </div>
-            </div>
-            <div class="wsjmn_dropdownPanel">
-
-              <div class="wsjmn_dropdownContent">
-                <div class="pmLoadingIndicator">
-                  <span>Loading&hellip;</span>
-                </div>
-              </div>
-            </div>
-          </div>
-        </div>
-
-      </li>
-
-      <li class="linklist_item linklist_dropdown linklist_item_business">
-        <div id="wsjmn_dropdown4-0" data-panel-service-uri="/public/page/0_0_WG_HeaderOne_Dropdown-na-business-main.html?path=false&business=false" class="wsjmn_dropdownTree wsjmn_ddState-collapsed">
-          <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-            <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-              <p class="mndType-more">
-
-			<span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-business-us.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_business_main" class="mnLabel">Business</a></span>
-
-                <span class="mnIndicator">
-
-                  <a href="#" data-dropdownIndex="wsjmn_dropdown4-0" class="mnExpand _exp" style="opacity:1">&raquo; More</a>
-                </span>
-              </p>
-            </div>
-          </div>
-          <!--[if lte IE 8]>
-          <div class="tmp_shim">
-          <iframe class="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe" id="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe4" src="/static_html_files/iframe.html" marginwidth="0" marginheight="0" scrolling="no" frameborder="0"></iframe>
-          </div>
-          <![endif]-->
-          <div id="wsjmn_dropdown4-0_content" class="wsjmn_dropdown-expansion">
-            <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-
-              <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-                <p class="mndType-more">
-                  <span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-business-us.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_business_main" class="mnLabel">Business</a></span>
-                  <span class="mnIndicator"><a href="#" class="mnExpand">&raquo; More</a></span>
-                </p>
-              </div>
-            </div>
-            <div class="wsjmn_dropdownPanel">
-
-              <div class="wsjmn_dropdownContent">
-                <div class="pmLoadingIndicator">
-                  <span>Loading&hellip;</span>
-                </div>
-              </div>
-            </div>
-          </div>
-        </div>
-
-      </li>
-
-      <li class="linklist_item linklist_dropdown linklist_item_markets">
-        <div id="wsjmn_dropdown5-0" data-panel-service-uri="/public/page/0_0_WG_HeaderOne_Dropdown-na-markets.html?path=false&business=false" class="wsjmn_dropdownTree wsjmn_ddState-collapsed">
-          <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-            <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-              <p class="mndType-more">
-
-			<span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-financial-markets-stock.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_markets_main" class="mnLabel">Markets</a></span>
-
-                <span class="mnIndicator">
-
-                  <a href="#" data-dropdownIndex="wsjmn_dropdown5-0" class="mnExpand _exp" style="opacity:1">&raquo; More</a>
-                </span>
-              </p>
-            </div>
-          </div>
-          <!--[if lte IE 8]>
-          <div class="tmp_shim">
-          <iframe class="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe" id="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe5" src="/static_html_files/iframe.html" marginwidth="0" marginheight="0" scrolling="no" frameborder="0"></iframe>
-          </div>
-          <![endif]-->
-          <div id="wsjmn_dropdown5-0_content" class="wsjmn_dropdown-expansion">
-            <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-
-              <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-                <p class="mndType-more">
-                  <span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-financial-markets-stock.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_markets_main" class="mnLabel">Markets</a></span>
-                  <span class="mnIndicator"><a href="#" class="mnExpand">&raquo; More</a></span>
-                </p>
-              </div>
-            </div>
-            <div class="wsjmn_dropdownPanel">
-
-              <div class="wsjmn_dropdownContent">
-                <div class="pmLoadingIndicator">
-                  <span>Loading&hellip;</span>
-                </div>
-              </div>
-            </div>
-          </div>
-        </div>
-
-      </li>
-
-      <li class="linklist_item linklist_dropdown linklist_item_tech">
-        <div id="wsjmn_dropdown6-0" data-panel-service-uri="/public/page/0_0_WG_HeaderOne_Dropdown-na-tech.html?path=false&business=false" class="wsjmn_dropdownTree wsjmn_ddState-collapsed">
-          <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-            <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-              <p class="mndType-more">
-
-			<span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-tech-technology.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_tech_main" class="mnLabel">Tech</a></span>
-
-                <span class="mnIndicator">
-
-                  <a href="#" data-dropdownIndex="wsjmn_dropdown6-0" class="mnExpand _exp" style="opacity:1">&raquo; More</a>
-                </span>
-              </p>
-            </div>
-          </div>
-          <!--[if lte IE 8]>
-          <div class="tmp_shim">
-          <iframe class="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe" id="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe6" src="/static_html_files/iframe.html" marginwidth="0" marginheight="0" scrolling="no" frameborder="0"></iframe>
-          </div>
-          <![endif]-->
-          <div id="wsjmn_dropdown6-0_content" class="wsjmn_dropdown-expansion">
-            <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-
-              <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-                <p class="mndType-more">
-                  <span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-tech-technology.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_tech_main" class="mnLabel">Tech</a></span>
-                  <span class="mnIndicator"><a href="#" class="mnExpand">&raquo; More</a></span>
-                </p>
-              </div>
-            </div>
-            <div class="wsjmn_dropdownPanel">
-
-              <div class="wsjmn_dropdownContent">
-                <div class="pmLoadingIndicator">
-                  <span>Loading&hellip;</span>
-                </div>
-              </div>
-            </div>
-          </div>
-        </div>
-
-      </li>
-
-      <li class="linklist_item linklist_dropdown linklist_item_personal_finance">
-        <div id="wsjmn_dropdown7-0" data-panel-service-uri="/public/page/0_0_WG_HeaderOne_Dropdown-na-personalfinance.html?path=false&business=false" class="wsjmn_dropdownTree wsjmn_ddState-collapsed">
-          <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-            <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-              <p class="mndType-more">
-
-			<span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-personal-finance.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_personalfinance_main" class="mnLabel">Personal Finance</a></span>
-
-                <span class="mnIndicator">
-
-                  <a href="#" data-dropdownIndex="wsjmn_dropdown7-0" class="mnExpand _exp" style="opacity:1">&raquo; More</a>
-                </span>
-              </p>
-            </div>
-          </div>
-          <!--[if lte IE 8]>
-          <div class="tmp_shim">
-          <iframe class="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe" id="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe7" src="/static_html_files/iframe.html" marginwidth="0" marginheight="0" scrolling="no" frameborder="0"></iframe>
-          </div>
-          <![endif]-->
-          <div id="wsjmn_dropdown7-0_content" class="wsjmn_dropdown-expansion">
-            <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-
-              <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-                <p class="mndType-more">
-                  <span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-personal-finance.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_personalfinance_main" class="mnLabel">Personal Finance</a></span>
-                  <span class="mnIndicator"><a href="#" class="mnExpand">&raquo; More</a></span>
-                </p>
-              </div>
-            </div>
-            <div class="wsjmn_dropdownPanel">
-
-              <div class="wsjmn_dropdownContent">
-                <div class="pmLoadingIndicator">
-                  <span>Loading&hellip;</span>
-                </div>
-              </div>
-            </div>
-          </div>
-        </div>
-
-      </li>
-
-      <li class="linklist_item linklist_dropdown linklist_item_life_culture">
-        <div id="wsjmn_dropdown8-0" data-panel-service-uri="/public/page/0_0_WG_HeaderOne_Dropdown-na-lifeculture.html?path=false&business=false" class="wsjmn_dropdownTree wsjmn_ddState-collapsed">
-          <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-            <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-              <p class="mndType-more">
-
-			<span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-lifestyle-arts-entertainment.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_lifeculture_main" class="mnLabel">Life &amp; Culture</a></span>
-
-
-                <span class="mnIndicator">
-                  <a href="#" data-dropdownIndex="wsjmn_dropdown8-0" class="mnExpand _exp" style="opacity:1">&raquo; More</a>
-                </span>
-              </p>
-            </div>
-          </div>
-          <!--[if lte IE 8]>
-          <div class="tmp_shim">
-          <iframe class="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe" id="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe8" src="/static_html_files/iframe.html" marginwidth="0" marginheight="0" scrolling="no" frameborder="0"></iframe>
-          </div>
-          <![endif]-->
-          <div id="wsjmn_dropdown8-0_content" class="wsjmn_dropdown-expansion">
-
-            <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-              <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-                <p class="mndType-more">
-                  <span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-lifestyle-arts-entertainment.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_lifeculture_main" class="mnLabel">Life &amp; Culture</a></span>
-                  <span class="mnIndicator"><a href="#" class="mnExpand">&raquo; More</a></span>
-                </p>
-
-              </div>
-            </div>
-            <div class="wsjmn_dropdownPanel">
-              <div class="wsjmn_dropdownContent">
-                <div class="pmLoadingIndicator">
-                  <span>Loading&hellip;</span>
-                </div>
-              </div>
-            </div>
-
-          </div>
-        </div>
-      </li>
-
-      <li class="linklist_item linklist_dropdown linklist_item_opinion">
-        <div id="wsjmn_dropdown9-0" data-panel-service-uri="/public/page/0_0_WG_HeaderOne_Dropdown-na-opinion.html?path=false&business=false" class="wsjmn_dropdownTree wsjmn_ddState-collapsed">
-          <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-            <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-              <p class="mndType-more">
-
-			<span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-opinion-commentary.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_opinion_main" class="mnLabel">Opinion</a></span>
-
-                <span class="mnIndicator">
-                  <a href="#" data-dropdownIndex="wsjmn_dropdown9-0" class="mnExpand _exp" style="opacity:1">&raquo; More</a>
-                </span>
-              </p>
-            </div>
-          </div>
-
-          <!--[if lte IE 8]>
-          <div class="tmp_shim">
-          <iframe class="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe" id="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe9" src="/static_html_files/iframe.html" marginwidth="0" marginheight="0" scrolling="no" frameborder="0"></iframe>
-          </div>
-          <![endif]-->
-          <div id="wsjmn_dropdown9-0_content" class="wsjmn_dropdown-expansion">
-            <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-              <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-                <p class="mndType-more">
-                  <span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-opinion-commentary.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_opinion_main" class="mnLabel">Opinion</a></span>
-                  <span class="mnIndicator"><a href="#" class="mnExpand">&raquo; More</a></span>
-
-                </p>
-              </div>
-            </div>
-            <div class="wsjmn_dropdownPanel">
-              <div class="wsjmn_dropdownContent">
-                <div class="pmLoadingIndicator">
-                  <span>Loading&hellip;</span>
-                </div>
-              </div>
-
-            </div>
-          </div>
-        </div>
-      </li>
-
-      <li class="linklist_item linklist_dropdown linklist_item_careers">
-        <div id="wsjmn_dropdown10-0" data-panel-service-uri="/public/page/0_0_WG_HeaderOne_Dropdown-na-careers.html?path=false&business=false" class="wsjmn_dropdownTree wsjmn_ddState-collapsed">
-          <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-            <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-              <p class="mndType-more">
-
-			<span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-career-jobs.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_careers_main" class="mnLabel">Careers</a></span>
-
-                <span class="mnIndicator">
-                  <a href="#" data-dropdownIndex="wsjmn_dropdown10-0" class="mnExpand _exp" style="opacity:1">&raquo; More</a>
-                </span>
-              </p>
-            </div>
-          </div>
-
-          <!--[if lte IE 8]>
-          <div class="tmp_shim">
-          <iframe class="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe" id="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe10" src="/static_html_files/iframe.html" marginwidth="0" marginheight="0" scrolling="no" frameborder="0"></iframe>
-          </div>
-          <![endif]-->
-          <div id="wsjmn_dropdown10-0_content" class="wsjmn_dropdown-expansion">
-            <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-              <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-                <p class="mndType-more">
-                  <span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-career-jobs.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_careers_main" class="mnLabel">Careers</a></span>
-                  <span class="mnIndicator"><a href="#" class="mnExpand">&raquo; More</a></span>
-
-                </p>
-              </div>
-            </div>
-            <div class="wsjmn_dropdownPanel">
-              <div class="wsjmn_dropdownContent">
-                <div class="pmLoadingIndicator">
-                  <span>Loading&hellip;</span>
-                </div>
-              </div>
-
-            </div>
-          </div>
-        </div>
-      </li>
-
-      <li class="linklist_item linklist_dropdown linklist_item_real_estate">
-        <div id="wsjmn_dropdown11-0" data-panel-service-uri="/public/page/0_0_WG_HeaderOne_Dropdown-na-realestate.html?path=false&business=false" class="wsjmn_dropdownTree wsjmn_ddState-collapsed">
-          <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-            <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-              <p class="mndType-more">
-
-			<span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-real-estate-homes.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_realestate_main" class="mnLabel">Real Estate</a></span>
-
-                <span class="mnIndicator">
-                  <a href="#" data-dropdownIndex="wsjmn_dropdown11-0" class="mnExpand _exp" style="opacity:1">&raquo; More</a>
-                </span>
-              </p>
-            </div>
-          </div>
-
-          <!--[if lte IE 8]>
-          <div class="tmp_shim">
-          <iframe class="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe" id="wsjmn_dropdown_iframe11" src="/static_html_files/iframe.html" marginwidth="0" marginheight="0" scrolling="no" frameborder="0"></iframe>
-          </div>
-          <![endif]-->
-          <div id="wsjmn_dropdown11-0_content" class="wsjmn_dropdown-expansion">
-            <div class="wsjmn_dropdown_container">
-              <div class="mn_dropdownTitlebar">
-                <p class="mndType-more">
-                  <span class="mnText"><a href="http://online.wsj.com/public/page/news-real-estate-homes.html?mod=WSJ_topnav_realestate_main" class="mnLabel">Real Estate</a></span>
-                  <span class="mnIndicator"><a href="#" class="mnExpand">&raquo; More</a></span>
-
-                </p>
-              </div>
-            </div>
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-<h1>White House Under Fire for Unspent Infrastructure Cash
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-<div id="article_pagination_top" class="articlePagination">   </div><div id="article_story_body" class="article story"><div class="articlePage"><h3 class="byline">By <a href="/search/term.html?KEYWORDS=LOUISE+RADNOFSKY&amp;bylinesearch=true">LOUISE RADNOFSKY</a>                </h3><p>The Obama administration has paid out less than a third of the nearly $230 billion allocated to big infrastructure projects in the economic-stimulus program. Now Republicans are zeroing in on the unspent stimulus money in fresh attacks on the administration's economic policy.</p>
-<div class="insetContent insetCol3wide embedType-image imageFormat-D"><div class="insetTree">
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-    <cite>Associated Press</cite>
-    <p class="targetCaption">A train makes its way along a newly laid track in Brunswick, Maine on Aug. 2, 2010, during a ceremony. The rail line that will connect Brunswick to Portland, Maine, is scheduled to be completed by 2012, said Gov. John Baldacci.</p>
-   </div><div id="articleImage_1" class="insetFullBracket"><div class="insetFullBox"><div class="insetButton"><a class="insetClose"><img src="http://si.wsj.net/img/BTN_insetClose.gif" vspace="0" hspace="0" border="0"  height="19" width="19"  alt="stimulus0814a"/></a></div><img src="http://si.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-JO747_stimul_G_20100814113803.jpg" vspace="0" hspace="0" border="0"  height="369" width="553"  alt="stimulus0814a"/></div></div></div></div><p>"More people believe that Elvis Presley is alive than [that] the stimulus created jobs," U.S. Rep. Kevin McCarthy (R., Calif.), a member of the House Republican leadership, said Sunday on CNN's State of the Union. "And that's because what have they spent the money on?" </p>
-
-<p>They are suggesting that unspent stimulus money should be used to cut the deficit or pay for other initiatives, such as extending the Bush tax cuts. "I would roll back the stimulus," Mr. McCarthy said. "That's $260 billion."</p>
-<p>House Republican leader John Boehner (R., Ohio) has called in recent days for a halt to stimulus spending and recently sparred with the White House over whether stimulus projects have boosted hiring in his district. </p>
-<p>The administration has said that stimulus spending was always intended to roll out in stages, over two years, and that the pace of outlays for infrastructure would be slower than for parts of the package that provided tax cuts and subsidies for programs such as Medicaid.</p>
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-   </div><p>White House economist Jared Bernstein, in an Aug. 11 blog post, said that when Republicans call for a halt to stimulus spending, "they're essentially talking about taking away middle-class tax cuts, leaving unemployed workers unexpectedly high and dry without an unemployment check, halting road and bridge projects and leaving them unfinished, leaving contractors unpaid for the work they've already done and more."</p>
-<p>Recent opinion polls suggest the White House has struggled to communicate its message, particularly after its emphasis on "shovel-ready" projects during the debate over the plan's passage in early 2009.</p>
-<p>Criticism of the pace of the stimulus appears to be resonating with voters. In a Wall Street Journal/NBC News poll in May, 18% of respondents said the plan was already helping to improve the economy, and 20% said they thought it would help in the future. Confidence appears to have slipped from July 2009, when 48% of respondents said the plan was helping the economy already or would help it in the future.</p>
-<div class="insetCol3wide"><div class="insetContent">                <h3 class="first">Tracking Stimulus Dollars</h3>                <ul><li><span>                        <a class="icon pdf" href="http://online.wsj.com/public/resources/documents/stimulus0814.pdf">                            <strong>Graphic:</strong> Breaking Down the $862 Billion Stimulus</a>                    </span></li><li><span>                        <a class="icon charts" href="http://s.wsj.net/public/resources/documents/st_stimspeed_20100814.html">                            <strong>Chart:</strong> Full agency-by-agency breakdown of stimulus funds appropriated, available and paid out</a>                    </span></li><li><span>                        <strong>                            <a class="" href="http://online.wsj.com/public/resources/documents/wsjnbcpoll-05122010.pdf">May 2010 WSJ/NBC News Poll </a>                        </strong>                    </span></li></ul>            </div></div><p>President Barack Obama's stimulus package had three main elements. The largest chunk was allocated to tax breaks and other help for individuals and businesses. Most of that, with an estimated price tag of $336 billion, has been paid out.</p>
-
-<p>A second portion, projected to cost about $296 billion, was allocated to pay for unemployment benefits and food stamps and to plug holes in states' school and Medicaid budgets. Most of this money has also been spent, prompting congressional efforts to extend the funding for state budgets. That legislation was signed into law Tuesday, providing another $10 billion for schools and $16 billion for Medicaid, offset by cuts to food stamps.</p>
-<p>The third piece of the package offered $230 billion to fund an array of projects ranging from road repaving to modernizing the electricity grid to launching new high-speed rail services. Administration officials said when pushing for the program that the money would target projects that could create jobs quickly. So far, $182 billion of the infrastructure money has been awarded, though the government has paid out only $66 billion of the total. </p>
-<div class="insetContent insetCol3wide embedType-image imageFormat-D"><div class="insetTree">
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-    <cite>Getty Images</cite>
-    <p class="targetCaption">A construction worker worked on the first phase of the Exposition Light Rail Transit Line that will connect downtown Los Angeles and Culver City.</p>
-   </div><div id="articleImage_3" class="insetFullBracket"><div class="insetFullBox"><div class="insetButton"><a class="insetClose"><img src="http://si.wsj.net/img/BTN_insetClose.gif" vspace="0" hspace="0" border="0"  height="19" width="19"  alt="0814stimulus01"/></a></div><img src="http://si.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-JO759_0814st_G_20100814143158.jpg" vspace="0" hspace="0" border="0"  height="369" width="553"  alt="0814stimulus01"/></div></div></div></div><p>The biggest projects have been the slowest to start. None of the $17.5 billion for incentive payments for doctors and hospitals to start using electronic health records has been spent yet, because rules for  payment were finalized only in July. A few recipients of $7.2 billion in grants allocated to the expansion of broadband Internet services have started laying cables, but the rest are still busy with pre-construction work, such as environmental assessments, local approvals to attach fiber to utility poles, permits for rights of way and hiring subcontractors.</p>
-
-<p>Ground breaking for the first major high-speed rail project took place this month, when steel rails were delivered to Brunswick, Maine, for upgrades to a 30-mile stretch of track running to Portland. The ceremony came seven months after the administration announced the recipients of $8 billion in grants for the projects. The administration is still finalizing the grant agreements, and most of the money hasn't formally been made available yet. </p>
-
-    <div class="insetContent embedType-image imageFormat-DV"><div class="insetTree" ><div class="insettipUnit" ><img src="http://si.wsj.net/public/resources/images/OB-JO748_stimul_DV_20100814114123.jpg" vspace="0" hspace="0" border="0" alt="[stimulus0814b]" height="394" width="262"/>
-
-    <cite>Associated Press</cite>
-    <p class="targetCaption">New ties are put into place along the rail track in Brunswick, Maine.</p>
-   </div></div></div><p>Efforts to award the remaining $48 billion in infrastructure funds have been hampered in some cases because government agencies have had to respond to protests from vendors who didn't win contracts in the bidding process. In other cases, federal agencies have discovered that bids for certain projects were coming in lower than expected. </p>
-<p>Mr. Bernstein said the pace of stimulus spending was appropriate and that even the major investments were moving relatively rapidly. "I think anyone familiar with this kind of economic evolution would view these projects as coming online especially quickly," he said.</p>
-
-<p>The apparent lag between when stimulus funds are awarded and when they are spent doesn't mean people aren't benefiting, the White House says. Activity on projects can begin as soon as funds are awarded, because companies start hiring and carrying out work ahead of getting paid.</p>
-<p>The state of the stimulus became the focus of congressional sparring this month as Democrats and Republicans debated whether to extend the plan's aid provisions. Democrats argued that the additional help for cash-strapped states was essential to preserve the jobs of teachers and other public-sector employees. Republicans said the need for the extension was proof that the plan wasn't working.</p>
-<p>William Eggers, global director for Deloitte's public-sector industry-research program, said that rushing implementation, especially on large investments, would make it more likely that the projects would fail or that funds could be misused. Mr. Eggers has studied federal projects going back to the 1960s and said the stimulus was progressing about as quickly as such a large initiative could go.</p>
-<p>Republicans, meanwhile, are using the slow progress as a tool in the broader debate with Democrats over the widening federal deficit. Rep. Tom Price (R., Ga.) has introduced a bill in the House to cancel all infrastructure spending which hasn't been awarded, with the funds going toward paying down the deficit.</p>
-<p>The bill has little chance of success, however. "That die is cast," said Mr. Price. "The die that will need to be cast to reverse it is the votes that will be cast in November," when midterm elections are held.</p>
-<p>                <strong>Write to </strong>                Louise Radnofsky at <a class="" href="mailto:louise.radnofsky@dowjones.com">louise.radnofsky@dowjones.com</a>            </p>
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diff --git a/goose/images/__init__.py b/tests/extractors/__init__.py
similarity index 100%
rename from goose/images/__init__.py
rename to tests/extractors/__init__.py
diff --git a/tests/extractors/authors.py b/tests/extractors/authors.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..709040c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/extractors/authors.py
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+
+from base import TestExtractionBase
+
+
+class TestArticleAuthor(TestExtractionBase):
+
+    def test_author_schema(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['authors']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
diff --git a/tests/extractors/base.py b/tests/extractors/base.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..e19d20e0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/extractors/base.py
@@ -0,0 +1,235 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+import os
+import json
+import urllib2
+import unittest
+import socket
+
+from StringIO import StringIO
+
+from goose import Goose
+from goose.utils import FileHelper
+from goose.configuration import Configuration
+
+
+CURRENT_PATH = os.path.dirname(os.path.abspath(__file__))
+
+
+# Response
+class MockResponse():
+    """\
+    Base mock response class
+    """
+    code = 200
+    msg = "OK"
+
+    def __init__(self, cls):
+        self.cls = cls
+
+    def content(self):
+        return "response"
+
+    def response(self, req):
+        data = self.content(req)
+        url = req.get_full_url()
+        resp = urllib2.addinfourl(StringIO(data), data, url)
+        resp.code = self.code
+        resp.msg = self.msg
+        return resp
+
+
+class MockHTTPHandler(urllib2.HTTPHandler, urllib2.HTTPSHandler):
+    """\
+    Mocked HTTPHandler in order to query APIs locally
+    """
+    cls = None
+
+    def https_open(self, req):
+        return self.http_open(req)
+
+    def http_open(self, req):
+        r = self.cls.callback(self.cls)
+        return r.response(req)
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def patch(cls):
+        opener = urllib2.build_opener(MockHTTPHandler)
+        urllib2.install_opener(opener)
+        # dirty !
+        for h in opener.handlers:
+            if isinstance(h, MockHTTPHandler):
+                h.cls = cls
+        return [h for h in opener.handlers if isinstance(h, MockHTTPHandler)][0]
+
+    @staticmethod
+    def unpatch():
+        # urllib2
+        urllib2._opener = None
+
+
+class BaseMockTests(unittest.TestCase):
+    """\
+    Base Mock test case
+    """
+    callback = MockResponse
+
+    def setUp(self):
+        # patch DNS
+        self.original_getaddrinfo = socket.getaddrinfo
+        socket.getaddrinfo = self.new_getaddrinfo
+        MockHTTPHandler.patch(self)
+
+    def tearDown(self):
+        MockHTTPHandler.unpatch()
+        # DNS
+        socket.getaddrinfo = self.original_getaddrinfo
+
+    def new_getaddrinfo(self, *args):
+        return [(2, 1, 6, '', ('127.0.0.1', 0))]
+
+    def _get_current_testname(self):
+        return self.id().split('.')[-1:][0]
+
+
+class MockResponseExtractors(MockResponse):
+    def content(self, req):
+        test, suite, module, cls, func = self.cls.id().split('.')
+        path = os.path.join(
+                os.path.dirname(CURRENT_PATH),
+                "data",
+                suite,
+                module,
+                "%s.html" % func)
+        path = os.path.abspath(path)
+        content = FileHelper.loadResourceFile(path)
+        return content
+
+
+class TestExtractionBase(BaseMockTests):
+    """\
+    Extraction test case
+    """
+    callback = MockResponseExtractors
+
+    def getRawHtml(self):
+        test, suite, module, cls, func = self.id().split('.')
+        path = os.path.join(
+                os.path.dirname(CURRENT_PATH),
+                "data",
+                suite,
+                module,
+                "%s.html" % func)
+        path = os.path.abspath(path)
+        content = FileHelper.loadResourceFile(path)
+        return content
+
+    def loadData(self):
+        """\
+
+        """
+        test, suite, module, cls, func = self.id().split('.')
+        path = os.path.join(
+                os.path.dirname(CURRENT_PATH),
+                "data",
+                suite,
+                module,
+                "%s.json" % func)
+        path = os.path.abspath(path)
+        content = FileHelper.loadResourceFile(path)
+        self.data = json.loads(content)
+
+    def assert_cleaned_text(self, field, expected_value, result_value):
+        """\
+
+        """
+        # # TODO : handle verbose level in tests
+        # print "\n=======================::. ARTICLE REPORT %s .::======================\n" % self.id()
+        # print 'expected_value (%s) \n' % len(expected_value)
+        # print expected_value
+        # print "-------"
+        # print 'result_value (%s) \n' % len(result_value)
+        # print result_value
+
+        # cleaned_text is Null
+        msg = u"Resulting article text was NULL!"
+        self.assertNotEqual(result_value, None, msg=msg)
+
+        # cleaned_text length
+        msg = u"Article text was not as long as expected beginning!"
+        self.assertTrue(len(expected_value) <= len(result_value), msg=msg)
+
+        # clean_text value
+        result_value = result_value[0:len(expected_value)]
+        msg = u"The beginning of the article text was not as expected!"
+        self.assertEqual(expected_value, result_value, msg=msg)
+
+    def runArticleAssertions(self, article, fields):
+        """\
+
+        """
+        for field in fields:
+            expected_value = self.data['expected'][field]
+            result_value = getattr(article, field, None)
+
+            # custom assertion for a given field
+            assertion = 'assert_%s' % field
+            if hasattr(self, assertion):
+                getattr(self, assertion)(field, expected_value, result_value)
+                continue
+
+            # default assertion
+            msg = u"Error %s \nexpected: %s\nresult: %s" % (field, expected_value, result_value)
+            self.assertEqual(expected_value, result_value, msg=msg)
+
+    def extract(self, instance):
+        article = instance.extract(url=self.data['url'])
+        return article
+
+    def getConfig(self):
+        config = Configuration()
+        config.enable_image_fetching = False
+        return config
+
+    def getArticle(self):
+        """\
+
+        """
+        # load test case data
+        self.loadData()
+
+        # basic configuration
+        # no image fetching
+        config = self.getConfig()
+        self.parser = config.get_parser()
+
+        # target language
+        # needed for non english language most of the time
+        target_language = self.data.get('target_language')
+        if target_language:
+            config.target_language = target_language
+            config.use_meta_language = False
+
+        # run goose
+        g = Goose(config=config)
+        return self.extract(g)
diff --git a/tests/extractors/content.py b/tests/extractors/content.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..30dc2754
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/extractors/content.py
@@ -0,0 +1,295 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+from base import TestExtractionBase
+
+from goose.text import StopWordsChinese
+from goose.text import StopWordsArabic
+from goose.text import StopWordsKorean
+
+
+class TestExtractions(TestExtractionBase):
+
+    def test_allnewlyrics1(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['title', 'cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_cnn1(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['title', 'cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_businessWeek1(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['title', 'cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_businessWeek2(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['title', 'cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_businessWeek3(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_cbslocal(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_elmondo1(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_elpais(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_liberation(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_lefigaro(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_techcrunch1(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['title', 'cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_foxNews(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_aolNews(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_huffingtonPost2(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_testHuffingtonPost(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text', 'meta_description', 'title', ]
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_espn(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_engadget(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_msn1(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    # #########################################
+    # # FAIL CHECK
+    # # UNICODE
+    # def test_guardian1(self):
+    #     article = self.getArticle()
+    #     fields = ['cleaned_text']
+    #     self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+    def test_time(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text', 'title']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_time2(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_cnet(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_yahoo(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_politico(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_businessinsider3(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_cnbc1(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_marketplace(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_issue24(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_issue25(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_issue28(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_issue32(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_issue4(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_gizmodo1(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text', 'meta_description', 'meta_keywords']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_mashable_issue_74(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_usatoday_issue_74(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_okaymarketing(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_issue129(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_issue115(self):
+        # https://github.com/grangier/python-goose/issues/115
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+
+class TestArticleTopNode(TestExtractionBase):
+
+    def test_articlebody_itemprop(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_articlebody_attribute(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_articlebody_tag(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+
+class TestExtractWithUrl(TestExtractionBase):
+
+    def test_get_canonical_url(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text', 'canonical_link']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+
+class TestExtractChinese(TestExtractionBase):
+
+    def getConfig(self):
+        config = super(TestExtractChinese, self).getConfig()
+        config.stopwords_class = StopWordsChinese
+        return config
+
+    def test_bbc_chinese(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+
+class TestExtractArabic(TestExtractionBase):
+
+    def getConfig(self):
+        config = super(TestExtractArabic, self).getConfig()
+        config.stopwords_class = StopWordsArabic
+        return config
+
+    def test_cnn_arabic(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+
+class TestExtractKorean(TestExtractionBase):
+
+    def getConfig(self):
+        config = super(TestExtractKorean, self).getConfig()
+        config.stopwords_class = StopWordsKorean
+        return config
+
+    def test_donga_korean(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['cleaned_text', 'meta_description', 'meta_keywords']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+
+class TestExtractionsRaw(TestExtractions):
+
+    def extract(self, instance):
+        article = instance.extract(raw_html=self.getRawHtml())
+        return article
diff --git a/tests/extractors/images.py b/tests/extractors/images.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..e47a1dde
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/extractors/images.py
@@ -0,0 +1,225 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+import os
+import json
+import hashlib
+import unittest
+
+from base import MockResponse
+from base import TestExtractionBase
+
+from goose.configuration import Configuration
+from goose.image import Image
+from goose.image import ImageDetails
+from goose.utils import FileHelper
+from goose.utils.images import ImageUtils
+
+
+CURRENT_PATH = os.path.dirname(os.path.abspath(__file__))
+
+
+class MockResponseImage(MockResponse):
+
+    def image_content(self, req):
+        md5_hash = hashlib.md5(req.get_full_url()).hexdigest()
+        current_test = self.cls._get_current_testname()
+        path = os.path.join(
+                os.path.dirname(CURRENT_PATH),
+                "data",
+                "extractors",
+                "images",
+                current_test,
+                md5_hash)
+        path = os.path.abspath(path)
+        f = open(path, 'rb')
+        content = f.read()
+        f.close()
+        return content
+
+    def html_content(self, req):
+        current_test = self.cls._get_current_testname()
+        path = os.path.join(
+                os.path.dirname(CURRENT_PATH),
+                "data",
+                "extractors",
+                "images",
+                current_test,
+                "%s.html" % current_test)
+        path = os.path.abspath(path)
+        return FileHelper.loadResourceFile(path)
+
+    def content(self, req):
+        if self.cls.data['url'] == req.get_full_url():
+            return self.html_content(req)
+        return self.image_content(req)
+
+
+class ImageExtractionTests(TestExtractionBase):
+    """\
+    Base Mock test case
+    """
+    callback = MockResponseImage
+
+    def loadData(self):
+        """\
+
+        """
+        test, suite, module, cls, func = self.id().split('.')
+        path = os.path.join(
+                os.path.dirname(CURRENT_PATH),
+                "data",
+                suite,
+                module,
+                func,
+                "%s.json" % func)
+
+        path = os.path.abspath(path)
+        content = FileHelper.loadResourceFile(path)
+        self.data = json.loads(content)
+
+    def getConfig(self):
+        config = Configuration()
+        config.enable_image_fetching = True
+        return config
+
+    def getExpectedImage(self, expected_value):
+        image = Image()
+        for k, v in expected_value.items():
+            setattr(image, k, v)
+        return image
+
+    def assert_top_image(self, fields, expected_value, result_image):
+        # test if the result value
+        # is an Goose Image instance
+        msg = u"Result value is not a Goose Image instance"
+        self.assertTrue(isinstance(result_image, Image), msg=msg)
+
+        # expected image
+        expected_image = self.getExpectedImage(expected_value)
+        msg = u"Expected value is not a Goose Image instance"
+        self.assertTrue(isinstance(expected_image, Image), msg=msg)
+
+        # check
+        msg = u"Returned Image is not the one expected"
+        self.assertEqual(expected_image.src, result_image.src, msg=msg)
+
+        fields = vars(expected_image)
+        for k, v in fields.items():
+            msg = u"Returned Image attribute %s is not the one expected" % k
+            self.assertEqual(getattr(expected_image, k), getattr(result_image, k), msg=msg)
+
+    def test_basic_image(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['top_image']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def _test_known_image_css(self, article):
+        # check if we have an image in article.top_node
+        images = self.parser.getElementsByTag(article.top_node,  tag='img')
+        self.assertEqual(len(images), 0)
+
+        # we dont' have an image in article.top_node
+        # check if the correct image was retrieved
+        # using the known-image-css.txt
+        fields = ['cleaned_text', 'top_image']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_known_image_name_parent(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        self._test_known_image_css(article)
+
+    def test_known_image_css_parent_class(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        self._test_known_image_css(article)
+
+    def test_known_image_css_parent_id(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        self._test_known_image_css(article)
+
+    def test_known_image_css_class(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        self._test_known_image_css(article)
+
+    def test_known_image_css_id(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        self._test_known_image_css(article)
+
+    def test_known_image_empty_src(self):
+        'Tests that img tags for known image sources with empty src attributes are skipped.'
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        self._test_known_image_css(article)
+
+    def test_opengraph_tag(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        self._test_known_image_css(article)
+
+
+class ImageUtilsTests(unittest.TestCase):
+
+    def setUp(self):
+        self.path = 'tests/data/extractors/images/test_basic_image/50850547cc7310bc53e30e802c6318f1'
+        self.expected_results = {
+            'width': 476,
+            'height': 317,
+            'mime_type': 'JPEG'
+        }
+
+    def test_utils_get_image_dimensions(self):
+        image_detail = ImageUtils.get_image_dimensions(None, self.path)
+
+        # test if we have an ImageDetails instance
+        self.assertTrue(isinstance(image_detail, ImageDetails))
+
+        # test image_detail attribute
+        for k, v in self.expected_results.items():
+            self.assertEqual(getattr(image_detail, k), v)
+
+    def test_detail(self):
+        image_detail = ImageUtils.get_image_dimensions(None, self.path)
+
+        # test if we have an ImageDetails instance
+        self.assertTrue(isinstance(image_detail, ImageDetails))
+
+        # test image_detail attribute
+        for k, v in self.expected_results.items():
+            self.assertEqual(getattr(image_detail, k), v)
+
+        # test image_detail get_ methode
+        for k, v in self.expected_results.items():
+            attr = 'get_%s' % k
+            self.assertEqual(getattr(image_detail, attr)(), v)
+
+        # test image_detail set_ methode
+        expected_results = {
+            'width': 10,
+            'height': 10,
+            'mime_type': 'PNG'
+        }
+
+        for k, v in expected_results.items():
+            attr = 'set_%s' % k
+            getattr(image_detail, attr)(v)
+
+        for k, v in expected_results.items():
+            attr = 'get_%s' % k
+            self.assertEqual(getattr(image_detail, attr)(), v)
diff --git a/tests/extractors/links.py b/tests/extractors/links.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..8539465e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/extractors/links.py
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+
+from base import TestExtractionBase
+
+
+class TestArticleLinks(TestExtractionBase):
+
+    def test_links(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        number_links = len(article.links)
+        expected_number_links = self.data['expected']['links']
+        self.assertEqual(number_links, expected_number_links)
diff --git a/tests/extractors/metas.py b/tests/extractors/metas.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..fd45915a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/extractors/metas.py
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+
+from base import TestExtractionBase
+
+
+class TestMetas(TestExtractionBase):
+
+    pass
diff --git a/tests/extractors/opengraph.py b/tests/extractors/opengraph.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..415a784c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/extractors/opengraph.py
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+
+from base import TestExtractionBase
+
+
+class TestOpenGraph(TestExtractionBase):
+
+    def test_opengraph(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['opengraph']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
diff --git a/tests/extractors/publishdate.py b/tests/extractors/publishdate.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..8d2a13b9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/extractors/publishdate.py
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+
+from base import TestExtractionBase
+
+
+class TestPublishDate(TestExtractionBase):
+
+    def test_publish_date(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=['publish_date'])
+
+    def test_publish_date_rnews(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=['publish_date'])
+
+    def test_publish_date_article(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=['publish_date'])
+
+    def test_publish_date_schema(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=['publish_date'])
diff --git a/tests/extractors/tags.py b/tests/extractors/tags.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..22b17129
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/extractors/tags.py
@@ -0,0 +1,72 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+
+from base import TestExtractionBase
+
+
+class TestArticleTags(TestExtractionBase):
+
+    def assert_tags(self, field, expected_value, result_value):
+        """\
+
+        """
+        # as we have a set in expected_value and a list in result_value
+        # make result_value a set
+        expected_value = set(expected_value)
+
+        # check if both have the same number of items
+        msg = (u"expected tags set and result tags set"
+                u"don't have the same number of items")
+        self.assertEqual(len(result_value), len(expected_value), msg=msg)
+
+        # check if each tag in result_value is in expected_value
+        for tag in result_value:
+            self.assertTrue(tag in expected_value)
+
+    def test_tags_kexp(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['tags']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_tags_deadline(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['tags']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_tags_wnyc(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['tags']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_tags_cnet(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['tags']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_tags_abcau(self):
+        """
+        Test ABC Australia page with "topics" tags
+        """
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['tags']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
diff --git a/tests/extractors/title.py b/tests/extractors/title.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..36bee9a2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/extractors/title.py
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+
+from base import TestExtractionBase
+
+
+class TestTitle(TestExtractionBase):
+
+    def test_title_opengraph(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['title']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
diff --git a/tests/extractors/tweets.py b/tests/extractors/tweets.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..50300f43
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/extractors/tweets.py
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+
+from base import TestExtractionBase
+
+
+class TestArticleTweet(TestExtractionBase):
+
+    def test_tweet(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        number_tweets = len(article.tweets)
+        expected_number_tweets = self.data['expected']['tweets']
+        self.assertEqual(number_tweets, expected_number_tweets)
diff --git a/tests/extractors/videos.py b/tests/extractors/videos.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..10be15ff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/extractors/videos.py
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+from base import TestExtractionBase
+
+
+class ImageExtractionTests(TestExtractionBase):
+    """\
+    Base Mock test case
+    """
+    def assert_movies(self, field, expected_value, result_value):
+        # check if result_value is a list
+        self.assertTrue(isinstance(result_value, list))
+        # check number of videos
+        self.assertEqual(len(expected_value), len(result_value))
+
+        # check values
+        for c, video in enumerate(result_value):
+            expected = expected_value[c]
+            for k, v in expected.items():
+                r = getattr(video, k)
+                self.assertEqual(r, v)
+
+    def test_embed(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['movies']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_iframe(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['movies']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
+
+    def test_object(self):
+        article = self.getArticle()
+        fields = ['movies']
+        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, fields=fields)
diff --git a/tests/parsers.py b/tests/parsers.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..6614368d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/parsers.py
@@ -0,0 +1,264 @@
+# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
+"""\
+This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
+under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
+distributed with this work for additional information
+regarding copyright ownership.
+
+Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
+
+Gravity.com licenses this file
+to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+you may not use this file except in compliance
+with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
+
+http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+
+Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+limitations under the License.
+"""
+import os
+import unittest
+
+from goose.utils import FileHelper
+from goose.parsers import Parser
+from goose.parsers import ParserSoup
+
+CURRENT_PATH = os.path.dirname(os.path.abspath(__file__))
+
+
+class ParserBase(unittest.TestCase):
+
+    def setUp(self):
+        self.parser = Parser
+
+    def get_html(self, filename):
+        path = os.path.join(CURRENT_PATH, 'data', filename)
+        path = os.path.abspath(path)
+        return FileHelper.loadResourceFile(path)
+
+    def test_cssselect(self):
+        html = '<html><body>'
+        html += '<p class="link">this is a test <a class="link">link</a> and this is <strong class="foo">strong</strong></p>'
+        html += '<p>this is a test and this is <strong class="link">strong</strong></p>'
+        html += '</body></html>'
+        doc = self.parser.fromstring(html)
+        # find node with a class attribute
+        items_result = self.parser.css_select(doc, "*[class]")
+        self.assertEqual(len(items_result), 4)
+
+        # find p nodes
+        items_result = self.parser.css_select(doc, "p")
+        self.assertEqual(len(items_result), 2)
+
+        # find nodes with attribute class equal to link
+        items_result = self.parser.css_select(doc, "*[class=link]")
+        self.assertEqual(len(items_result), 3)
+
+        # find p nodes with class attribute
+        items_result = self.parser.css_select(doc, "p[class]")
+        self.assertEqual(len(items_result), 1)
+
+        # find p nodes with class attribute link
+        items_result = self.parser.css_select(doc, "p[class=link]")
+        self.assertEqual(len(items_result), 1)
+
+        # find strong nodes with class attribute link or foo
+        items_result = self.parser.css_select(doc, "strong[class=link], strong[class=foo]")
+        self.assertEqual(len(items_result), 2)
+
+        # find strong nodes with class attribute link or foo
+        items_result = self.parser.css_select(doc, "p > a")
+        self.assertEqual(len(items_result), 1)
+
+    def test_childNodesWithText(self):
+        html = '<html><body>'
+        html += '<p>this is a test <a class="link">link</a> and this is <strong class="link">strong</strong></p>'
+        html += '<p>this is a test and this is <strong class="link">strong</strong></p>'
+        html += '</body></html>'
+        doc = self.parser.fromstring(html)
+        p = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='p')[0]
+
+    def test_replacetag(self):
+        html = self.get_html('parser/test1.html')
+        doc = self.parser.fromstring(html)
+
+        # replace all p with div
+        ps = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='p')
+        divs = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='div')
+        pcount = len(ps)
+        divcount = len(divs)
+        for p in ps:
+            self.parser.replaceTag(p, 'div')
+        divs2 = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='div')
+        divcount2 = len(divs2)
+        self.assertEqual(divcount2, pcount + divcount)
+
+        # replace first div span with center
+        spans = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='span')
+        spanscount = len(spans)
+        div = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='div')[0]
+        span = self.parser.getElementsByTag(div, tag='span')
+        self.assertEqual(len(span), 1)
+        self.parser.replaceTag(span[0], 'center')
+        span = self.parser.getElementsByTag(div, tag='span')
+        self.assertEqual(len(span), 0)
+        centers = self.parser.getElementsByTag(div, tag='center')
+        self.assertEqual(len(centers), 1)
+
+    def test_droptag(self):
+        # test with 1 node
+        html = '<html><body><div>Hello <b>World!</b></div></body></html>'
+        expecte_html = '<html><body><div>Hello World!</div></body></html>'
+        doc = self.parser.fromstring(html)
+        nodes = self.parser.css_select(doc, "b")
+        self.assertEqual(len(nodes), 1)
+        self.parser.drop_tag(nodes)
+
+        nodes = self.parser.css_select(doc, "b")
+        self.assertEqual(len(nodes), 0)
+
+        result_html = self.parser.nodeToString(doc)
+        self.assertEqual(expecte_html, result_html)
+
+        # test with 2 nodes
+        html = '<html><body><div>Hello <b>World!</b> bla <b>World!</b></div></body></html>'
+        expecte_html = '<html><body><div>Hello World! bla World!</div></body></html>'
+        doc = self.parser.fromstring(html)
+        nodes = self.parser.css_select(doc, "b")
+        self.assertEqual(len(nodes), 2)
+        self.parser.drop_tag(nodes)
+
+        nodes = self.parser.css_select(doc, "b")
+        self.assertEqual(len(nodes), 0)
+
+        result_html = self.parser.nodeToString(doc)
+        self.assertEqual(expecte_html, result_html)
+
+    def test_tostring(self):
+        html = '<html><body>'
+        html += '<p>this is a test <a>link</a> and this is <strong>strong</strong></p>'
+        html += '</body></html>'
+        doc = self.parser.fromstring(html)
+        result = self.parser.nodeToString(doc)
+        self.assertEqual(html, result)
+
+    def test_striptags(self):
+        html = '<html><body>'
+        html += '<p>this is a test <a>link</a> and this is <strong>strong</strong></p>'
+        html += '</body></html>'
+        expected = '<html><body>'
+        expected += '<p>this is a test link and this is strong</p>'
+        expected += '</body></html>'
+        doc = self.parser.fromstring(html)
+        self.parser.stripTags(doc, 'a', 'strong')
+        result = self.parser.nodeToString(doc)
+        self.assertEqual(expected, result)
+
+    def test_getElementsByTags(self):
+        html = '<html><body>'
+        html += '<p>this is a test <a class="link">link</a> and this is <strong class="link">strong</strong></p>'
+        html += '<p>this is a test and this is <strong class="link">strong</strong></p>'
+        html += '</body></html>'
+        doc = self.parser.fromstring(html)
+        elements = self.parser.getElementsByTags(doc, ['p', 'a', 'strong'])
+        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 5)
+
+        # find childs within the first p
+        p = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='p')[0]
+        elements = self.parser.getElementsByTags(p, ['p', 'a', 'strong'])
+        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 2)
+
+    def test_getElementsByTag(self):
+        html = '<html><body>'
+        html += '<p>this is a test <a>link</a> and this is <strong>strong</strong></p>'
+        html += '</body></html>'
+        doc = self.parser.fromstring(html)
+        # find all tags
+        elements = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc)
+        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 5)
+
+        # find all p
+        elements = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='p')
+        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 1)
+
+        html = '<html><body>'
+        html += '<p>this is a test <a class="link classB classc">link</a> and this is <strong class="link">strong</strong></p>'
+        html += '<p>this is a test and this is <strong class="Link">strong</strong></p>'
+        html += '</body></html>'
+        doc = self.parser.fromstring(html)
+        # find all p
+        elements = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='p')
+        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 2)
+
+        # find all a
+        elements = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='a')
+        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 1)
+
+        # find all strong
+        elements = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='strong')
+        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 2)
+
+        # find first p
+        # and find strong elemens within the p
+        elem = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='p')[0]
+        elements = self.parser.getElementsByTag(elem, tag='strong')
+        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 1)
+
+        # test if the first p in taken in account
+        elem = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='p')[0]
+        elements = self.parser.getElementsByTag(elem, tag='p')
+        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 0)
+
+        # find elem with class "link"
+        elements = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, attr="class", value="link")
+        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 3)
+
+        # find elem with class "classB"
+        elements = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, attr="class", value="classB")
+        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 1)
+
+        # find elem with class "classB"
+        elements = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, attr="class", value="classc")
+        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 1)
+
+        # find elem with class "link" with tag strong
+        elements = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag="strong", attr="class", value="link")
+        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 2)
+
+        # find elem with class "link" with tag strong
+        # within the second p
+        elem = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='p')[1]
+        elements = self.parser.getElementsByTag(elem, tag="strong", attr="class", value="link")
+        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 1)
+
+    def test_delAttribute(self):
+        html = self.get_html('parser/test1.html')
+        doc = self.parser.fromstring(html)
+
+        # find div element with class foo
+        elements = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag="div", attr="class", value="foo")
+        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 1)
+
+        # remove the attribute class
+        div = elements[0]
+        self.parser.delAttribute(div,  attr="class")
+
+        # find div element with class foo
+        elements = self.parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag="div", attr="class", value="foo")
+        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 0)
+
+        # remove an unexistant attribute
+        self.parser.delAttribute(div,  attr="bla")
+
+
+class TestParser(ParserBase):
+    pass
+
+
+class TestParserSoup(ParserBase):
+    def setUp(self):
+        self.parser = ParserSoup
diff --git a/tests/tests.py b/tests/tests.py
deleted file mode 100644
index 61317ae0..00000000
--- a/tests/tests.py
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,627 +0,0 @@
-# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
-"""\
-This is a python port of "Goose" orignialy licensed to Gravity.com
-under one or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
-distributed with this work for additional information
-regarding copyright ownership.
-
-Python port was written by Xavier Grangier for Recrutae
-
-Gravity.com licenses this file
-to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
-you may not use this file except in compliance
-with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
-
-http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
-
-Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
-distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
-WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
-See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
-limitations under the License.
-"""
-import os
-import unittest
-import pprint
-from goose import Goose
-from goose.utils import FileHelper
-from goose.article import Article
-from goose.parsers import Parser
-from goose.configuration import Configuration
-from goose.text import StopWordsChinese
-
-CURRENT_PATH = os.path.dirname(__file__)
-
-
-class TestParser(unittest.TestCase):
-
-    def get_html(self, filename):
-        path = os.path.join(CURRENT_PATH, 'data', filename)
-        print "CURRENT_PATH %s" % path
-        return FileHelper.loadResourceFile(path)
-
-    def test_cssselect(self):
-        html = '<html><body>'
-        html += '<p class="link">this is a test <a class="link">link</a> and this is <strong class="foo">strong</strong></p>'
-        html += '<p>this is a test and this is <strong class="link">strong</strong></p>'
-        html += '</body></html>'
-        doc = Parser.fromstring(html)
-        # find node with a class attribute
-        items_expected = doc.cssselect("*[class]")
-        items_result = Parser.css_select(doc, "*[class]")
-        self.assertEqual(len(items_expected), 4)
-        self.assertEqual(len(items_expected), len(items_result))
-
-        # find p nodes
-        items_expected = doc.cssselect("p")
-        items_result = Parser.css_select(doc, "p")
-        self.assertEqual(len(items_expected), 2)
-        self.assertEqual(len(items_expected), len(items_result))
-
-        # find nodes with attribute class equal to link
-        items_expected = doc.cssselect("*[class=link]")
-        items_result = Parser.css_select(doc, "*[class=link]")
-        self.assertEqual(len(items_expected), 3)
-        self.assertEqual(len(items_expected), len(items_result))
-
-        # find p nodes with class attribute
-        items_expected = doc.cssselect("p[class]")
-        items_result = Parser.css_select(doc, "p[class]")
-        self.assertEqual(len(items_expected), 1)
-        self.assertEqual(len(items_expected), len(items_result))
-
-        # find p nodes with class attribute link
-        items_expected = doc.cssselect("p[class=link]")
-        items_result = Parser.css_select(doc, "p[class=link]")
-        self.assertEqual(len(items_expected), 1)
-        self.assertEqual(len(items_expected), len(items_result))
-
-        # find strong nodes with class attribute link or foo
-        items_expected = doc.cssselect("strong[class=link], strong[class=foo]")
-        items_result = Parser.css_select(doc, "strong[class=link], strong[class=foo]")
-        self.assertEqual(len(items_expected), 2)
-        self.assertEqual(len(items_expected), len(items_result))
-
-        # find strong nodes with class attribute link or foo
-        items_expected = doc.cssselect("p > a")
-        items_result = Parser.css_select(doc, "p > a")
-        self.assertEqual(len(items_expected), 1)
-        self.assertEqual(len(items_expected), len(items_result))
-
-    def test_childNodesWithText(self):
-        html = '<html><body>'
-        html += '<p>this is a test <a class="link">link</a> and this is <strong class="link">strong</strong></p>'
-        html += '<p>this is a test and this is <strong class="link">strong</strong></p>'
-        html += '</body></html>'
-        doc = Parser.fromstring(html)
-        p = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='p')[0]
-
-    def test_replacetag(self):
-        html = self.get_html('parser/test1.html')
-        doc = Parser.fromstring(html)
-
-        # replace all p with div
-        ps = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='p')
-        divs = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='div')
-        pcount = len(ps)
-        divcount = len(divs)
-        for p in ps:
-            Parser.replaceTag(p, 'div')
-        divs2 = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='div')
-        divcount2 = len(divs2)
-        self.assertEqual(divcount2, pcount + divcount)
-
-        # replace first div span with center
-        spans = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='span')
-        spanscount = len(spans)
-        div = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='div')[0]
-        span = Parser.getElementsByTag(div, tag='span')
-        self.assertEqual(len(span), 1)
-        Parser.replaceTag(span[0], 'center')
-        span = Parser.getElementsByTag(div, tag='span')
-        self.assertEqual(len(span), 0)
-        centers = Parser.getElementsByTag(div, tag='center')
-        self.assertEqual(len(centers), 1)
-
-    def test_tostring(self):
-        html = '<html><body>'
-        html += '<p>this is a test <a>link</a> and this is <strong>strong</strong></p>'
-        html += '</body></html>'
-        doc = Parser.fromstring(html)
-        result = Parser.nodeToString(doc)
-        self.assertEqual(html, result)
-
-    def test_striptags(self):
-        html = '<html><body>'
-        html += '<p>this is a test <a>link</a> and this is <strong>strong</strong></p>'
-        html += '</body></html>'
-        expected = '<html><body>'
-        expected += '<p>this is a test link and this is strong</p>'
-        expected += '</body></html>'
-        doc = Parser.fromstring(html)
-        Parser.stripTags(doc, 'a', 'strong')
-        result = Parser.nodeToString(doc)
-        self.assertEqual(expected, result)
-
-    def test_getElementsByTags(self):
-        html = '<html><body>'
-        html += '<p>this is a test <a class="link">link</a> and this is <strong class="link">strong</strong></p>'
-        html += '<p>this is a test and this is <strong class="link">strong</strong></p>'
-        html += '</body></html>'
-        doc = Parser.fromstring(html)
-        elements = Parser.getElementsByTags(doc, ['p', 'a', 'strong'])
-        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 5)
-
-        # find childs within the first p
-        p = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='p')[0]
-        elements = Parser.getElementsByTags(p, ['p', 'a', 'strong'])
-        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 2)
-
-    def test_getElementsByTag(self):
-        html = '<html><body>'
-        html += '<p>this is a test <a>link</a> and this is <strong>strong</strong></p>'
-        html += '</body></html>'
-        doc = Parser.fromstring(html)
-        # find all tags
-        elements = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc)
-        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 5)
-
-        # find all p
-        elements = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='p')
-        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 1)
-
-        html = '<html><body>'
-        html += '<p>this is a test <a class="link classB classc">link</a> and this is <strong class="link">strong</strong></p>'
-        html += '<p>this is a test and this is <strong class="Link">strong</strong></p>'
-        html += '</body></html>'
-        doc = Parser.fromstring(html)
-        # find all p
-        elements = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='p')
-        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 2)
-
-        # find all a
-        elements = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='a')
-        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 1)
-
-        # find all strong
-        elements = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='strong')
-        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 2)
-
-        # find first p
-        # and find strong elemens within the p
-        elem = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='p')[0]
-        elements = Parser.getElementsByTag(elem, tag='strong')
-        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 1)
-
-        # test if the first p in taken in account
-        elem = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='p')[0]
-        elements = Parser.getElementsByTag(elem, tag='p')
-        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 0)
-
-        # find elem with class "link"
-        elements = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, attr="class", value="link")
-        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 3)
-
-        # find elem with class "classB"
-        elements = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, attr="class", value="classB")
-        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 1)
-
-        # find elem with class "classB"
-        elements = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, attr="class", value="classc")
-        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 1)
-
-        # find elem with class "link" with tag strong
-        elements = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag="strong", attr="class", value="link")
-        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 2)
-
-        # find elem with class "link" with tag strong
-        # within the second p
-        elem = Parser.getElementsByTag(doc, tag='p')[1]
-        elements = Parser.getElementsByTag(elem, tag="strong", attr="class", value="link")
-        self.assertEqual(len(elements), 1)
-
-
-class TestArticle(unittest.TestCase):
-
-    def test_instance(self):
-        a = Article()
-        self.assertEqual(isinstance(a, Article), True)
-
-
-class TestExtractionBase(unittest.TestCase):
-
-    def setUp(self):
-        self.articleReport = ["=======================::. ARTICLE REPORT .::======================\n"]
-
-    def get_html(self, filename):
-        path = os.path.join(CURRENT_PATH, 'data', filename)
-        return FileHelper.loadResourceFile(path)
-
-    def getArticle(self, url, raw_html, language=None):
-        config = Configuration()
-        if language:
-            config.target_language = language
-            config.use_meta_language = False
-        config.enable_image_fetching = False
-        g = Goose(config=config)
-        article = g.extract(url=url, raw_html=raw_html)
-        return article
-
-    def runArticleAssertions(self, article=None, expectedTitle=None,
-            expectedStart=None, expectedImage=None,
-            expectedDescription=None, expectedKeywords=None):
-
-        self.articleReport.append("URL:         ")
-        self.articleReport.append(article.final_url)
-        self.articleReport.append('\n')
-        self.articleReport.append("TITLE:       ")
-        self.articleReport.append(article.title)
-        self.articleReport.append('\n')
-        # self.articleReport.append("IMAGE:       ")
-        # self.articleReport.append(article.top_image)
-        # self.articleReport.append('\n')
-        # self.articleReport.append("IMGKIND:     ")
-        # self.articleReport.append(article.top_image)
-        # self.articleReport.append('\n')
-        self.articleReport.append("CONTENT:     ")
-        self.articleReport.append(article.cleaned_text.replace("\n", "    "))
-        self.articleReport.append('\n')
-        self.articleReport.append("METAKW:      ")
-        self.articleReport.append(article.meta_keywords)
-        self.articleReport.append('\n')
-        self.articleReport.append("METADESC:    ")
-        self.articleReport.append(article.meta_description)
-        self.articleReport.append('\n')
-        self.articleReport.append("DOMAIN:      ")
-        self.articleReport.append(article.domain)
-        self.articleReport.append('\n')
-        self.articleReport.append("LINKHASH:    ")
-        self.articleReport.append(article.link_hash)
-        self.articleReport.append('\n')
-        # self.articleReport.append("MOVIES:      ")
-        # self.articleReport.append(article.movies)
-        # self.articleReport.append('\n')
-        # self.articleReport.append("TAGS:        ")
-        # self.articleReport.append(article.tags)
-        # self.articleReport.append('\n')
-        self.assertNotEqual(article, None, msg=u"Resulting article was NULL!")
-
-        if expectedTitle:
-            title = article.title
-            self.assertNotEqual(title, None, msg=u"Title was NULL!")
-            self.assertEqual(title, expectedTitle)
-
-        if expectedStart:
-            articleText = article.cleaned_text
-            self.assertNotEqual(articleText, None,
-                    msg=u"Resulting article text was NULL!")
-
-            self.assertTrue(len(expectedStart) <= len(articleText),
-                    msg=u"Article text was not as long as expected beginning!")
-
-            actual = articleText[0:len(expectedStart)]
-            try:
-                msg = u"The beginning of the article text was not as expected!\nEXPECTED:%s\nGOT:%s" \
-                            % (expectedStart, actual)
-            except UnicodeDecodeError:
-                msg = u"The beginning of the article text was not as expected!"
-            self.assertEqual(expectedStart, actual, msg=msg)
-
-        if expectedImage:
-            pass
-
-        if expectedDescription:
-            description = article.meta_description
-            self.assertNotEqual(description, None,
-                    msg="Meta Description was NULL!")
-            msg = u"Meta Description was not as expected!\nEXPECTED:%s\nGOT:%s" \
-                        % (expectedDescription, description)
-            self.assertEqual(expectedDescription, description, msg=msg)
-
-        if expectedKeywords:
-            pass
-
-    def printReport(self):
-        pprint.pprint(self.articleReport)
-
-
-class TestExtractions(TestExtractionBase):
-
-    def test_cnn1(self):
-        html = self.get_html('statichtml/cnn1.txt')
-        url = "http://www.cnn.com/2010/POLITICS/08/13/democrats.social.security/index.html"
-        title = "Democrats to use Social Security against GOP this fall"
-        content = "Washington (CNN) -- Democrats pledged "
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedTitle=title, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_businessWeek1(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/businessweek1.txt")
-        url = "http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/10_34/b4192066630779.htm"
-        title = "Olivia Munn: Queen of the Uncool"
-        content = "Six years ago, Olivia Munn arrived in Hollywood with fading ambitions of making it as a sports reporter and set about deploying"
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedTitle=title, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_businessWeek2(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/businessweek2.txt")
-        url = "http://www.businessweek.com/management/five-social-media-lessons-for-business-09202011.html"
-        title = "Five Social Media Lessons for Business"
-        content = "At Home Depot, we first realized we needed to have a real conversation with"
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedTitle=title, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_businessWeek3(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/businessweek3.txt")
-        url = "http://www.businessweek.com/technology/here-comes-apples-real-tv-09132011.html"
-        content = "Get ready, America, because by Christmas 2012 you will have an Apple TV in your living room"
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_cbslocal(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/cbslocal1.txt")
-        url = "http://newyork.cbslocal.com/2012/06/08/bc-morning-show-american-hero-kelly-malloy/"
-        content = "Boomer & Craig were thrilled to welcome an American Hero into the Allstate Studio, as Kelly"
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_elmondo1(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/elmondo1.txt")
-        url = "http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2012/10/28/espana/1351388909.html"
-        content = "Importante golpe a la banda terrorista ETA en Francia."
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html, language='es')
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_elpais(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/elpais.txt")
-        url = "http://www.sociedad.elpais.com/sociedad/2012/10/27/actualidad/1351332873_157836.html"
-        content = "Los recortes pasan factura a los pacientes."
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_liberation(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/liberation.txt")
-        url = "http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2012/10/27/ayrault-assume-et-revendique-sa-methode_856451"
-        content = "A Toulouse, Jean-Marc Ayrault aura fait deux rappels sur"
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    ########################################
-    # makes lxml crash
-    # python: double free or corruption
-    def test_techcrunch1(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/techcrunch1.txt")
-        url = "http://techcrunch.com/2011/08/13/2005-zuckerberg-didnt-want-to-take-over-the-world/"
-        content = "The Huffington Post has come across this fascinating five-minute interview"
-        title = u"2005 Zuckerberg Didn’t Want To Take Over The World"
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedTitle=title, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_foxNews(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/foxnews1.txt")
-        url = "http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2010/08/14/russias-nuclear-help-iran-stirs-questions-improved-relations/"
-        content = "Russia's announcement that it will help Iran get nuclear fuel is raising questions"
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_aolNews(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/aol1.txt")
-        url = "http://www.aolnews.com/nation/article/the-few-the-proud-the-marines-getting-a-makeover/19592478"
-        content = "WASHINGTON (Aug. 13) -- Declaring \"the maritime soul of the Marine Corps\" is"
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_huffingtonPost2(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/huffpo2.txt")
-        url = "http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/10/06/alabama-workers-immigration-law_n_997793.html"
-        content = "MONTGOMERY, Ala. -- Alabama's strict new immigration law may be backfiring."
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_testHuffingtonPost(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/huffpo1.txt")
-        url = "http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/08/13/federal-reserve-pursuing_n_681540.html"
-        title = "Federal Reserve's Low Rate Policy Is A 'Dangerous Gamble,' Says Top Central Bank Official"
-        content = "A top regional Federal Reserve official sharply criticized Friday"
-        keywords = "federal, reserve's, low, rate, policy, is, a, 'dangerous, gamble,', says, top, central, bank, official, business"
-        description = "A top regional Federal Reserve official sharply criticized Friday the Fed's ongoing policy of keeping interest rates near zero -- and at record lows -- as a \"dangerous gamble.\""
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedTitle=title, expectedStart=content, expectedDescription=description)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_espn(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/espn1.txt")
-        url = "http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/commentary/news/story?id=5461430"
-        content = "If you believe what college football coaches have said about sports"
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_engadget(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/engadget1.txt")
-        url = "http://www.engadget.com/2010/08/18/verizon-fios-set-top-boxes-getting-a-new-hd-guide-external-stor/"
-        content = "Streaming and downloading TV content to mobiles is nice"
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_msn1(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/msn1.txt")
-        url = "http://lifestyle.msn.com/your-life/your-money-today/article.aspx?cp-documentid=31244150"
-        expected = self.get_html("statichtml/msn1_result.txt")
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=expected)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    # #########################################
-    # # FAIL CHECK
-    # # UNICODE
-    # def test_guardian1(self):
-    #     html = self.get_html("statichtml/guardian1.txt")
-    #     url = "http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2011/nov/18/kristen-wiig-bridesmaids"
-    #     expected = self.get_html("statichtml/guardian1_result.txt")
-    #     article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-    #     self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=expected)
-    #     self.printReport()
-
-    def test_time(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/time1.txt")
-        url = "http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,2011497,00.html"
-        title = "Invisible Oil from BP Spill May Threaten Gulf Aquatic Life"
-        content = "This month, the federal government released"
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedTitle=title, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_time2(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/time2.txt")
-        url = "http://newsfeed.time.com/2011/08/24/washington-monument-closes-to-repair-earthquake-induced-crack/"
-        content = "Despite what the jeers of jaded Californians might suggest"
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_cnet(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/cnet1.txt")
-        url = "http://news.cnet.com/8301-30686_3-20014053-266.html?tag=topStories1"
-        content = "NEW YORK--Verizon Communications is prepping a new"
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_yahoo(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/yahoo1.txt")
-        url = "http://news.yahoo.com/apple-says-steve-jobs-resigning-ceo-224628633.html"
-        content = u"SAN FRANCISCO (AP) — Steve Jobs, the mind behind the iPhone"
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_politico(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/politico1.txt")
-        url = "http://www.politico.com/news/stories/1010/43352.html"
-        content = "If the newest Census Bureau estimates stay close to form"
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_businessinsider1(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/businessinsider1.txt")
-        url = "http://articles.businessinsider.com/2011-09-21/markets/30183619_1_parliament-vote-greece-civil-servants"
-        content = "As everyone in the world was transfixed on the Fed"
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_businessinsider2(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/businessinsider2.txt")
-        url = "http://www.businessinsider.com/goldman-on-the-fed-announcement-2011-9"
-        content = "From Goldman on the FOMC operation twist announcement"
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    #########################################
-    # FAIL
-    # TEXT APPEND
-    def test_cnbc1(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/cnbc1.txt")
-        url = "http://www.cnbc.com/id/44613978"
-        content = "Some traders found Wednesday's Fed statement to be a bit gloomier than expected."
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=content)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_issue24(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/issue_24.txt")
-        url = "http://danielspicar.github.com/goose-bug.html"
-        expected = self.get_html("statichtml/issue_24_result.txt")
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=expected)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_issue25(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/issue_25.txt")
-        url = "http://www.accountancyage.com/aa/analysis/2111729/institutes-ifrs-bang"
-        expected = "UK INSTITUTES have thrown their weight behind rapid adoption of international financial reporting standards in the US."
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=expected)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    #########################################
-    # FAIL
-    def test_issue28(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/issue_28.txt")
-        url = "http://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/foodanddrinknews/8808120/Worlds-hottest-chilli-contest-leaves-two-in-hospital.html"
-        expected = "Emergency services were called to Kismot Restaurant's curry-eating challenge,"
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=expected)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_issue32(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/issue_32.txt")
-        url = "http://www.tulsaworld.com/site/articlepath.aspx?articleid=20111118_61_A16_Opposi344152&rss_lnk=7"
-        expected = "Opposition to a proposal to remove certain personal data"
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=expected)
-        self.printReport()
-
-    def test_issue4(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/issue_4.txt")
-        url = "http://www.slate.fr/story/64063/tapie-mougeotte-la-provence"
-        expected = u"Exercice: apr\xe8s avoir attentivement lu cette br\xe8ve parue dans L'Express, vous expliquerez en quoi elle r\xe9sume une certaine id\xe9e de la France.\n\n\xabBernar"
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=expected)
-        self.printReport()
-
-
-class TestExtractChinese(TestExtractionBase):
-
-    def getArticle(self, url, raw_html, language=None):
-        g = Goose({'stopwords_class': StopWordsChinese})
-        article = g.extract(url=url, raw_html=raw_html)
-        return article
-
-    def test_bbc_chinese(self):
-        html = self.get_html("statichtml/bbc_hongkong_politics.html")
-        url = "http://www.bbc.co.uk/zhongwen/simp/chinese_news/2012/12/121210_hongkong_politics.shtml"
-        expected = u"""香港行政长官梁振英在各方压力下就其大宅的违章建筑（僭建）问题到立法会接受质询，并向香港民众道歉。
-
-梁振英在星期二（12月10日）的答问大会开始之际在其演说中道歉，但强调他在违章建筑问题上没有隐瞒的意图和动机。
-
-一些亲北京阵营议员欢迎梁振英道歉，且认为应能获得香港民众接受，但这些议员也质问梁振英有"""
-        article = self.getArticle(url, html)
-        self.runArticleAssertions(article=article, expectedStart=expected)
-        self.printReport()
-
-
-class TestExtractionsRaw(TestExtractions):
-
-    def setUp(self):
-        self.articleReport = ["=======================::. ARTICLE REPORT .::======================\n"]
-
-    def getArticle(self, url, raw_html, language=None):
-        config = Configuration()
-        if language:
-            config.target_language = language
-            config.use_meta_language = False
-        config.enable_image_fetching = False
-        g = Goose(config=config)
-        article = g.extract(raw_html=raw_html)
-        return article
-
-
-if __name__ == '__main__':
-    unittest.main()