Python Modules

What is a Module?
Consider a module to be the same as a code library.

A file containing a set of functions you want to include in your application.

Create a Module
To create a module just save the code you want in a file with the file
extension .py:

Example
Save this code in a file named [Link]

def greeting(name):
print("Hello, " + name)

Use a Module
Now we can use the module we just created, by using the import statement:

Example
Import the module named mymodule, and call the greeting function:

import mymodule

[Link]("Jonathan")

Note: When using a function from a module, use the

syntax: module_name.function_name.

Variables in Module
The module can contain functions, as already described, but also variables of
all types (arrays, dictionaries, objects etc):
Example
Save this code in the file [Link]

person1 = {
"name": "John",
"age": 36,
"country": "Norway"
}

Example
Import the module named mymodule, and access the person1 dictionary:
import mymodule

a = mymodule.person1["age"]
print(a)

Naming a Module
You can name the module file whatever you like, but it must have the file
extension .py

Re-naming a Module
You can create an alias when you import a module, by using the as keyword:

Example
Create an alias for mymodule called mx:

import mymodule as mx

a = mx.person1["age"]
print(a)

Built-in Modules
There are several built-in modules in Python, which you can import whenever
you like.
Example
Import and use the platform module:

import platform

x = [Link]()
print(x)

Using the dir() Function

There is a built-in function to list all the function names (or variable names)
in a module. The dir() function:

Example
List all the defined names belonging to the platform module:

import platform

x = dir(platform)
print(x)

Note: The dir() function can be used on all modules, also the ones you
create yourself.

Import From Module

You can choose to import only parts from a module, by using
the from keyword.

Example
The module named mymodule has one function and one dictionary:

def greeting(name):
print("Hello, " + name)

person1 = {
"name": "John",
"age": 36,
"country": "Norway"
}

Example
Import only the person1 dictionary from the module:
from mymodule import person1

print (person1["age"])
Note: When importing using the from keyword, do not use the module name
when referring to elements in the module. Example: person1["age"], not
mymodule.person1["age"].

Python math Module

Python has a built-in module that you can use for mathematical tasks.

The math module has a set of methods and constants.

Math Methods
Method Description

[Link]() Returns the arc cosine of a number

[Link]() Returns the inverse hyperbolic cosine of a number

[Link]() Returns the arc sine of a number

[Link]() Returns the inverse hyperbolic sine of a number

[Link]() Returns the arc tangent of a number in radians

math.atan2() Returns the arc tangent of y/x in radians

[Link]() Returns the inverse hyperbolic tangent of a number

[Link]() Rounds a number up to the nearest integer

[Link]() Returns the number of ways to choose k items from n
items without repetition and order

[Link]() Returns a float consisting of the value of the first

parameter and the sign of the second parameter

[Link]() Returns the cosine of a number

[Link]() Returns the hyperbolic cosine of a number

[Link]() Converts an angle from radians to degrees

[Link]() Returns the Euclidean distance between two points (p

and q), where p and q are the coordinates of that
point

[Link]() Returns the error function of a number

[Link]() Returns the complementary error function of a

number

[Link]() Returns E raised to the power of x

math.expm1() Returns Ex - 1

[Link]() Returns the absolute value of a number

[Link]() Returns the factorial of a number

[Link]() Rounds a number down to the nearest integer

[Link]() Returns the remainder of x/y

[Link]() Returns the mantissa and the exponent, of a specified

number

[Link]() Returns the sum of all items in any iterable (tuples,

arrays, lists, etc.)
[Link]() Returns the gamma function at x

[Link]() Returns the greatest common divisor of two integers

[Link]() Returns the Euclidean norm

[Link]() Checks whether two values are close to each other, or

not

[Link]() Checks whether a number is finite or not

[Link]() Checks whether a number is infinite or not

[Link]() Checks whether a value is NaN (not a number) or not

[Link]() Rounds a square root number downwards to the

nearest integer

[Link]() Returns the inverse of [Link]() which is x *

(2**i) of the given numbers x and i

[Link]() Returns the log gamma value of x

[Link]() Returns the natural logarithm of a number, or the

logarithm of number to base

math.log10() Returns the base-10 logarithm of x

math.log1p() Returns the natural logarithm of 1+x

math.log2() Returns the base-2 logarithm of x

[Link]() Returns the number of ways to choose k items from n

items with order and without repetition

[Link]() Returns the value of x to the power of y

[Link]() Returns the product of all the elements in an iterable

 [Link]() Converts a degree value into radians

[Link]() Returns the closest value that can make numerator

completely divisible by the denominator

[Link]() Returns the sine of a number

[Link]() Returns the hyperbolic sine of a number

[Link]() Returns the square root of a number

[Link]() Returns the tangent of a number

[Link]() Returns the hyperbolic tangent of a number

[Link]() Returns the truncated integer parts of a number

Math Constants
Constant Description

math.e Returns Euler's number (2.7182...)

[Link] Returns a floating-point positive infinity

[Link] Returns a floating-point NaN (Not a Number) value

[Link] Returns PI (3.1415...)

[Link] Returns tau (6.2831...)

Python Random Module

Python has a built-in module that you can use to make random numbers.

The random module has a set of methods:

Method Description

seed() Initialize the random number generator

getstate() Returns the current internal state of the random

number generator

setstate() Restores the internal state of the random number

generator

getrandbits() Returns a number representing the random bits

randrange() Returns a random number between the given range

randint() Returns a random number between the given range

choice() Returns a random element from the given sequence

choices() Returns a list with a random selection from the given

sequence

shuffle() Takes a sequence and returns the sequence in a

random order

sample() Returns a given sample of a sequence

random() Returns a random float number between 0 and 1

uniform() Returns a random float number between two given

parameters

triangular() Returns a random float number between two given

parameters, you can also set a mode parameter to
specify the midpoint between the two other
parameters

betavariate() Returns a random float number between 0 and 1

based on the Beta distribution (used in statistics)

expovariate() Returns a random float number based on the

Exponential distribution (used in statistics)

gammavariate() Returns a random float number based on the Gamma

distribution (used in statistics)

gauss() Returns a random float number based on the

Gaussian distribution (used in probability theories)

lognormvariate() Returns a random float number based on a log-

normal distribution (used in probability theories)

normalvariate() Returns a random float number based on the normal

distribution (used in probability theories)
 vonmisesvariate() Returns a random float number based on the von
Mises distribution (used in directional statistics)

paretovariate() Returns a random float number based on the Pareto

distribution (used in probability theories)

weibullvariate() Returns a random float number based on the Weibull

distribution (used in statistics)

Python Requests Module

Example
Make a request to a web page, and print the response text:

import requests

x = [Link]('[Link]

print([Link])

Definition and Usage

The requests module allows you to send HTTP requests using Python.

The HTTP request returns a Response Object with all the response data
(content, encoding, status, etc).

Download and Install the Requests

Module
Navigate your command line to the location of PIP, and type the following:
C:\Users\Your Name\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python36-
32\Scripts>pip install requests

Syntax
[Link](params)

Methods

Method Description

delete(url, args) Sends a DELETE request to the specified url

get(url, params, args) Sends a GET request to the specified url

head(url, args) Sends a HEAD request to the specified url

patch(url, data, args) Sends a PATCH request to the specified url

post(url, data, json, args) Sends a POST request to the specified url

put(url, data, args) Sends a PUT request to the specified url

request(method, url, args) Sends a request of the specified method to

the specified
Python statistics Module
Python statistics Module
Python has a built-in module that you can use to calculate mathematical
statistics of numeric data.

The statistics module was new in Python 3.4.

Statistics Methods
Method Description

statistics.harmonic_mean() Calculates the harmonic mean (central

location) of the given data

[Link]() Calculates the mean (average) of the given

data

[Link]() Calculates the median (middle value) of the

given data

statistics.median_grouped() Calculates the median of grouped

continuous data

statistics.median_high() Calculates the high median of the given

data

statistics.median_low() Calculates the low median of the given data

[Link]() Calculates the mode (central tendency) of

the given numeric or nominal data

[Link]() Calculates the standard deviation from an

entire population

[Link]() Calculates the standard deviation from a

sample of data
 [Link]() Calculates the variance of an entire
population

[Link]() Calculates the variance from a sample of

data

Python Classes and Objects

Python is an object oriented programming language.

Almost everything in Python is an object, with its properties and methods.

A Class is like an object constructor, or a "blueprint" for creating objects.

Create a Class
To create a class, use the keyword class:

Example
Create a class named MyClass, with a property named x:

class MyClass:
x = 5

Create Object
Now we can use the class named MyClass to create objects:

Example
Create an object named p1, and print the value of x:

p1 = MyClass()
print(p1.x)

The __init__() Function

The examples above are classes and objects in their simplest form, and are
not really useful in real life applications.
To understand the meaning of classes we have to understand the built-in
__init__() function.

All classes have a function called __init__(), which is always executed when
the class is being initiated.

Use the __init__() function to assign values to object properties, or other

operations that are necessary to do when the object is being created:

Example
Create a class named Person, use the __init__() function to assign values for
name and age:

class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
[Link] = name
[Link] = age

p1 = Person("John", 36)

print([Link])
print([Link])
Note: The __init__() function is called automatically every time the
class is being used to create a new object.

Object Methods
Objects can also contain methods. Methods in objects are functions that
belong to the object.

Let us create a method in the Person class:

Example
Insert a function that prints a greeting, and execute it on the p1 object:

class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
[Link] = name
[Link] = age

def myfunc(self):
print("Hello my name is " + [Link])
p1 = Person("John", 36)
[Link]()

Note: The self parameter is a reference to the current instance of the class,
and is used to access variables that belong to the class.

The self Parameter

The self parameter is a reference to the current instance of the class, and is
used to access variables that belongs to the class.

It does not have to be named self , you can call it whatever you like, but it
has to be the first parameter of any function in the class:

Example
Use the words mysillyobject and abc instead of self:

class Person:
def __init__(mysillyobject, name, age):
[Link] = name
[Link] = age

def myfunc(abc):
print("Hello my name is " + [Link])

p1 = Person("John", 36)
[Link]()

Modify Object Properties

You can modify properties on objects like this:

Example
Set the age of p1 to 40:

[Link] = 40

Delete Object Properties

You can delete properties on objects by using the del keyword:
Example
Delete the age property from the p1 object:

del [Link]

Delete Objects
You can delete objects by using the del keyword:

Example
Delete the p1 object:

del p1

The pass Statement

class definitions cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have
a class definition with no content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting
an error.

Example
class Person:
pass

Python User Input

User Input
Python allows for user input.

That means we are able to ask the user for input.

The method is a bit different in Python 3.6 than Python 2.7.

Python 3.6 uses the input() method.

Python 2.7 uses the raw_input() method.

The following example asks for the username, and when you entered the
username, it gets printed on the screen:

Python 3.6
username = input("Enter username:")
print("Username is: " + username)

Python 2.7
username = raw_input("Enter username:")
print("Username is: " + username)
Python stops executing when it comes to the input() function, and
continues when the user has given some input.

Python input() Function

Example
Ask for the user's name and print it:

print('Enter your name:')

x = input()
print('Hello, ' + x)

Definition and Usage

The input() function allows user input.

Syntax
input(prompt)

Parameter Values

Parameter Description
 prompt A String, representing a default message before the input.

More Examples
Example
Use the prompt parameter to write a message before the input:

x = input('Enter your name:')

print('Hello, ' + x)

Python File read() Method

Example
Read the content of the file "[Link]":

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())

Definition and Usage

The read() method returns the specified number of bytes from the file.
Default is -1 which means the whole file.

Syntax
[Link]()

Parameter Values

Parameter Description
 size Optional. The number of bytes to return. Default -1, which
means the whole file.

More examples
Example
Read the content of the file "[Link]":

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link](33))

Python File Open

File handling is an important part of any web application.

Python has several functions for creating, reading, updating, and deleting
files.

File Handling
The key function for working with files in Python is the open() function.

The open() function takes two parameters; filename, and mode.

There are four different methods (modes) for opening a file:

"r" - Read - Default value. Opens a file for reading, error if the file does not
exist

"a" - Append - Opens a file for appending, creates the file if it does not exist

"w" - Write - Opens a file for writing, creates the file if it does not exist

"x" - Create - Creates the specified file, returns an error if the file exists

In addition you can specify if the file should be handled as binary or text
mode

"t" - Text - Default value. Text mode

"b" - Binary - Binary mode (e.g. images)

Syntax
To open a file for reading it is enough to specify the name of the file:

f = open("[Link]")

The code above is the same as:

f = open("[Link]", "rt")

Because "r" for read, and "t" for text are the default values, you do not need
to specify them.

Note: Make sure the file exists, or else you will get an error.

Python File close() Method

Example
Close a file after it has been opened:

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())
[Link]()

Definition and Usage

The close() method closes an open file.

You should always close your files, in some cases, due to buffering, changes
made to a file may not show until you close the file.

Syntax
[Link]()

Parameter Values
No parameters
Python File Write
Write to an Existing File
To write to an existing file, you must add a parameter to the open() function:

"a" - Append - will append to the end of the file

"w" - Write - will overwrite any existing content

Example
Open the file "[Link]" and append content to the file:

f = open("[Link]", "a")
[Link]("Now the file has more content!")
[Link]()

#open and read the file after the appending:

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())

Example
Open the file "[Link]" and overwrite the content:

f = open("[Link]", "w")
[Link]("Woops! I have deleted the content!")
[Link]()

#open and read the file after the appending:

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())

Note: the "w" method will overwrite the entire file.

Create a New File

To create a new file in Python, use the open() method, with one of the
following parameters:

"x" - Create - will create a file, returns an error if the file exist
"a" - Append - will create a file if the specified file does not exist

"w" - Write - will create a file if the specified file does not exist

Example
Create a file called "[Link]":

f = open("[Link]", "x")

Result: a new empty file is created!

Example
Create a new file if it does not exist:

f = open("[Link]", "w")

Python File write() Method

Example
Open the file with "a" for appending, then add some text to the file:

f = open("[Link]", "a")
[Link]("See you soon!")
[Link]()

#open and read the file after the appending:

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())

Definition and Usage

The write() method writes a specified text to the file.

Where the specified text will be inserted depends on the file mode and
stream position.

"a": The text will be inserted at the current file stream position, default at
the end of the file.

"w": The file will be emptied before the text will be inserted at the current file
stream position, default 0.
Syntax
[Link](byte)

Parameter Values

Parameter Description

byte The text or byte object that will be inserted.

More examples
Example
The same example as above, but inserting a line break before the inserted
text:

f = open("[Link]", "a")
[Link]("\nSee you soon!")
[Link]()

#open and read the file after the appending:

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())

Python File read() Method

Example
Read the content of the file "[Link]":
f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())

Definition and Usage

The read() method returns the specified number of bytes from the file.
Default is -1 which means the whole file.

Syntax
[Link]()

Parameter Values

Parameter Description

size Optional. The number of bytes to return. Default -1, which

means the whole file.

More examples
Example
Read the content of the file "[Link]":

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link](33))

Python File Methods

Python has a set of methods available for the file object.

Method Description

close() Closes the file

detach() Returns the separated raw stream from the buffer

fileno() Returns a number that represents the stream, from the

operating system's perspective

flush() Flushes the internal buffer

isatty() Returns whether the file stream is interactive or not

read() Returns the file content

readable() Returns whether the file stream can be read or not

readline() Returns one line from the file

readlines() Returns a list of lines from the file

seek() Change the file position

seekable() Returns whether the file allows us to change the file position

tell() Returns the current file position

truncate() Resizes the file to a specified size

 writable() Returns whether the file can be written to or not

write() Writes the specified string to the file

writelines() Writes a list of strings to the file

Python File readline() Method

Example
Read the first line of the file "[Link]":

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())

Definition and Usage

The readline() method returns one line from the file.

You can also specified how many bytes from the line to return, by using the
size parameter.

Syntax
[Link](size)

Parameter Values

Parameter Description

size Optional. The number of bytes from the line to return.

Default -1, which means the whole line.
More examples
Example
Call readline() twice to return both the first and the second line:

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())
print([Link]())

Example
Return only the five first bytes from the first line:

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link](5))