FORENSIC SCIENCES

FORENSIC SCIENCES
(FORENSIC SCIENCE & CRIMINOLOGY)

INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS

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INTRODUCTION

The term FORENSIC has 2 meanings:

[1] Crime-Solving:

[a] Relating to the application of scientific methods to decide questions arising from
crime or litigation.

[b] Providing scientifically based or opinion-based evidence in issues related to law,

court, physical evidence, archeology, anthropology, medicine, dentistry, art.

[2] In Debating:
Relating to debates, formal argumentation or to a type of speech competition
characterized by individuals competing in a variety of different events.

The term originates from the Latin "forensus", or “forensis” meaning "belonging to the
forum." Refers to "pertaining to the courts" and is/are used by the court and attorneys for
assistance in legal matters and trials. The "forum" refers to a place of debates or to the
specific site in ancient central Rome where oratories, debates, public announcements and
official events took place.

The term Forensic started in mid 17th century to be applied to legal proceedings.

Forensic Science, which is sometimes-termed Medical Jurisprudence or also forensics, is

the application of science to law. Forensic science uses highly developed technologies
to uncover scientific evidence in a variety of fields.

Modern forensic science has a broad range of applications.

• It is used in civil cases such as forgeries, fraud, or negligence.
• It can help law-enforcement officials determine whether any laws or regulations
have been violated in the marketing of foods and drinks, the manufacture of
medicines, or the use of pesticides on crops.
• It can also determine whether automobile emissions are within a permissible level
and whether drinking water meets legal purity requirements.

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• Forensic science is used in monitoring the compliance of various countries with

such international agreements as the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and the
Chemical Weapons Convention and to learn whether a country is developing a
secret nuclear weapons program.
• However, forensic science is most commonly used to investigate criminal cases
involving a victim, such as assault, robbery, kidnapping, rape, or murder.

History
The earliest account of fingerprint use to establish identity was during 7th century China.
According to Soleiman, an Arabic merchant, a debtor's fingerprints were affixed to a bill,
which would then be given to the lender. This bill was legally recognized as proof of the
validity of the debt.

The first written account of using medicine and entomology to solve (separate) criminal
cases is attributed to the book Xi Yuan Ji Lu (translated as "Collected Cases of Injustice
Rectified"), written in 1248 China by Song Ci (1186-1249). In one of the accounts, a death
investigator who instructed everyone to bring their sickles to one location solved the case of
a person murdered with a sickle. Flies, attracted by the smell of blood, eventually gathered
on a single sickle. In light of this, the murderer confessed. The book also offered advice on
how to distinguish between a drowning (water in the lungs) and strangulation (broken neck
cartilage).

The "Eureka" legend of Archimedes (287-212 BC) can also be considered as an early
account of the use of forensic science. In this case, Archimedes was able to prove that a
crown was not made of gold (as it was fraudulently claimed) by its density and buoyancy.

Sherlock Holmes, the fictional character created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle used forensic
science. Decades later, the comic strip, Dick Tracy also featured the detective using a
considerable number of forensic methods although sometimes the methods were more
fanciful. The popular television series CSI: Crime Scene Investigation depicts a glamorized
version of the activities of forensic scientists.

The use of "forensics" used in place of "forensic science" could be considered incorrect; the
term "forensic" is effectively a synonym for "legal" or "related to courts". However, it is now
so closely associated with the scientific field that many dictionaries include the meaning
given here.

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The combination of a medical and legal approach to dealing with crimes used in the United
States today had its origin in England in the 12th century, when King Richard I established
the Office of the Coroner. Although the coroner's main duty was to keep a record of all
criminal matters in the county, he was also responsible for investigating all deaths thought
to be the result of suicide or homicide.

With time, the need for a more scientific investigation of unnatural deaths became
apparent, and coroners began calling on physicians for help. Over the centuries, it became
clear that medical schools needed to prepare doctors for this responsibility. As a result, in
1807 the University of Edinburgh in Scotland established a Department of Legal Medicine.

The early American colonists brought the coroner system with them, including the
appointment of coroners by a representative of the crown. After the formation of the United
States, elected officials appointed coroners. As medical involvement in the investigations of
violent and unexplained deaths increased, communities began to require that the individual
in charge of such investigations have a specific academic background. In 1877
Massachusetts adopted a statewide system requiring that an Office of the Medical
Examiner, to be headed by a physician, replace the coroner's office. A number of other
states also adopted this requirement. In 1915 New York City established a comprehensive
program in which the medical examiner was specifically authorized to investigate all deaths
resulting from criminal violence, accidents, or suicides, and those that occurred suddenly to
people who appeared to be in good health. Forensic science as practiced today is a high-
technology field using electron microscopes, lasers, ultraviolet and infrared light, advanced
analytical chemical techniques, and computerized databanks to analyze and research
evidence.

The Medical Examiner

The medical examiner is the central figure in the forensic investigation of crimes involving a
victim. It is the responsibility of the medical examiner to visit the crime scene, conduct an
autopsy (an examination of the body) in cases of death, examine the medical evidence and
laboratory reports, study the victim's medical history, and put all this information together in
a report to the district attorney.

Medical examiners are usually physicians specializing in Forensic Pathology; the study of
structural and functional changes in the body as a result of injury. Their training and

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qualifications most often include a medical degree and an apprenticeship in a medical

examiner's office. Depending on the requirements of the particular state, city, or county, the
medical examiner may also be required to be certified as a forensic pathologist by the
American Board of Pathology. At present, the United States has no national system of
medical examiners and has no federal law requiring that coroners be licensed physicians.

Forensic Medicine:
This is a science that applies medical knowledge to legal and criminal issues? Its chief tool
is the autopsy to determine the cause and time of death. Forensic medicine is also used to
identify victims of airplane crashes, fires, or other disasters. Forensic Psychiatry
determines an individual's mental ability to stand trial. Forensic Toxicology deals with
poisons and drug use.

Examining Evidence:
The medical examiner investigates many different types of violent crime to determine
whether a violent death was an accident, a suicide, or a homicide (murder). In all cases, the
medical examiner must conduct an investigation of the crime scene and also an autopsy.

In cases involving gunshot wounds, the medical examiner looks for gunpowder residues on
the clothing of the victim and around wounds. This information is used to estimate how far
away the gun was when the victim was shot and to determine whether the victim or
someone else fired the gun.

In the case of knife wounds, the medical examiner must distinguish between a cut (an
injury that is longer than it is deep) and a stab wound (an injury that is deeper than it is
long). The examiner also looks fordefense wounds, cuts caused when an intended victim
grabs the knife of an assailant in self-protection. Cuts, rather than stabs, are associated
with suicide. Usually the body has numerous superficial parallel cuts, indicating repeated
and hesitant trials before the individual was able to make the final deep cut. Such cuts are
called hesitation wounds, and they indicate a suicide rather than a homicide, which typically
consists of a single deep gash.

Medical examiners are also called upon to investigate cases of asphyxiation-that is, death
from lack of oxygen in the blood. Asphyxiation may be caused in a number of different
ways, such as hanging, which may be an accident, suicide, or homicide, or strangulation,
which is homicide. Obstruction of the victim's air passage by an object in the throat or

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compression of the victim's chest by a person or an object can also result in asphyxiation.
Finally, asphyxiation can be caused by the replacement of oxygen in the red blood cells by
another gas, as in carbon monoxide poisoning, which can be the result of suicide,
homicide, or accident.

In a death involving carbon monoxide poisoning, a closed garage door and no marks on the
body are usually taken as an indication of suicide, whereas the presence of tools around
the car and grease on the victim's hands points to accidental death. The presence of a
wound caused by a blow to the head or the absence of carbon monoxide in the blood of the
victim would indicate an attempt to make a homicide look like a suicide.

Forensic Scientists:
Within the broad area of forensic science, there are many subspecialties, including
pathology (the examination of body tissues and fluids), Toxicology (the study of poisons,
including drugs), odontology (the study of teeth), psychiatry, anthropology (the study of
human beings), biology, chemistry, and physics. The medical examiner may call upon
forensic scientists who are specialists in these various fields for help in investigating a
crime. For example, whenever it is suspected that drugs or poisons are involved in a crime,
the medical examiner must obtain the services of a toxicologist.

Toxicologists detect and identify any drugs or poisons present in a person's body fluids,
tissues, and organs. This type of investigation is conducted not only on the victim but, when
possible, also on the suspected perpetrator of the crime.

Forensic odontologists examine and characterize the teeth of unidentified bodies when
fingerprints or other identification is not available. The dental charts of missing individuals
can then be compared with the forensic odontologist's report to identify the body.

Forensic anthropologists are trained to determine the sex, height, weight, and ethnic group
of a deceased person from an incomplete body. Marks on the bones often indicate past
injuries, diseases, and occupational stresses suffered by the individual. Investigators can
identify a body by comparing old X rays and the medical history of a missing person with
the findings of the forensic anthropologist.

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Forensic scientists may choose to be certified by the American Board of Criminalistics, a

professional' organization that has developed examinations to certify individual forensic
scientists in their particular area of expertise.

Techniques of Forensic Science:

Forensic science uses sophisticated laboratory techniques to detect the presence of
substances in the victim, in the suspected criminal, or at the crime scene. For example, in
determining whether alcohol was involved in a crime, the amount of alcohol in the blood
can be measured in two ways. One is to measure the amount of alcohol exhaled in the
breath of an
individual, which reveals the concentration of alcohol in the person's blood. Recent
advances in technology have produced alcohol breath-testing instruments so accurate that
their results are evidential (capable of
providing evidence in court). Blood-alcohol level can also be determined by actual blood
tests, usually through gas chromatography. In this method, the blood sample is vaporized
by high temperature, and the gas is then sent through a column that separates the various
chemical compounds present in the blood.

Gas chromatography permits the detection not only of alcohol but also of other drugs, such
as barbiturates, cocaine, amphetamines, and heroin. It becomes even a more powerful tool
when it is combined with Mass Spectroscopy (abbreviated as GS-MS) - which allows
reconstructing the structure of the chemical entity. Further identification and confirmation is
achieved using FT-IR (Fourier Transformer –Infra Red) Spectroscopy

When a body is discovered in a lake, stream, river, or ocean and the lungs are filled with
water, the medical examiner must determine if the drowning occurred where the body was
found or elsewhere.

A standard microscope that can magnify objects to 1500 times their actual size is used to
look for the presence or absence of diatoms - single-celled algae that are found in all
natural bodies of water. The absence of diatoms raises the possibility that the drowning
took place in a sink or bathtub, not where the body was found, since diatoms are filtered
from household water during treatment.

A scanning electron microscope that can magnify objects 100,000 times is used to detect
the minute gunpowder particles present on the hand of a person who has recently fired a

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gun. These particles can also be chemically analyzed to identify their origin from a
particular type of bullet.

Forensic examination of substances found at a crime scene can often establish the
presence of the suspect at the scene. One of the oldest techniques of forensic science is
dusting the scene of a crime for fingerprints. impressions of the fingertips left on surfaces
touched barehanded. In one method of obtaining a fingerprint, a technician spreads fine
powder over a surface with a brush or magnetic wand. The powder sticks to proteins
secreted by the sweat glands on the skin ridges of the fingertips. When the excess powder
is removed, an outline of the contours of the ridges remains. In other methods, the print
may be chemically treated to reveal the contours. Because no two fingerprints are the
same, fingerprinting provides a positive means of identification. Computer technology now
allows law-enforcement officers to record fingerprints digitally and to transmit and receive
fingerprint information electronically (see Electronics) for rapid identification.

Identification and Investigation Procedures

All material gathered during a criminal investigation must be collected, reported, recorded,
classified, analyzed, processed, and stored. All evidence must be marked for identification
and protectively packaged.

Records must be made of each piece of evidence and its location in relation to a crime. The
law speaks of a "chain of evidence," or “Chain of Custody” which must remain unbroken to
prevent tampering The police are held accountable for every item of evidence from the
time it is discovered at the scene of a crime until it is presented in court.

Large police departments have extensive record-keeping services, including computer

storage. There are also facilities for storing physical evidence taken at the scenes of
crimes. Crime laboratories, with their specialists, aid police by analyzing evidence collected
daring investigations. The science of forensic medicine has proved valuable in determining
causes of death and in identifying victims.

Other evidence present at a crime scene may include blood, hair, skin, or semen. Recent
developments in technology now allow scientists to examine the Deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA), or genetic material, of these substances to establish whether they belong to the
victim or to a suspected assailant. By means of a high-technology method known as the

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polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a laboratory can rapidly clone. or multiply, the DNA
from a tiny sample of any of these substances. This
process produces enough DNA to compare with a sample of DNA taken from a suspected
criminal. The use of DNA for such identification purposes is commonly referred to as DNA
fingerprinting.

Human bite marks can also serve as circumstantial evidence. Such bites may be found
upon the body of a homicide victim or within pieces of food or other objects, such as
chewing gum, found at the crime scene. A forensic scientist can fill the impressions caused
by these bites with liquid plastic. Upon hardening, the cast formed is an extremely accurate
replica of the assailant's teeth, which can be compared with a cast made from the teeth of
the suspect.

Fingerprinting
This methodology has proved an infallible means of personal identification since it was
developed for police use in the 1890s. Arthur Conan Doyle referred to fingerprinting in his
story "A Case of Identity" in 1891, and Marie Twain used the technique to differentiate
between twins in his novel 'The Tragedy of Pudd'nhead Wilson' (1894). Fingerprints are a
valid means of identification because the ridge arrangements on every finger of every
person are unique.

Fingerprints are taken by inking the ends of the fingers and thumbs and applying them to a
card marked to identify the separate fingers. Fingerprints are classified by general shapes
or contours; by relative size, which is determined by counting the ridges in loops and by
tracing the ridges in whorls; and by positions on the fingers of the patterns and types.

A specialized branch of the process is called latent fingerprinting-the preserving and

identifying of prints left by a criminal while committing a crime. Perspiration, skin oils, or
other substances leave latent fingerprints on the fingers. Latent prints are nearly invisible to
the naked eye and must be developed in a laboratory before they can be used. Powder is
first sprinkled on the print or applied with a soft brush. Sometimes such chemicals as
iodine, silver nitrate, or ninhydrin are used instead of powders. The prints may be
photographed or lifted off a surface with an adhesive tape. Even fragmentary prints are
sufficient to establish definite identification. Latent palm prints, footprints, and toe prints
have also been identified and admitted as evidence in criminal trials. Police laboratories
and the FBI have set up single-print classification systems to identify isolated prints.

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The modern interest in fingerprint identification dates from 1880, when letters on the
subject from Englishmen Henry Faulds and William J. Herschel were published in the
journal Nature. Working independently, the two men demonstrated the uniqueness and
permanence of individual fingerprints. Their thesis was soon verified by Sir Francis Galton,
whose work was used by Sir Edward R. Henry as the basis for a classification system. He
published his classification system in June 1900. Today a version of the Henry system is
most commonly used. Another classification system was devised by Juan Vucetich of
Buenos Aires, Argentina, and published in 1904.

The FBI pioneered the development of automated fingerprint files, but there was no
comprehensive computerized retrieval system until one was established "by the Japanese
National Police Agency in the early 1980s. The Japanese system has been used as a
model for computerized systems in several police agencies in the United States. The
California Bureau of Criminal Identification has an interactive system that links major police
departments.

DNA "fingerprinting"
The British geneticist Sir Alec Jeffreys announced a new detection and identification
method, in 1985. DNA is the genetic material found in all body cells. Except for identical
twins, the DNA code for each individual is as unique as fingerprints. Chemical examination
of blood, semen, and other body fluids at a crime scene can render positive identification
when compared with the DNA molecules of a suspect. The method has been used with
good results in rape cases. Evidence gathered from this technique is accepted in British
courts, but the procedure had not been uniformly adopted for use in American court
systems.

Australian forensic scientists, who reported that humans leave traces of their DNA on
everything they touch, announced another possible method of using DNA for the purpose
of identification in 1997. While the scientists were unclear as to the exact source of this
"naked" DNA, or DNA that exists outside of cells, they suggested that DNA might have
escaped from dying cells and remained on the surface of the skin. The researchers also
found that people can pick up other people's DNA on their hands, which raises the
possibility that DNA found at a crime scene might not belong to the suspect in question.

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The Crime Laboratory

This may be specialized by the type of evidence that they analyze, or it may be general
laboratory that is prepared to handle all types of evidence. The personnel in the
laboratories are all trained specialists.

The specialities in forensics or the types of evidence gathered for laboratory analysis
include:

• Blood and other body fluids

• Canine forensics
• Computer forensics
• Criminalistics
• Fibers
• Fingerprints
• Footprints (with or without shoes)
• Forensic accounting
• Forensic anthropology
• Forensic engineering
• Forensic entomology
• Forensic evidence
• Forensic genetics
• Forensic odontology
• Forensic palaeography - related to diplomatics
• Forensic palynology
• Forensic pathology
• Forensic psychiatry
• Forensic toxicology
• Forensic genetics
• Forensic odontology
• Forensic palaeography - related to diplomatics
• Forensic palynology
• Forensic pathology
• Forensic psychiatry
• Forensic toxicology
• Hair,

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• Handwriting,
• Inks,
• Markings on bullets,
• Narcotics, and poisons
• Paint,
• Questioned document examination
• Serology
• Soils,
• Textile forensics
• Tire tracks,
• .Tool marks,
• Typewriting etc...

Some kinds of evidence can be traced to an individual source, while others can only be
typed or classified.

Crime laboratories usually contain a variety of photographic equipment as well as scientific

instruments. Some of the photography is quite ordinary-photographs of the scene of an
automobile accident or of a crime site. More complex tasks require the use of ultraviolet or
infrared photography to detect stains, alterations of documents, or invisible writing.
Photomicrography is used to examine bullets. Optical equipment in laboratories includes a
complete range of magnifying glasses and microscopes.

The sound spectrograph is used for voice identification. This machine represents on a
graph the time, frequency, and intensity of speech sound waves. Its accuracy in positive
identification remains in doubt when compared to fingerprints, but voiceprints have been
admitted as evidence in court.

Forensic Science and the Legal System

District attorneys routinely call upon Medical examiners or Criminalists to give expert
testimony in a trial, especially concerning the findings of an autopsy and the results of
laboratory tests. Expert testimony is that given by a specialist who has been recognized by
the court as having expert knowledge about evidence in the case. Expert Testimony can be
Scientifically based e.g., DNA analysis, Drugs and toxicology, Blood alcohol, or Expert
Opinion-based, e.g., Fingerprints, Documents. The former is governed by scientific
methods, instrumentations and the later is primarily based on extended training and very

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long practical experience. Such testimony (ies) is/are governed by different rules than the
testimony of ordinary witnesses in a trial. Ordinary testimony is restricted to statements
concerning what the witness actually saw or heard. An ordinary witness is prohibited from
stating opinions about the case and from quoting statements made by other people. In
contrast, an expert witness is allowed to express an opinion about the validity of the
evidence in a case and may quote the statements of other experts in support of an opinion.

What is- a forensic scientist?

A forensic scientist examines physical evidence and then testifies about the results of
their examination in court. They are in fact defined by the expectation that they may give
expert testimony about their examinations and further provide interpretations or opinions
regarding the results. As explained in Thornton (1997):

"Forensic" comes to us from the Latin forensus, meaning "of the forum." In Ancient
Rome, the forum was where governmental debates were held, but it was also where
trials were held. It was the courthouse. So forensic science has come to mean the
application of the natural and physical sciences to the resolution of conflicts within a
legal setting....

The single feature that distinguishes forensic scientists from any other scientist is
the certain expectation that they will appear in court and testify to their findings and
offer an opinion as to the significance of those findings. The forensic scientist will
testify not only to what things are, but to what things mean. Forensic science is
science exercised on behalf of the law in the just resolution of conflict. "

True forensic scientists are not policemen, nor are they partial about the outcome of their
examinations. They are objective investigators of fact. Subsequently, a forensic scientist
may work in a state run crime lab, but many work in private practice. "

There are different kinds of physical evidence, and. subsequently there are different kinds
of forensic scientists, all variously educated and trained.

The Austrian Jurist Dr. Hans Gross (born Johann Baptist Gustav Gross, 1847-1915) was
one of the earliest forensic scientists of modern record. In his groundbreaking text, System
Der Kriminalistik (aka Criminal Investigation) published in 1893, he is widely credited with
coining the term "Criminalistics". Dr. Gross is also widely regarded as the grandfather of

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modem criminalistics. A criminalist, by his usage, would have been one who studies crime,
criminals, and the scientific methods of their identification, apprehension, and prosecution?

In modem use, the scope of the term criminalist has been greatly narrowed. It now refers
only a particular kind of forensic scientist who, according to the American Board of
Criminalists (ABC), specializes in one or more of the following areas:

• Forensic Biology (serology and/or DNA)

• Drug Analysis
• Fire Debris Analysis
• Trace Evidence (hairs, fibers, paints, & polymers)

A criminalist major may not be board certified by the ABC. They may also be trained in
crime reconstruction related to their areas of specialized knowledge, though this is not
always the case. Some may visit crime scenes on a regular basis, and some may never
leave their lab station. Most modern Criminalists will have a four-year degree of some kind,
likely in a hard science like chemistry or biology. However, there are plenty of exceptions.
Every lab and agency has their own unique policies and procedures about such things.

Forensic generalists are a particular kind of forensic scientist who is broadly trained in a
variety of forensic specialties. They are big picture people who can help reconstruct a crime
from work performed with the assistance of other forensic scientists, and then direct
investigators to forensic specialists as needed. They can also make for good crime lab
administrators or directors. According to De Forest, Gaensslen, & Lee (1983):

The depth and complexity of criminalistics require the need for specialists. There can be
serious problems, however, with overspecialization. Persons who have a working
knowledge of a broad range of criminalistics problems and techniques are also necessary.
These people are called generalists. The value of generalists lies in their ability to look at all
of the aspects of a complex case and decide what needs to be
done, which specialists should be involved, and in which order to carry out the required
examinations.

The generalist typically has broad education and training in the major forensic sciences,
and will often have a master's or doctorate level education.

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In some places a related profession is that of evidence technician. An evidence technician

(aka crime scene technician) is charged with the recognition, documentation, collection,
and preservation physical evidence. Sometimes, they even have training, though this is not
necessarily the case. A full time evidence technician is typically not a forensic scientist, and
is not necessarily qualified to examine forensic evidence and interpret its meaning.
Evidence technicians may be attached to the police department, the crime lab, or the
medical examiners office. They are not necessarily sworn police officers, though they can
be. It is common for technicians not to have attended a four-year degree program at a
college or university. Some have two-year associates degrees, and still others have only on
the job training with a high-school diploma or GED. In many jurisdictions, police officers
must do this work themselves with little or no forensic training, for lack of specialized
assistance.

Serious candidates for Criminalistics or as Forensic Scientists should pursue a real interest
in forensic sciences, or in any discipline of the natural sciences beyond the headlines and
the hype.

Aren’t Forensics and Criminology the Same?

Forensics and criminology are both concerned with crime and law enforcement, yet they
represent two very different aspects of criminal investigation:

Forensics involves the use of scientific knowledge (in fields such as biology, chemistry,
dentistry, entomology, medicine, pathology, psychology, and so on) in preparing or
presenting evidence for legal purposes. In fact, any scientific test can be called “forensic” if
it is used as evidence in a court of law.

Criminology is a multidisciplinary approach to the study of legal processes and latitudes

toward crime and crime prevention. It involves the critical examination of theories used to
explain crime, the operation of the criminal justice system, and the ways in which various
latitudes toward crime are developed.

Thus, forensics and criminology differ in both their scope and their main functions:

In scope: forensic science is chiefly microscopic, concerned with the collection of evidence
pertaining to a single crime or criminal; criminology, on the other hand, is macroscopic,
exploring criminality in general from a broad range of social perspectives

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In function: forensic science is used primarily in criminal investigations and legal

proceedings; criminology is used chiefly in research and policy-making

Is There a Typical Career Path for Forensic Scientists to Follow?

No mater how far-fetched it may seem, any science can be potentially useful for forensic
investigations. For example, forensic entomology involves using knowledge of the eating
habits of insects and other similar organisms to determine how long human remains have
been undetected or whether a corpse has been moved after death. In principle, a science
background of any kind can be used as a pathway into a career in forensics science is
potentially useful for forensic investigations, the investigators themselves can be expected
to have specialized knowledge, such as knowing how to prepare evidence for use in court
or being trained in one of the three major divisions of forensic investigation:

Field science (crime scene investigation including collection of evidence, prevention of

contamination, securing a scene, initial interpretation and reconstruction of a crime)

Forensic medicine (forensic pathology, clinical medicine and psychiatry together with
allied fields such as forensic odontology, psychology or anthropology)

Laboratory Science (including specializations in biology, chemistry, toxicology, and

related fields of interest such as ballistics, documents, fingerprints, and physical marks or
impressions)

Despite the need for specialized training, a career in forensics will usually involve general
duties during the first few years of employment. For example, chemists may be required to
work in laboratories serving several operational divisions, while field investigators may be
expected to perform a range of other police duties before being assigned to crime scene
investigations.

Pursuing studies in Criminology opens up several employment options for students, some
of which are directly related to the crime and criminal justice sectors. Because many of the
skills (e.g. writing, analytical thinking, problem-solving) that Criminology students acquire
are transferable into various employment areas, they often gain employment in a range of
interesting areas. Graduates of these courses are employed in:

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• Police/Law Enforcement (State-level policing, Australian Federal Policing, Customs,

Immigration)
• Intelligence (Australian Crime Commission, Crime and Misconduct Commission)
• Corrections (Institutional corrections, community corrections, youth offender
specialist)
• The Justice Department and related government organizations

Criminologists with higher degrees may also be employed in:

• Research institutes such as the Criminology Research Council (the research branch
of the Australian Institute of Criminology)
• Courts (Court support officer, pre-trial services officer)
• Insurance (Fraud investigations, loss prevention)
• Field work (Child Safety Officer , Crime Prevention Officer)
• Education (teaching Criminology and Criminal Justice)
• Youth Work (victims services, youth services)
• Social Policy (Government Policy Advisor, Policy Researcher, Crime Prevention
Specialist)

There is also an increase in the number and size of private security firms and consultancies
with an interest in crime prevention, policy, and law reform and correction services,
providing an increasing source of jobs for graduates. In general, the demand for graduates
of courses in areas related to criminology and justice administration is growing as
institutions involved in law enforcement or criminal rehabilitation respond to the public
perception of increasing crime rates and to growing public expectations of accountability
and transparency from policy makers and officials.

What Attributes are utilized in Forensics and Criminology?

• Ability to work as part of a team
• Analytical and meticulous approach to problems
• Capacity for clear, logical, lateral thinking
• Interest in welfare and human behavior
• Initiative, motivation, and perseverance
• Personal integrity
• Strong powers of observation

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• Very good communication skills

• Unbiased approach to the examination of potential court evidence

The Role of Forensic Scientist in Detection of Crime:

Forensic Science can be defined as criminalistic science. In other words the scientific
studies or investigation of crime can be termed as Forensic Science. Along with the
development of science and technology the pattern of our society has also changed to
cope with the day to day development. According the criminal also often uses different
techniques for commission of various crimes within our society. So it has become a
problem for the law enforcing agencies to check the potentiality of crimes. For such
checking the need of forensic science becomes an essential prerequisite on the part of the
investigative agencies.

Considering the necessity and importance of forensic science, Govt. of India has
established a few forensic sciences in the different parts of our country. Similarly the Govt.
of various states has also established some forensic science laboratories. In the same
spirit, the Govt. of Assam has also established a forensic science laboratory at Guwahati.

Forensic Science Laboratory, Assam is a scientific institution under the Police Department
established in the year 1967. This laboratory has been established in the pattern of an ideal
forensic science laboratory, comprising eight important branches of science like Chemistry,
Physics, Biology,Serology, Ballastics, Toxicology, Question Documents and Photography.

The operation of forensic science is nothing but the application of techniques and methods
of basic science techniques and methods of basic science for various analysis of exhibits
associated with crimes. Since its beginning the scientists of the Forensic Science
Laboratory, Assam have been rendering invaluable service to the investigating agencies in
various ways for the cause of justice.

The scientific examination of a forensic scientist adjoins a missing link or strengthens a

weakly in the chain of investigation by furnishing an impartial and establish evidence,
thereby helping the court to come to a conclusion regarding the criminals and their
punishments. The field of study or examination of forensic scientist is very wide, diversible
and unpredictable. Generally the duties and responsibilities of forensic scientist are very
hazardous, onerous and risk bearing. Because they are to deal with the material exhibits

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pertaining to various nature of crimes such as murder, rape, blood, saliva, firearms,
ammunitions, explosives, and explosives substances, liquor, hashish, opium, adulterated
petrol, kerosene, diesel, etc. and other chemical vehicles involved in accidents, various
types of paints. Weapons used in burglary, arson, etc. different types of poisons and
poisons and poisonous substances, hair, skeletal remains and other plant or animal
remnants. Apart from these, forensic scientists are also to examine the forged signatures
and documents along with the photographic analysis of all materials exhibits. Any material
exhibit encountered in the way of investigation needs to be thoroughly examined to prove
or disprove its association a particular crime or criminal. Practically the forensic scientist
are to examine the material exhibits connected with various nature of crimes covering all
sections of I. P. C. and other relevant acts and laws of the land. Unlike other research and
analytical materials, forensic scientists are required to work with limited quantity and
amount of materials generally left behind or carried away by criminals.

For better collection of exhibits for various range of studies, forensic scientist are often
summoned to the scene of crime so as to assist the investigation agencies in determining
clue by means of scientific analysis.

So far I have discussed about the duties and roll of forensic scientists as a whole and in
general. Now We will discuss about the roll and nature of forensic scientist of different
branches in connection with their respective and specialised field of work.
Let us discuss first about the forensic physicist. Generally the material exhibits which are
obtained at the scene of crime are examined by the scientist of this division. Besides
comparative studies of various impressions and marks of tools etc. used in commission of
crime are also made in this division. Determination of forced engine or chassis marks or
restoration of an erased number upon metallic dates are also determined by the scientist of
this division. Analysis of paints and glass articles, stamp impressions of forest authorities
can be examined by these scientists to establish the facts for the determination of clues of
commission of crimes and criminals.

Secondly the scientist of forensic chemistry are also equally busy determining clues of
crime and detection of criminals by their various methods of analysis. For instance it is the
forensic chemist who has to determine purity of petrol, diesel and kerosene from samples.
They are also to determine the quality of liquor, opium, ganja and other chemicals, analysis
of explosive and the like. From their various methods of analysis, they have to establish
facts basing upon which the investigating officers can detect the clues of a particular crime.

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Forensic biologists have also been playing an important role in examining biological
exhibits oriented with crime. It is the biologist who has to analyze the biologist material
exhibit starting from a micro organism to a higher plant or an animal and also their parts
and products. From the skeletal remains, a biologist has to determine the sex, origin,
stature, and age of the deceased. He is to identify from the skull by using superimposition
method and thereby help the investigating authority in coming to a conclusion with the
regard to a particular crime. In case of a suspected death case, the biologist is to ascertain
the cause of death. He is also to analyze various poisonous plant material in cases where
plant poison is administered in the commission of crimes.

A Serologist plays equally important role in establishing facts in respect of various crimes.
In case of a murder where knife and other weapons are involved, it is the serologist who is
to ascertain whether the particular weapon is stained with human blood or not. Form the
findings of a serologist, the investigating officer can get a definite clue in a particular case,
depending on which the investigating officer can identify the culprit of the crime. It is the
serologist who has to establish the facts of disputed paternity cases by testing the blood
group in question.

Now, coming to the ballistics branch of forensic science it may be stated that a ballistic
expert is the only person who ascertains whether a particular fire arm was used or not while
committing a crime. He is also to examine the types of fire arms and ammunitions used in
commission of a crime. He has also to establish the facts with regard to firing ranges,
distance, direction, and angle of firing. After obtaining the opinion of a ballistic expert the
investigating officers can come to a reasonable conclusion in respect of a particular crime.
Apart from the different fire arms and ammunitions a ballistic expert is also to examine the
explosive substances which are nowadays very often used for committing heinous crimes.

A toxicologist determines the clues of the crime in which poison is used. In any such case,
be it accidental suicidal or intentional, a toxicologist analyses the viscera and other relevant
materials from which he establishes the quality and quantity of poison used. From the
report of a toxicologist, the investigating officer can usually obtain vital clues for detecting
the criminals involved. Similarly, the Court also gets positive evidence for coming to a
conclusion in any particular case.

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A document expert examines the various types of documents directly or indirectly involved
in a forgery case. The forgery cases may be of different types, but all these are examined
by the handwriting expert. From the report of a document examiner, the investigating
agency can definitely detect the real culprit of a particular case. Apart from the forged
signatures or documents, a handwriting expert often gives opinion on typed papers, time of
writing and the age of the ink used for writing a questionable document. So the opinion of a
handwriting expert also helps the court to a conclusion in meeting the ends of justice.

Like all others branches of science, personnel of the photography division also play a vital
role in determining clues of crimes and detecting the criminals. It is the forensic
photographer who establishes the connecting link of various clues of a crime by their
Photographic evidence. In case of a crime where the facts of erasure are involved, it is only
the photographic evidence by which the facts of erasement ca be established with any
degree of precision. Thereby they are also helping the courts to come to a definitive opinion
with regard to the case.

Role & Importance of Forensic Expert in Crime Scene Investigation-

Forensic Expert's training within the discipline of forensic science is multidisciplinary; he

is certified as an expert in forensic microscopy, chemistry, forensic geology, document
examination and forensic medicine etc. Expert has to work in both laboratory and field
settings as a crime scene investigator and analyst.

Experts use technology to gather

clues from a crime scene and convert
these into evidence admissible in a
court of law. For better collection of
exhibits for various ranges of studies,
forensic experts are often summoned to
the scene of crime so as to assist the
investigation agencies in determining
clue by means of scientific analysis.

Forensics experts are responsible for two main tasks: retrieving and processing
evidence found at crime scenes and acting as expert witnesses. The first of these tasks
involves studying physical evidence, analyzing clues recovered from crime scenes and

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drawing conclusions based on evidence and one's expertise. Work of forensic expert at
crime scene varies greatly according to area of expertise.

Forensic experts will be called in as an expert witness/scientist at a crime scene to

provide advice and interpretation of particular aspects of the evidence.

For example - a forensic scientist will examine and interpret blood patterns at a crime
scene to explain to the police investigators (and present in court) how the blood was
deposited and possible scenarios. They would also be able to assist in suggesting which
blood stains may be the victim's and what may have been deposited by the offender - and
thus which stains are the most useful for recovery and the order of subsequent analysis.
The CSI Officer would record photographically the blood patterns and swab the stains and
take into account the advice/recommendations of the scientist.

Forensic expert can be responsible for collecting the different evidences present at crime
scene such as fingerprints, body fluids, firearms etc. While at the scene, the investigators
collect evidence and analyze the scene. They collect evidence and carefully handle and
store it in the conditions needed to preserve its integrity. When examining scenes of the
crime, they may work side-by-side with other law enforcement professionals. Other areas of
expert witness where a forensic scientist would be required at a scene may be ballistics,
fire/arson investigation etc.
There are crossovers in these areas where there may be a CSI Officer who is also an
Arson investigator or ballistic expert.

Other areas where expert would be needed is computer forensics. There work at scene
would be collecting the evidence that having to do with the computers. This includes user
files, system files, deleted files as well as emails and other contact information stored on a
computer.

The forensic photographer is given the responsibility of taking comprehensive and clear
photographic evidence from a crime scene. They reconstruct the crime scene by taking
photos from every angle, using several different types of cameras and flash bulbs.

Analyzing evidence at a crime scene such as fingerprints, blood, semen and other
typical items, is the job of a forensic expert. Not only do the forensic experts analyze and
collect data from the scene of the crime, it is also their responsibility to reconstruct bones

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and crime scenes to create a better understanding of the events and chronology of the
crime scene. Forensic scientists are primarily concerned with examining contact trace
material associated with crimes. This follows the principle that 'every contact leaves a trace'
that will offer potential evidence to link a suspect with the scene of the crime, the victim or
the weapon.

It is crucial that the justice system be able to confirm the relevance of that evidence to
the suspect's innocence or guilt in the court of law. Forensic experts are an important factor
in determining innocence or guilt when presenting evidence and testifying to their
conclusions in court. The scientific examination of a forensic expert adjoins a missing link
or strengthens a weakly in the chain of investigation by furnishing an impartial and
establishes evidence, thereby helping the court to come to a conclusion regarding the
criminals and their punishments.

Chain of custody:-

The movement and location of physical evidence from the time it is obtained until the
time it is presented in court describes the chain of custody. Evidence found at the scene of
a crime must eventually be presented and questioned in the courtroom. For the evidence to
be of use in a trial, it must make the journey from crime scene to court in a validated and
secure manner so that all involved can be assured that it has not been contaminated and
that the evidence is relevant to the crime investigation. In order to insure validity,
investigators must follow a routine commonly known as the chain of custody. Evidence
usually goes from the crime scene to the forensic laboratory for examination where the
receiving officer signs the evidence package and dates it. Everyone who handles the
evidence does likewise until the analysis is complete. Then the evidence will be given to
the police for storage until its presentation in court. The receiving police officer will sign for
the evidence and it will be stored in a secure area to minimize the risk of interference or
loss.

Thus, Chain of custody refers to the chronological documentation or paper trail,

showing the seizure, custody, control, transfer, analysis, and disposition of evidence,
physical or electronic. Establishing chain of custody is especially important when the
evidence consists of fungible goods. In practice, this most often applies to illegal drugs
which have been seized by law enforcement personnel. These transactions, and every
succeeding transaction between the collection of the evidence and its appearance in court,

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should be completely documented chronologically in order to withstand legal challenges to

the authenticity of the evidence. Documentation should include the conditions under which
the evidence is gathered, the identity of all evidence handlers, duration of evidence
custody, security conditions while handling or storing the evidence, and the manner in
which evidence is transferred to subsequent custodians each time such a transfer occurs
along with the signature of person involved in each step.

One way in which the law tries to ensure the integrity of evidence is by requiring proof
of the chain of custody by the party who is seeking to introduce a particular piece of
evidence. Proof of a chain of custody is required when the evidence that is sought to be
introduced at trial is not unique or where the relevance of the evidence depends on its
analysis after seizure. A proper chain of custody requires three types of testimony: (1)
testimony that a piece of evidence is what it purports to be (for example, a litigant's blood
sample); (2) testimony of continuous possession by each individual who has had
possession of the evidence from the time it is seized until the time it is presented in court;
and (3) testimony by each person who has had possession that the particular piece of
evidence remained in substantially the same condition from the moment one person took
possession until the moment that person released the evidence into the custody of another
(for example, testimony that the evidence was stored in a secure location where no one but
the person in custody had access to it).

Chain of custody need not be demonstrated for every piece of tangible evidence that is
accepted into the trial court's record. Physical evidence that is readily identifiable by the
witness might not need to be supported by chain-of-custody proof. For example, no chain-
of-custody foundation is required for items that are imprinted with a serial number or
inscribed with initials by an officer who collected the evidence. Similarly, items that are
inherently distinctive or memorable (for example, a holdup note written in purple crayon)
might be sufficiently unique and identifiable that they establish the integrity of the evidence.

Proving chain of custody is necessary to "lay a foundation" for the evidence in

question, by showing the absence of alteration, substitution, or change of condition.
Specifically, foundation testimony for tangible evidence requires that exhibits be identified
as being in substantially the same condition as they were at the time the evidence was
seized, and that the exhibit has remained in that condition through an unbroken chain of
custody.

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Evidence Custodian:-

An identifiable person must always have the physical custody of a piece of evidence.
The evidence custodian must be a commissioned officer, warrant officer, or an enlisted
person appointed on competent orders. The person appointed as the custodian should be
available to receive and release evidence and attend to other matters as required. The
alternate custodian can be appointed. The alternate is to assist the custodian and is
available when the custodian is not. The custodian and alternate should not be absent at
the same time. The alternate does not make final disposition on any item of evidence.

An example of "chain of custody" would be the recovery of a bloody knife at a murder

scene:

Officer, who collects the knife and places it into a container, then gives it to forensics
technician. Forensics technician takes the knife to the lab and collects fingerprints and
other evidence from the knife. Then he gives the knife and all evidence gathered from the
knife to evidence clerk. He then stores the evidence until it is needed, documenting
everyone who has accessed the original evidence (the knife, and original copies of the
lifted fingerprints).

The chain of custody requires that from the moment the evidence is collected, every
transfer of evidence from person to person be documented and that it be provable that
nobody else could have accessed that evidence. It is best to keep the number of transfers
as low as possible.

In the courtroom, if the defendant questions the chain of custody of the evidence it can
be proven that the knife in the evidence room is the same knife found at the crime scene.
However, if there are discrepancies and it cannot be proven who had the knife at a
particular point in time, then the chain of custody is broken and the defendant can ask to
have the resulting evidence declared inadmissible.

Chain of custody is also used in most chemical sampling situations to maintain the
integrity of the sample by providing documentation of the control, transfer, and analysis of
samples. Chain of custody is especially important in environmental work where sampling
can identify the existence of contamination and can be used to identify the responsible
party.

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Precautions to be taken during Crime Scene Investigation:-

Crime scenes are not always dangerous for the CSI techs and investigators, but when
safety hazards exist, appropriate precautions must be taken. Also precautions are needed
to be taken to avoid destruction of evidences at crime scene.

The Locard’s Exchange Principle is the basis for linking physical evidence from or
to the victim, suspect, and crime scene. Anyone entering a crime scene can alter or change
the scene and its evidence, so access to the crime scene must be restricted and, if
possible, prevented except for essential crime scene personnel. Any entry and exit in the
crime scene will deposit and remove evidence (Locard`s Exchange Principle)

• Secure the scene with physical barriers (tape etc.)

1. Take control of scene on arrival.
2. Determine extent to which scene has thus far been protected.
3. Ensure adequate scene security.
• Seize all the entries and exits
• Assigned one officer to prevent entrance of unwanted personnel
• Check all disturbances to scene

The common precautions to be taken care of to avoid destruction of evidences are

as follows:

(i) Avoid contaminating the evidence area by not touching it with bare hands or sneezing
and coughing over the evidence.
(ii) Use clean latex gloves for collecting each item of evidence. Gloves should be change
between handling of different item of evidence.
(iii) Each item of evidence must be packed separately.
(iv) Blood stains, semen stains and other type of stains must be thoroughly air dried prior to
sealing and packing.
(v) Sample should be packed in paper envelope after drying and should be clearly marked
with case no, item no etc.
(vi) Collect materials in sterilized bags / containers.
(vii) Avoid cross-contaminations.

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(viii) Collect separate evidence samples separately with proper documentation / markings.
(ix) Precautions to avoid further degradation of samples.
(x) Temperature controlled packing of temperature sensitive samples.

For the safety of crime scene personnel following precautions can be taken.

Hands:-
Although protective gloves are necessary at any crime scene to avoid destruction of
evidence or introduction of contaminants, such as fingerprints of authorities, they are also
used to avoid safety hazards. gloves come on as soon as they enter a scene. Nitrile,
neoprene, latex and Polyvinyl chloride are just a few of the types of gloves used by CSI
techs, each of which can protect against different hazards. For example, nitrile gloves won't
degrade when exposed to gasoline, but latex gloves will.

Eyes:-
The eyes are arguably the most vulnerable part of the body when dealing with crime scene
safety. If chemicals are found in or near the crime scene, safety goggles or face shield
must be used at all times. This is also true if any machinery needs to take place, such as
when the jaws of life are used to remove a victim from a vehicle. Furthermore, eye safety is
important when dealing with any type of drug crime, but especially meth labs where
chemicals are used in abundance.

Feet:-
Foot protection is always important at crime scenes, if only to avoid creating foot prints that
might be misconstrued as either the victim's or the perpetrator's. However, it is also
important at treacherous crime scenes where the hazards of falling or tripping exist. Boots
with plenty of ankle support, protective shoe covers, and thick soles are necessary to keep
CSI techs and investigators safe.

As it is possible to get chemicals on the hands or in the eyes, it is also possible to

inhale hazardous chemicals at crime scenes. For this reason, CSI techs have to be extra
careful to protect their lungs, often using contamination suits. At a minimum, everyone
involved at a crime scene should be trained on the proper use of respirators and should be
examined every six months to ensure their lungs are healthy and active.

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Head:-
Lastly, head protection is an integral part of crime scene safety. When hazards exist that
put CSI techs' heads in danger, they must wear helmets that have been approved by the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration. This might include the possibility of falling
objects or the investigation of close, confined spaces.
All of these things are important to crime scene safety, but there are other elements as
well. For example, if a CSI tech isn't using the proper gloves and is stuck by a needle, the
possibility of blood contamination exists.
Thus, it is important for everyone involved in the investigation of a crime scene to
understand the potential hazards and take the appropriate precautions.

Flowchart of the criminal investigation and prosecution

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Notes:
1. Procedures will not always follow the flowchart (for example, the accused may be
identified but cannot be traced or arrested immediately) If this is the case, your Family
Liaison Officer/VIA Officer/Procurator Fiscal will explain this to you.
2. The terms used in the flowchart are explained more fully bellow.

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Explanation of Legal Terms

This section is intended to help you understand the terms that you might hear during the
investigation and any trial. It is listed alphabetically and shows common abbreviations you
may also hear.

Term (Abbreviation) Explanation

A break in court proceedings. This may be for lunch, overnight or to

Adjournment
a completely new date.

An advocate or senior Procurator Fiscal who works only for the

Advocate Depute (AD)
prosecution and prosecutes only in the High Court.

A challenge to the accused's The prosecution can only appeal

Appeal against a sentence if they regard it as unduly [Link] or
sentence or both.

This refers to the accused's appearances in the Sheriff Court to

answer preliminary charges (see below). These proceedings are
held in private and may involve 2 separate appearances - committal
Appearing on petition
for further examination, and full committal (both are explained
below). The accused will either be granted bail or remanded in
custody.

When the accused is released from custody until the trial, or after
Bail
conviction and before sentence.

The Judge's legal direction to a jury in matters of law and evidence

Charge (to the jury)
before they decide on their verdict.

Citation (to be a A letter which tells a witness to attend court to give evidence at a
witness) trial. It states the date, time and location the witness should attend.

Responsible for the management of the court and jurors. The clerk
Clerk of Court is the main point of contact with the Judge and ensures the correct
recording of all proceedings, including the verdict.

What happens at the end of the accused's first court appearance.

Committal for further
The accused will either be granted bail or remanded in custody until
examination (CFE)
being fully committed for trial (see below).

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Senior prosecutors (also called Advocates Depute) who decide

whether a criminal prosecution should take place, against whom and
Crown Counsel
on what charges. They receive reports from the Procurator Fiscal
about the evidence in the case.

The advocate that acts for either the prosecution or the accused (a
Counsel
different advocate will act for each).

Family Liaison Officer The police officer who acts as your contact with the police
(FLO) investigation and keeps you informed of developments.

The scientific evidence collected from a crime scene, the body of the
Forensic evidence
deceased and from other people e.g. fingerprints, DNA samples.

The second appearance by the accused in private in the Sheriff

Full committal (FC) Court. It is held to confirm that the accused should be brought to
trial. Bail can also be considered at this hearing.

The document that sets out the charge(s) in writing. It is given to the
Indictment
accused so that they know what they are accused of.

A Judge presides over cases heard in the High Court (in a Sheriff
Judge
Court, the Judge is called a Sheriff).

The most senior legal figures in Scotland - the Lord Advocate and
the Solicitor General. Any decision to accept a plea of guilty to a
Law Officers
reduced charge in a murder case can only be taken with their
approval.

When an offender is released from prison before the end of their

Licence sentence, the licence sets out the conditions of behaviour that they
must meet.

Scotland's senior prosecutor, with overall responsibility for the

Lord Advocate
prosecution of crime in Scotland.

An officer of the court who attends to the Judge and assists with
Macer
witnesses and productions in the trial.

When an offender is allowed to be released early from a prison

Parole sentence. This release will be subject to licence conditions (see
above).

A qualified doctor who examines the body of the deceased to find

Pathologist
out the cause of death.

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The first document which sets out the charge(s) against the
Petition
accused, and starts the formal court process.

The accused's answer to the charge(s). No trial is needed if they

Plea
plead guilty.

Any factors that the accused's counsel thinks should be taken into
Plea in mitigation
account before sentence is passed

Post mortem The medical examination of the body of the deceased.

Proceedings General term for the court process.

A qualified lawyer who is the public official in a local area

Procurator Fiscal (PF)
responsible for investigating sudden deaths and prosecuting crime.

Documents shown as evidence in court during a trial e.g. a forensic

Productions
report. Other items e.g. clothing are referred to as labels.

The process of getting information from witnesses to find out what

they know about a crime. This happens before a trial and usually
involves taking a written statement from you. It is done by the
Precognition prosecution (Procurator Fiscal or precognition officer) and may also
be done by the defence (solicitor or precognition agent). It is a vital
part of the prosecution process and you must give a precognition if
asked to do so.

A person working on behalf of a defence lawyer to find out from

Precognition agent witnesses what they know about the crime. They will usually take a
written statement and contact you at home to arrange this.

A person employed by the Procurator Fiscal to find out from

witnesses what they know about the crime. They will usually ask you
Precognition officer
to attend the Procurator Fiscal's office so they can take a written
statement from you.

Remand or remanded
When a person is kept in custody awaiting trial or before sentence.
in custody

Senior Investigating The senior police officer in charge of the police team investigating
Officer (SIO) the death.

Sheriff A Judge who works in the Sheriff Court in a local area.

The local area court where the first step of the court proceedings will
Sheriff Court
take place.

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Where a trial takes place in front of a Judge and jury. This is always
Solemn procedure
the case in a murder or culpable homicide trial.

Solicitor General Assists the Lord Advocate in heading the prosecution service.

Part of the Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service. Introduced

Victim Information and
to keep victims and their families advised about the progress of the
Advice (VIA) service or
case that affects them. The VIA Officer is the person assigned to
Officer
keep you informed of progress in your case

A document from a court allowing the police to take certain action

Warrant
e.g. to arrest someone or to search premises.

Acknowledgements

This information pack was written by the Victims of Crime branch in the Scottish
Executive's Victims & Witnesses Unit, with help and advice throughout from a working
group of representatives from support organisations and criminal justice agencies. This
group comprised representatives of the Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service
(including Victim Information and Advice), Families of Murdered Children (FOMC), People
Experiencing Trauma and Loss (PETAL), the Police, the Scottish Courts Service, Social
Work, and Victim Support Scotland (VSS). Individual families bereaved by murder also
commented on the pack.

Contributions were also made by the Health and Justice Departments of the Scottish
Executive, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, the General Record Office, and the
Scottish Prison Service.

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Microscopy -:

Microscopy is any technique for producing visible images of structures or details too small
to otherwise be seen by the human eye, using a microscope or other magnification tool.
The microscope was first applied to biological material in the early seventeenth century by
researchers such as Robert Hooke and Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, and remains a pivotal
tool in learning about biology today.

Microscopes:

Microscope Application Magnification Resolution

1 Compound In Exam. Of Micro-Evidences like: 1500X 100-200 nm.

Microscope Hair, Fiber, Blood, Semen, Saliva etc.

2 Comparison Comparison of Bullets, Cartridge 1500X 100-200 nm.

Microscope Cases, Hair, Fibres, Paint Chips,
Glass pieces, Tool marks etc.

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3 Stereoscopic It provide 3D Images of Evidences 50X 2500-3000

Microscope such as Fake Currency coins, Paint nm.
chips, Soil, Glass, Fingerprints,
Documents etc.

4 Polarizing Detection of birefringent and 430X 400-650 nm.

Microscope Refractive index of Soil, Glass, Hair,
Fibre and also polarizing material in
biological fluids.

5 Phase Detection of Bacterial components 1500X 100-200 nm

Contrast and other Biological impurities.
Microscope

6 Fluorescenc Identification of Botanical Evidences, 1500X 100-200 nm

e Microbial Ecology, Bacterial
Microscope Pathogens, and Hair dye
identification.

7 Scanning Examination of Micro organism, 10000- 1-2 nm

Electron Enzymatic chemistry over the injury, 100000X
Microscope Life cycles over the dead body, DNA
Analysis.

8 Transmissio Poison Identification and Epithelial 5000-100000X 1 nm

n Electron Cells in Various tissues, Exam. Of
Microscope M.O. enzymatic chemistry etc.

Optical microscope.

The optical microscope is a type of microscope which uses visible light and a system of
lenses to magnify images of small samples. Optical microscopes are the oldest and
simplest of the microscopes.

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Basic Principles of Light Microscopy:

• Light is produced from either an internal or external light source and passes through
the iris diaphragm, a hole of variable size which controls the amount of light
reaching the specimen.
• The light then passes through the condenser which focuses the light onto the
specimen.
• The slide is held on the stage at 90 degrees to the path of light which next travels
through the specimen.
• The objective lens magnifies the image of the specimen before the light travels
through the barrel of the microscope.
• The light finally passes through the eyepiece lens and into the viewer?s eye which
sends impulses to the brain which in turn interprets the image.

Basic Principles Electron Microscopy:

• A negatively charged platinum metal electrode (the cathode) emits a beam of high
velocity negatively charged electrons.
• The electromagnets on the side of the barrel focus the beam of electrons on the
specimen in the same way that the glass lenses on a light microscope focus the
beams of light.
• The specimen is introduced via an air lock so as to maintain the internal vacuum
conditions.
• The transmitted or reflected beam of electrons, depending on type of microscope
are focused by the electromagnets onto a fluorescent screen to produce the image
which is then viewed by the operator.

Simple microscope:
A simple microscope is a microscope that uses only one lens for magnification, and is the
original light microscope. Van Leeuwenhoek's microscopes consisted of a single, small,
convex lens mounted on a plate with a mechanism to hold the material to be examined (the
sample or specimen).
A magnifying glass, an ordinary double convex lens having a short focal length, is a simple
microscope. The reading lens and hand lens are instruments of this type. When an object is
placed nearer such a lens than its principal focus, i.e., within its focal length, an image is
produced that is erect and larger than the original object. The image is also virtual; i.e., it
cannot be projected on a screen as can a real image.

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How a microscope works:

The objective lens is, at its simplest, a very high powered magnifying glass i.e. a lens with a
very short focal length. This is brought very close to the specimen being examined so that
the light from the specimen comes to a focus about 160 mm inside the microscope tube.
This creates an enlarged image of the subject. This image is inverted and can be seen by
removing the eyepiece and placing a piece of tracing paper over the end of the tube. By
careful focusing a rather dim image of the specimen, much enlarged can be seen. It is this
real image that is viewed by the eyepiece lens that provides further enlargement.
In most microscopes, the eyepiece is a compound lens, which is made of two lenses one
near the front and one near the back of the eyepiece tube forming an air separated couplet.
In many
designs, the
virtual image
comes to a
focus between
the two lenses
of the eyepiece,
the first lens
bringing the real
image to a focus
and the second
lens enabling the eye to focus on the now virtual image.
In all microscopes the image is viewed with the eyes focused at infinity (mind that the
position of the eye in the above figure is determined by the eye's focus). Headaches and
tired eyes after using a microscope are usually signs that the eye is being forced to focus at
a close distance rather than at infinity.

Compound microscope:
The compound microscope uses many lenses in order to maximize magnification.
The compound microscope consists essentially of two or more double convex lenses fixed
in the two extremities of a hollow cylinder. The lower lens (nearest to the object) is called
the objective; the upper lens (nearest to the eye of the observer), the eyepiece. The
cylinder is mounted upright on a screw device, which permits it to be raised or lowered until
the object is in focus, i.e., until a clear image is formed. When an object is in focus, a real,

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inverted image is formed by the lower lens at a point inside the principal focus of the upper
lens. This image serves as an “object” for the upper lens which produces another image
larger still (but virtual) and visible to the eye of the observer.

Comparison Microscope:
A comparison microscope, sometimes known also as stereomicroscope or dissecting
microscope, is a device used to analyze side-by-side specimens. It consists of two
microscopes connected to an optical bridge, which results in a split view window. The
comparison microscope is used in forensic sciences to compare microscopic patterns and
identify or deny their common origin. The idea behind the comparison microscope is
simple. Two microscopes are placed next to each other and the optical paths of each
microscope are connected together by the optical bridge would help the forensic examiners
to compare two specimens simultaneously instead of depending their memory.

The history of comparison microscope dated back to the 1920s where forensic ballistics
was waiting for the inception. The controversial case of accused murderers and anarchists
Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti was such a beginning point. Comparison
microscope was used for ballistic identification evidence in 1921 to help secure convictions
of accused murderers Sacco and Vanzetti. In 1929, using a comparison microscope
adapted for the purpose by Calvin Goddard and his partner Phillip Gravelle used similar
techniques to absolve the Chicago Police Department of participation in the St. Valentine’s
Day Massacre.

The Phase Contrast Microscope:

The phase contrast microscope is widely used for examining such specimens as biological
tissues. It is a type of light microscopy that enhances contrasts of transparent and colorless
objects by influencing the optical path of light. The phase contrast microscope is able to
show components in a cell or bacteria, which would be very difficult to see in an ordinary
light microscope.
Phase contrast is preferable to bright field microscopy when high magnifications (400x,
1000x) are needed and the specimen is colorless or the details so fine that color does not
show up well.

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Stereoscopic Microscope:
A microscope having double eyepieces and objectives
and independent light paths, producing a three-
dimensional image.
the stereoscopic type sees the object from two slightly
different angles which provides the two images needed
for the stereoscopic vision. The stereoscopic
microscope gives a three-dimensional view of the
object, while the same object appears flat when
viewed through a compound microscope.

Polarizing Microscope:
The polarizing microscope is a much an optical measuring instrument as it is an instrument
for the detailed examination of specimens. In addition to standard microscope optics, there
is a polarizer in the condenser and another mounted in a slider in the tube above the
objective, both in rotatable, graduated, mounts. The specimen is illuminated with plane
polarized light, and its rotation of this light can be analyzed. The polarizing microscope is
particularly useful in the study of birefringent materials such as crystals and strained non-
crystalline substances. It is widely used for chemical microscopy and optical mineralogy.

Fluorescence Microscopy:
A fluorescence microscope is much the same as a conventional light microscope with
added features to enhance its capabilities.

• The conventional microscope uses visible light (400-700 nanometers) to

illuminate and produce a magnified image of a sample.
• A fluorescence microscope, on the other hand, uses a much higher intensity light
source which excites a fluorescent species in a sample of interest. This
fluorescent species in turn emits a lower energy light of a longer wavelength
that produces the magnified image instead of the original light source.

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These microscopes are often used for -

Imaging structural components of small specimens, such as cells
Conducting viability studies on cell populations (are they alive or dead?)
Imaging the genetic material within a cell (DNA and RNA)
Viewing specific cells within a larger population with techniques such as FISH

Working:
In most cases the sample of interest is labeled with a
fluorescent substance known as a fluorophore and then
illuminated through the lens with the higher energy source.
The illumination light is absorbed by the fluorophores (now
attached to the sample) and causes them to emit a longer
lower energy wavelength light. This fluorescent light can be
separated from the surrounding radiation with filters
designed for that specific wavelength allowing the viewer to
see only that which is fluorescing.

The basic task of the fluorescence microscope is to let excitation light radiate the specimen
and then sort out the much weaker emitted light from the image. First, the microscope has
a filter that only lets through radiation with the specific wavelength that matches your
fluorescing material. The radiation collides with the atoms in your specimen and electrons
are excited to a higher energy level. When they relax to a lower level, they emit light. To
become detectable (visible to the human eye) the fluorescence emitted from the sample is
separated from the much brighter excitation light in a second filter. This works because the
emitted light is of lower energy and has a longer wavelength than the light that is used for
illumination.

Most of the fluorescence microscopes used in biology today are epi-fluorescence

microscopes, meaning that both the excitation and the observation of the fluorescence
occur above the sample. Most use a Xenon or Mercury arc-discharge lamp for the more
intense light source.

Infrared microscopy:
A microscope that is equipped with infrared transmitting optics and that measures the
infrared absorption of minute samples with the aid of photoelectric cells; images may be
observed with image converters or television.

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Principle:
A IR lamp emits light between 800 and 2000 nm. The beam
is focused on the bottom side of the semiconductor and the
reflected signal is detected by an IR camera. In order to
apply this method the back side of the electrical device has to
be polished, otherwise the IR light would be scattered.
Strengths:
1) Relatively cheap
2) Partially quantitative (strain fields)
3) Large and small areas can be investigated at medium resolution (ca. 1 µm).
Weaknesses:
1) Well polished surfaces on both sides required
2) Involved specimen preparation if decoration is used
3) Often not very specific as to the nature of defects
4) Only applicable to "medium" defect densities
5) Not overly sensitive
6) Interpretation uncertain if decoration techniques are used.

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) :

The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of
electron microscope capable of producing high-resolution
images of a sample surface. Due to the manner in which
the image is created, SEM images have a characteristic
three-dimensional appearance and are useful for judging
the surface structure of the sample. The SEM was
pioneered by Manfred von Ardenne in the 1930s. The
instrument was further developed by Charles Oatley and
first commercialized by Cambridge Instruments

Scanning Process:
In a typical SEM, electrons are thermionically emitted from a tungsten or lanthanum
hexaboride (LaB6) cathode and are accelerated towards an anode; alternatively, electrons
can be emitted via field emission (FE). Tungsten is used because it has the highest melting
point and lowest vapour pressure of all metals, thereby allowing it to be heated for electron
emission. The electron beam, which typically has an energy ranging from a few hundred eV

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to 100 keV, is focused by one or two condenser lenses into a beam with a very fine focal
spot sized 0.4 nm to 5 nm. The beam passes through pairs of scanning coils or pairs of
deflector plates in the electron optical column, typically in the objective lens, which deflect
the beam horizontally and vertically so that it scans in a raster fashion over a rectangular
area of the sample surface. When the primary electron beam interacts with the sample, the
electrons lose energy by repeated scattering and absorption within a teardrop-shaped
volume of the specimen known as the interaction volume, which extends from less than
100 nm to around 5 µm into the surface. The size of the interaction volume depends on the
electrons' landing energy, the atomic number of the specimen and the specimen's density.
The energy exchange between the electron beam and the sample results in the emission of
electrons and electromagnetic radiation, which can be detected to produce an image

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM):

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is an imaging
technique whereby a beam of electrons is transmitted
through a specimen, then an image is formed, magnified
and directed to appear either on a fluorescent screen or
layer of photographic film (see electron microscope), or to
be detected by a sensor such as a CCD camera. The first
practical transmission electron microscope was built by
Albert Prebus and James Hillier at the University of
Toronto in 1938 using concepts developed earlier by Max
Knoll and Ernst Ruska.

Working:
TEMs work by using a tungsten filament to produce an electron beam in a vacuum
chamber. The emitted electrons are accelerated through an electromagnetic field that also
narrowly focuses the beam. The beam is then passed through the sample material. The
specially prepared sample is a very thin (less than 100nm) slice of material. The electrons
that pass through the sample hit a phosphor screen, CCD or film and produce an image.
Where the sample has less density, more electrons get through and the image is brighter.
A darker image is produced in areas where the sample is more dense and therefore less
electrons pass through.

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Using microscope / Steps:

First, think about what you want to do with the microscope. What is the maximum
magnification you will need? Are you looking at a stained specimen? How much
contrast/resolution do you require? Next, start setting up for viewing.

Mount the specimen on the stage:

The cover slip must be up if there is one. High magnification objective lenses can't focus
through a thick glass slide; they must be brought close to the specimen, which is why
coverslips are so thin. The stage may be equipped with simple clips (less expensive
microscopes), or with some type of slide holder. The slide may require manual positioning,
or there may be a mechanical stage (preferred) that allows precise positioning without
touching the slide.

Optimize the lighting:

A light source should have a wide dynamic range, to provide high intensity illumination at
high magnifications, and lower intensities so that the user can view comfortably at low
magnifications. Better microscopes have a built-in illuminator, and the best microscopes
have controls over light intensity and shape of the light beam. If your microscope requires
an external light source, make sure that the light is aimed toward the middle of the
condenser. Adjust illumination so that the field is bright without hurting the eyes.

Adjust the condenser:

To adjust and align the microscope, start by reading the manual. If no manual is available,
try using these guidelines. If the condenser is focusable, position it with the lens as close to
the opening in the stage as you can get it. If the condenser has selectable options, set it to
bright field. Start with the aperture diaphragm stopped down (high contrast). You should
see the light that comes up through the specimen change brightness as you move the
aperture diaphragm lever.

Think about what you are looking for:

It is a lot harder to find something when you have no expectations as to its apprearance.
How big is it? Will it be moving? Is it pigmented or stained, and if so what is its color?
Where do you expect to find it on a slide? For example, students typically have a lot of
trouble finding stained bacteria because with the unaided eye and at low magnifications the

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stuff looks like dirt. It helps to know that as smears dry down they usually leave rings so
that the edge of a smear usually has the densest concentration of cells.

Focus, locate, and center the specimen:

Start with the lowest magnification objective lens, to home in on the specimen and/or the
part of the specimen you wish to examine. It is rather easy to find and focus on sections of
tissues, especially if they are fixed and stained, as with most prepared slides. However it
can be very difficult to locate living, minute specimens such as bacteria or unpigmented
protists. A suspension of yeast cells makes a good practice specimen for finding difficult
objects.
-Use dark field mode (if available) to find unstained specimens. If not, start with high
contrast (aperture diaphragm closed down).
-Start with the specimen out of focus so that the stage and objective must be
brought closer together. The first surface to come into focus as you bring stage and
objective together is the top of the cover slip. With smears, a cover slip is frequently not
used, so the first thing you see is the smear itself.
-If you are having trouble, focus on the edge of the cover slip or an air bubble, or
something that you can readily recognize. The top edge of the cover slip comes into focus
first, then the bottom, which should be in the same plane as your specimen.
-Once you have found the specimen, adjust contrast and intensity of illumination,
and move the slide around until you have a good area for viewing.

Adjust eyepiece separation, focus:

With a single ocular, there is nothing to do with the eyepiece except to keep it clean. With a
binocular microscope (preferred) you need to adjust the eyepiece separation just like you
do a pair of binoculars. Binocular vision is much more sensitive to light and detail than
monocular vision, so if you have a binocular microscope, take advantage of it.
One or both of the eyepieces may be a telescoping eyepiece, that is, you can focus it.
Since very few people have eyes that are perfectly matched, most of us need to focus one
eyepiece to match the other image. Look with the appropriate eye into the fixed eyepiece
and focus with the microscope focus knob. Next, look into the adjustable eyepiece (with the
other eye of course), and adjust the eyepiece, not the microscope.

Select an objective lens for viewing:

The lowest power lens is usually 3.5 or 4x, and is used primarily for initially finding
specimens. We sometimes call it the scanning lens for that reason. The most frequently

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used objective lens is the 10x lens, which gives a final magnification of 100x with a 10x
ocular lens. For very small protists and for details in prepared slides such as cell organelles
or mitotic figures, you will need a higher magnification. Typical high magnification lenses
are 40x and 97x or 100x. The latter two magnifications are used exclusively with oil in order
to improve resolution.

Magnification and Resolution:

Magnification is how much bigger a sample appears to be under the microscope than it is
in real life. Overall magnification = Objective lens x Eyepiece lens

Resolution is the ability to distinguish between two points on an image.

• The resolution of an image is limited by the wavelength of radiation used to view the
sample.
• This is because when objects in the specimen are much smaller than the
wavelength of the radiation being used, they do not interrupt the waves, and so are
not detected.
• The wavelength of light (min. ? violet is 400nm) is much larger than the wavelength
of electrons, so the resolution of the light microscope is a lot lower.
• The actual resolution is often half the size of the wavelength of radiation used.
Thus, for the light microscope the maximum resolution is about 200nm.
• In other words, if two objects in the specimen are closer than 200nm in real life,
then they will only show up as one object on the image.
• Using a microscope with a more powerful magnification will not increase this
resolution any further. It will increase the size of the image, but objects closer than
200nm will still only be seen as one point.

Cases Solved: (Case Study)

1) Case of Thallium poisoning that was solved with electron microscopy. "The poisonous
salt was expertly introduced into a soft drink bottle which was recapped," Dr. Rao explains,
"Visual examination did not reveal any marks of tampering on the bottle or the cap.
Micrographs obtained with a scanning electron microscope, however, clearly showed
microscopic tell tale marks. Based on these, the defendant was convicted."

2) In yet another case, a murder victim was dragged along a carpet. In the process, some
carpet fibres became lodged on the victim's body and clothing. Electron microscopy helped

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establish the unique identity of the carpet fibres and matched them to the scene of crime.
Further analysis of the fibres with infrared spectrometry and thin-layer chromatography
greatly increased the chances of conviction. Similarly, microscopic diatoms found in a
murder victim's lungs and shoes were traced to a particular lake in Switzerland, helping the
police to nab a peadophile serial killer thanks to electron microscopy.

Source: [Link], [Link], [Link], [Link],

[Link], [Link] AND B. Herman. Fluorescence Microscopy,
2nd ed., BIOS Scientific, UK, 1998.

FORENSIC ENGINEERING

Forensic engineering is the investigation of materials, products, structures or components

that fail or do not operate/function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to
property. The consequences of failure are dealt with by the law of product liability. The
subject is applied most commonly in civil law cases, although may be of use in criminal law
cases. Generally the purpose of a forensic engineering investigation is to locate cause or
causes of failure with a view to improve performance or life of a component, or to assist a
court in determining the facts of an accident. It can also involve investigation of intellectual
property claims, especially patents.

Forensics engineering is essentially a failure analysis program for litigation support. The
goal of such a program is to positively identify the sequence of events leading to ultimate
failure.

After an accident, forensics engineers examine broken parts and bring together a list of
probable failure mechanisms to be investigated. Interviews are conducted to determine a
sequence of events. Drawings, specifications, and operational procedures are reviewed.
As-built dimensions and operating parameters are compared to design requirements.

The final step in forensics engineering is to use analytical and testing tools to confirm the
findings of fact.

The forensics engineer becomes an expert witness in support of the findings. He is also
responsible for reviewing the technical aspects of the opposition's case.

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Forensic Methods:
Introduction Resource-
So, how do forensic engineers approach failure problems? What methods are used, and
what are the objectives?

Macroscopic inspection-
Photography at the failure site is often invaluable immediately after a failure, either because
the sample is too large to be easily removed, or because the extra evidence is crucial to the
investigation....

Microscopic examination-
Many interesting features can be found on failed samples by inspection with a hand
magnifier. The features can be photographed with close-up attachments for a single-lens-
reflex camera, such as extension...

Chemical analysis-
A common problem investigators face is determining the chemical constitution of the failed
sample. A product specification is often absent, so an analysis route must be used.
Whether there is a specification...

Mechanical testing-
Mechanical failure is a common failure mode for a wide variety of products. It therefore
makes sense to conduct mechanical tests on the product to indicate the weak points in its
design. It is important...

Engineering quality- Cause Analysis:

It is assumed you have some inkling of the way common machines operate. This is not
going to be true of all machines, even in the home. Microwave ovens, personal computers
and CD players come to mind.

With a fault on a domestic machine I expect you would look for the operating manual, which
gives basic guidance on common failure modes, and how to recognise their symptoms,
often in the form of a fault-finding guide. Typical fault-finding guides from car maintenance
manuals are tabulated and suggest possible causes for one specific symptom.

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For the cooling system part of the fault-finding guide shown in Table 1, five general
symptoms are listed, and possible causes listed under each heading. It is then for the
mechanic to investigate each possible fault mode systematically in turn to find the faulty
component. By eliminating parts that are functioning correctly, the faulty part can be
located. As internal-combustion engines work on the same general principles, the tabulated
data is generic to different makes of car. Such checklists are certainly a useful start to
troubleshooting, but must be used with common sense, so that unsuspected failure modes
are not discounted.

Applications:
Most manufacturing models will have a forensic component that monitors early failures to
improve quality or efficiencies. Insurance companies use forensic engineers to prove
liability or alternatively non liability. Most engineering disasters (structural failures such as
bridge and building collapses) are subject to forensic investigation by engineers
experienced in forensic methods of investigation. Rail crashes, aviation accidents and
some automobile accidents are investigated by forensic engineers particularly where
component failure is suspected. Furthermore, appliances, consumer products, medical
devices, structures, industrial machinery, and even simple hand tools such as hammers or
chisels can warrant investigations upon incidents causing injury or property damages. The
failure of medical devices is often safety-critical to the user, so reporting failures and
analyzing them is particularly important. The environment of the body is complex, and
implants must both survive this environment, and not leach potentially toxic impurities.
Problems have been reported with breast implants, heart valves, and catheters, for
example.

Static Load:
Any load, as on a structure, which does not change in magnitude or position with time.
A non-varying load; the basal pressure exerted by the weight of a mass at rest, such as the
load imposed on a drill bit by the weight of the drill-stem equipment or the pressure exerted
on the rocks around an underground opening by the weight of the superimposed rocks.
Also known as dead load

Dynamic Load:
A force exerted by a moving body on a resisting member, usually in a relatively short time
interval. Also known as energy load
Any load which is non-static, such as a wind load or a moving live load.

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The Collapse of Buildings:

Buildings, like all structures, are designed to support certain loads without deforming
excessively. The loads are the weights of people and objects, the weight of rain and snow
and the pressure of wind--called live loads--and the dead load of the building itself. With
buildings of a few floors, strength generally accompanies sufficient rigidity, and the design
is mainly that of a roof that will keep the weather out while spanning large open spaces.
With tall buildings of many floors, the roof is a minor matter, and the support of the weight
of the building itself is the main consideration. Like long bridges, tall buildings are subject to
catastrophic collapse.

The causes of building collapse can be classified under general headings to

facilitate analysis. These headings are:

1. Bad Design
2. Faulty Construction
3. Foundation Failure
4. Extraordinary Loads
5. Unexpected Failure Modes
6. Combination of Causes

The passage of time is one reason. Buildings also collapse due to weak foundations.
Earthquakes, hurricanes and other natural disasters can also damage the structure of the
buildings and cause it to collapse. Bombings or demolition of buildings are also other
reasons.

Bad design does not mean only errors of computation, but a failure to take into account the
loads the structure will be called upon to carry, erroneous theories, reliance on inaccurate
data, ignorance of the effects of repeated or impulsive stresses, and improper choice of
materials or misunderstanding of their properties. The engineer is responsible for these
failures, which are created at the drawing board.
Faulty construction has been the most important cause of structural failure. The engineer is
also at fault here, if inspection has been lax. This includes the use of salty sand to make
concrete, the substitution of inferior steel for that specified, bad riveting or even improper

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tightening torque of nuts, excessive use of the drift pin to make holes line up, bad welds,
and other practices well known to the construction worker.

Even an excellently designed and constructed structure will not stand on a bad foundation.
Although the structure will carry its loads, the earth beneath it may not. The Leaning Tower
of Pisa is a famous example of bad foundations, but there are many others. The old armory
in St. Paul, Minnesota, sank 20 feet or more into soft clay, but did not collapse. The
displacements due to bad foundations may alter the stress distribution significantly. This
was such a problem with railway bridges in America that statically-determinate trusses
were greatly preferred, since they were not subject to this danger.

Extraordinary loads are often natural, such as repeated heavy snowfalls, or the shaking of
an earthquake, or the winds of a hurricane. A building that is intended to stand for some
years should be able to meet these challenges. A flimsy flexible structure may avoid
destruction in an earthquake, while a solid masonry building would be destroyed.
Earthquakes may cause foundation problems when moist filled land liquefies.

Motor Vehicle Accident Investigation and Reconstruction:

Vehicular accident reconstructions are often conducted by specialized units in law

enforcement agencies or private consultants, to answer questions about automobile
accidents, such as who was driving, who was breaking the law, where were the victims
seated, were they using seat belts? Through accident reconstruction, rigorous analysis is
done, with expert witnesses that can present results at trial. Accident reconstructions are
done in cases involving fatalities, and often when personal injury is involved. They are often
used to assist the trier of fact to assess legal liability in civil lawsuits.

Factors looked at during accident reconstruction include steering angles, braking,

use of lights, turn signals, speed, acceleration, engine rpm, cruise control, and anti-lock
brakes. Witnesses are interviewed during accident reconstruction, and physical evidence
such as tire marks are examined. The length of a skid mark can often allow calculation of
the original speed of a vehicle for example. Vehicle speeds is frequently under-estimated
by a driver, so an independent estimate of speed is often essential in accidents. Inspection
of the road surface is also vital, especially when traction has been lost due to black ice,
diesel fuel contamination or obstacles such as debris.

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Results from accident reconstructions are also useful in developing

recommendations for making roads and highways safer, as well as improving safety
aspects of motor vehicle designs.

Forensic engineers are also often employed to conduct in depth collision analysis
and reconstruction to identify the collision causation and contributing factors in different
types of collisions, including the role of the driver(s), vehicle(s), roadway and the
environment. The laws of physics and engineering principles such as the conservation of
linear momentum, work-energy methods, and kinematics are the basis for these analyses
and may make use of software to calculate useful quantities.

Accident investigation and accident reconstruction are commonly heard terms, but what
exactly are they. The following discussion will attempt to shed some light on these
processes.

After a motor vehicle accident occurs, particularly one resulting in severe injuries or death,
it will usually be investigated and sometimes be reconstructed. There are two primary types
of people that perform these duties, the police and independent investigators.

The police will investigate an accident with the intention of determining if any criminal action
took place in the accident. Some of the things the police look for are speeding, hours-of-
service violations, mechanical violations, alcohol use, drug use, etc. For example, if a truck
driver is exceeding his hours of service and causes a serious accident because he fell
asleep at the wheel, he will likely be criminally charged. If that accident results in a fatality,
the charge will likely be homicide.

AUTO-CAD Computer Software:

AutoCAD is a CAD (Computer Aided Design) software application for 2D and 3D design
and drafting, developed and sold by Autodesk, Inc. Initially released in late 1982, AutoCAD
was one of the first CAD programs to run on personal computers, and notably the IBM PC.
Most CAD software at the time ran on graphics terminals connected to mainframe
computers or mini-computers.

In forensic Engineering Auto Cad is used to Drawing Review, Structural Failure Analysis,
and Construction Defect Analysis and to Repair Design and Analysis

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Group geometry defects categorized into three broad classes: improper structure, low
accuracy, and unrealistic features. Structural defects are violations of the rules of solid
modeling. One example is an edge that is associated with only one face. In a manifold solid
(i.e. one that can be physically manufactured), each edge must be associated with two, and
only two, faces.
CAD system operators generally discover structural errors because they cause CAD
applications to stop working properly. In most cases, a model will behave properly until a
certain operation is initiated, such as the addition or deletion of a feature. Then the user will
be unable to modify the model or a portion of it because the CAD program becomes
confused about the proper topology.

Expert Witness: (Forensic Engineering Expert)

The forensic engineer applies the knowledge and skills of engineering to questions decided
by courts of law. The word forensic comes from the same root as forum, refer-ring to
argumentation and debate. A forensic engineer may be a specialist in any branch of
engineering; he or she provides expertise in engineering specifically to lawyers and judges.
Although the man in the street knows the term forensic medicine (usually by association
with a television series whose central character is a coroner), the term forensic engineering
has not yet reached the dictionary.

The expert testimony goes into the record as evidence. Implicitly, however, the engineer’s
apparent knowledge and skill is evaluated by judge and jury. Indeed, when a lawyer first
consults an engineer, he considers how that engineer will ultimately, on the witness stand,
impress the court. Generally, the testimony will be the content of an engineering report,
prompted by questions from the lawyer. The opposing lawyer may cross-examine the
technical matters related. Eventually, all measurements, hypotheses, conclusions, and
interpretations that can be expected of the engineer are aired.

The forensic engineer is needed to translate between the legal issue and an engineering
statement of the problem. Weighty legal decisions may hang on technical matters involving
natural laws, calculable quantities, or adher engineer is assessed. The engineer may be
asked to per-form a preliminary examination of documents or study a location of an alleged
crime or other incident, and to pre-pare a preliminary report (oral or written). Such a report
is usually accompanied by phrases like, “Subject to more detailed data gathering ....” The
report provides an indication of the suitability of the engineering analysis to the case. If the

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engineering view is pertinent and the preliminary information is useful, the next step is for
the forensic engineer to prepare a comprehensive written report. This report is a document
that may be delivered to the opposing side in hope of effecting an out-of-court settlement. It
may be the basis for engineering testimony presented to the court. As a formal report, it
should crisply enunciate the relevant facts known, the assumptions made, the examinations
conducted, the calculations performed, the results obtained, and the conclusions drawn.
Although this report must withstand scrutiny by peer engineers, it should be written for the
lawyer, who is obviously not versed in engineering disciplines. The logic should be
unassailable, the conclusions easily understood. In addition to standing on its own as a
deliverable document, the comprehensive engineering report also pro-vides the basis for
engineering testimony. The engineer is called by the attorney as a witness in a courtroom
proceeding. Usually the engineer must formally qualify as an expert in the eyes of the court.
He can so qualify by relating, under oath, his education, training, and experience in the
engineering disciplines involved. The opposing attorney will attempt to refute the expert’s
qualifications, perhaps by pointing to some specialized aspect of the case at hand. (The
author was recently disclosing his expertise in VHF radio communication, but the opposing
attorney insisted that he had to qualify as an expert specifically in the use of battery-
operated, handheld transceivers as used by police departments in the service of the
railroad industry. The court was ultimately convinced, however, that the relevant expertise
was in the propagation of radio waves, which behave the same irrespective of the size,
power source, or ownership of the radio equipment.) This would-be expert must ex-press
his qualifications in a truthful manner but embracing the particulars of the case at hand. If
he formally qualifies as an expert, his testimony carries weight. Hence even the engineer’s
expertise in his particular branch of engineering will be subject to review before the court.

FIRE INVESTIGATION-

ARSON:
Arson was defined at common law as the malicious burning of the dwelling of
another, while house burning was burning your own house and endangering the property of
others. Arson is defined as the willful act of setting something on fire, usually a home or
another type of structure. People commit arson for a variety of reasons, and the crime is
severely punished all over the world because arson puts lives and property at risk. In some
parts of the world, if someone dies in an arson fire, it is considered to be murder, rather
than manslaughter or negligent homicide, because arson is deemed to be such a
reprehensible act.

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Chemistry of fire:
Fire Tetrahedron-
The combustion reaction can be characterized by four components: the fuel, the
oxidizing agent, heat, and an uninhibited chemical chain reaction. These four components
have been classically symbolized by a four-sided solid geometric form called a tetrahedron.
Fires can be prevented or suppressed by controlling or removing one or more of the sides
of the tetrahedron.

Fuel-
A fuel is any substance that can undergo combustion. The majorities of fuels
encountered are organic and contain carbon and combinations of hydrogen and oxygen in
varying ratios. In some cases, nitrogen will be present; examples include wood, plastics,
gasoline, alcohol, and natural gas. Inorganic fuels contain no carbon and include
combustible metals, such as magnesium or sodium. All matter can exist in one of three
phases: solid, liquid, or gas. The phase of a given material depends on the temperature
and pressure and can change as conditions vary. If cold enough, carbon dioxide, for
example, can exist as a solid (dry ice). The normal phase of a material is that which exists
at standard conditions of temperature [21°C (70°F)] and pressure [14.7 psi (101.6 kPa) or 1
atmosphere at sea level].

Combustion of a solid or liquid fuel takes place above the fuel surface in a region of
vapors created by heating the fuel surface. The heat can come from the ambient
conditions, from the presence of an ignition source, or from exposure to an existing fire.
The application of heat causes vapors or pyrolysis products to be released into the
atmosphere where they can burn if in the proper mixture with air and if a competent ignition
source is present.

Some solid materials can undergo a charring reaction where oxygen reacts directly
with solid material. Charring can be the initial or the final stage of burning. Sometimes
charring combustion breaks into flame; on other occasions charring continues through the
total course of events.

Gaseous fuels do not require vaporization or pyrolysis before combustion can

occur. Only the proper mixture with air and an ignition source are needed.

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The form of a solid or liquid fuel is an important factor in its ignition and burning rate.
For example, a fine wood dust ignites easier and burns faster than a block of wood. Some
flammable liquids, such as diesel oil, are difficult to ignite in a pool but can ignite readily
and burn rapidly when in the form of a fine spray or mist.

Oxidizing Agent-
In most fire situations, the oxidizing agent is the oxygen in the earth's atmosphere.
Fire can occur in the absence of atmospheric oxygen when fuels are mixed with chemical
oxidizers. Many chemical oxidizers contain readily released oxygen. Ammonium nitrate
fertilizer (NH4NO3), potassium nitrate (KNO3), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) are
examples.

Heat-
The heat component of the tetrahedron represents heat energy above the minimum
level necessary to release fuel vapors and cause ignition. Heat is commonly defined in
terms of intensity or heating rate (Btu/sec or kilowatts) or as the total heat energy received
over time (Btu or kilojoules). In a fire, heat produces fuel vapors, causes ignition, and
promotes fire growth and flame spread by maintaining a continuous cycle of fuel production
and ignition.

Uninhibited Chemical Chain Reaction-

Combustion is a complex set of chemical reactions those results in the rapid
oxidation of a fuel producing heat, light, and a variety of chemical by-products. Slow
oxidation, such as rust or the yellowing of newspaper, produces heat so slowly that
combustion does not occur. Self-sustained combustion occurs when sufficient excess heat
from the exothermic reaction radiates back to the fuel to produce vapors and cause ignition
in the absence of the original ignition source.

Heat Transfer-
The transfer of heat is a major factor in fires and has an effect on ignition, growth,
spread, decay (reduction in energy output), and extinction. Heat transfer is also responsible
for much of the physical evidence used by investigators in attempting to establish a fire's
origin and cause.

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1. Conduction-
Conduction is the form of heat transfer that takes place within solids when
one portion of an object is heated. Energy is transferred from the heated area to the
unheated area at a rate dependent on the difference in temperature and the
physical properties of the material. The properties are the thermal conductivity (k),
the density (p), and the heat capacity (c). The heat capacity (specific heat) of a
material is a measure of the amount of heat necessary to raise its temperature
(Btu/lb/degree of temperature rise).

2. Convection-
Convection is the transfer of heat energy by the movement of heated liquids
or gases from the source of heat to a cooler part of the environment.
Heat is transferred by convection to a solid when hot gases pass over cooler
surfaces. The rate of heat transfer to the solid is a function of the temperature
difference, the surface area exposed to the hot gas, and the velocity of the hot gas.
The higher the velocity of the gas, the greater the rate of convective transfer.

3. Radiation-
Radiation is the transfer of heat energy from a hot surface to a cooler
surface by electromagnetic waves without an intervening medium. For example, the
heat energy from the sun is radiated to earth through the vacuum of space. Radiant
energy can be transferred only by line-of-sight and will be reduced or blocked by
intervening materials. Intervening materials do not necessarily block all radiant heat.
For example, radiant heat is reduced on the order of 50 percent by some glazing
materials.

Ignition-
In order for most materials to be ignited they should be in a gaseous or vapor state.
A few materials may burn directly in a solid state or glowing form of combustion including
some forms of carbon and magnesium. These gases or vapors should then be present in
the atmosphere in sufficient quantity to form a flammable mixture. Liquids with flash points
below ambient temperatures do not require additional heat to produce a flammable mixture.
The fuel vapors produced should then be raised to their ignition temperature.

Evidence-

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Rules of evidence regulate the admissibility of proof at a trial. The purpose of rules
of evidence is to ensure that the proof offered is reliable. A goal of every fire investigation is
to produce reliable documents, samples, statements, information, data, and conclusions.

Types of Evidence-
There are basically three types of evidence, all of which in some manner relate to
fire investigations. They are demonstrative evidence, documentary evidence, and
testimonial evidence.

Evidence and Debris Removal:

Two issues that interrelate with the conducting of the origin and cause investigation
and are intimately tied to that process include the identification and retention of evidence
and the subsequent removal of debris from the investigation site.

Specifically outlining the debris removal process is done because this issue may
cause extreme problems in the overall investigation operation. Many times with multiple
party litigation there is considerable dialogue regarding the actual process of how the
debris is to be removed and disposed of. It is advantageous at the early stages to try and
agree, by a consensus of the parties, as to how the site will be excavated and the debris
removed. If the debris does not have environmental contamination, then it can be disposed
according to the jurisdiction where the fire occurred.

Examination of fire/arson cases:

Purpose:
Detection and identification of inflammable materials or their residues in the exhibits
of fire/arson cases.

Methods:
Depending upon the nature (shape, size and state) the appropriate portion of the
exhibits such as paper, hair, different types of clothes, wood etc. are made into small
pieces and are steam distilled1. Approximately 50 ml of distillate is collected. Extract the
distillate with approximately 30 ml of diethyl ether in 2-3 extractions. Combine the extracts
and concentrate by evaporating the extract at room temperature to a small volume (approx.
0.5-1 ml). The standard samples of petrol, kerosene and diesel (by adding about 0.5 ml of
each in distillation flask) and blank sample are also prepared simultaneously in the same
way. Alternatively, the direct extraction of the exhibits, standard and blank can also be

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carried out with diethyl ether. The concentrated extract is used for Gas Chromatographic
Analysis in both the cases.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR IDENTIFYING THE ORIGIN

Fires start small and tend to burn with lower intensity at the origin areas. The
majority of origins can be identified by areas of less damage.
Many fires start along roads and trails. The origin area will usually be at a point
close to the edge of the road or trail.
Fires burning in homogenous fuels, on relatively flat terrain, with little or no wind
influence will tend to burn in a roughly circular shape. The origin will be located more
toward the center of the fire when this occurs.
Fires burning with the wind or uphill will generally burn in a “V” shape while in the
early stages. The origin will usually be within or very near the apex of the “V.”
As the fire comes under the influence of wind, slope, or changes in the fuel type, it
will form transition zones between the backings (heel), the lateral (flanks), and the
advancing (head) areas that will surround the specific origin area. Look for differences in
the overall indicators to identify these areas as outlined below: Advancing Fire (Head) The
advancing areas of the fire will be generally characterized by indicators of increased
intensity and rate of spread, deeper charring, more white ash, more damage to foliage
crowns, foliage freezing, an angle of char that is steeper than the slope, and a lack of grass
stem indicators. Lateral Fire (Flanks) the areas of lateral fire spread will be characterized by
damage to combustible fuels that is generally at a 45- or 90-degree angle to the advancing
areas of the fire. Fire damage overall will generally be less noticeable when compared to
the advancing area. In grass fuels, a littering of unburned grass stems and/or seed heads
may outline the flanks.
Backing Fire (Heel) The backing areas of the fire will be characterized by indicators
of less intense fire that can include less charring, less white ash, minimal damage to foliage
crowns, die-out patterns, an angle of char that is parallel to the slope, and grass stems and
seed heads that are unburned and laying on the ground, pointing toward the origin.

EN ROUTE TO FIRE
Make note of the smoke column. Note color, size, direction of travel, and any
changes in its appearance.
When practical, note the license number, make, model, and color of any vehicles
that you pass en route to the scene. Note the time and direction of travel. Attempt to
determine the number of occupants and a description of them if possible.

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Note the condition (open, closed, locked, unlocked) of any gates accessing the fire
area.
Note any activities near the fire area that might be associated with the cause (road
construction, logging, blasting, etc.).

AT FIRE AREA
Note any campers in the area. Note any evidence of a large gathering of people,
such as: Large accumulations of trash. Fire circles, Areas of large amounts of soil
disturbance by motorcycles, dune buggies, and four-wheel drive vehicles.
Locate and protect the general area of origin. There may be more than one ignition
area. Secure this area with barrier tape or flagging and keep vehicles and suppression
activities away from this area.
Check for evidence of lightning, being careful not to disturb the general area of
origin. Look over the area for apparent human causes.
If evidence or any material foreign to area indicates fire is human-caused, a
qualified investigator should be obtained. Do not attempt to collect physical evidence or
disturb the general area or origin. The qualified investigator will conduct further
investigation. If fragile physical evidence is discovered, protect it from damage by flagging it
off and keeping suppression activities away from it.

CASE STUDY:
Earlier June month, Sunday, 2008 at 3:45 PM, Sheriff Deputies responded to an
Arson call at 500 Talbot, Canutillo, TX at the Gaslight Square mobile home parking lot.
Sheriff's Detectives and the El Paso Fire Department Fire Marshalls arrived to investigate
the suspicious fire. It was determined by investigators the fire was set intentionally and was
labeled as Arson. In total, 2 RV’s and 1 Pick-up truck were damaged and the total loss
amounts to more that $15,000 dollars.

The El Paso County Sheriff’s Office in coordination with Crime stoppers of El Paso
were set to release this case as the "Crime of the Week" for the weekend of June 27-29,
2008-asking the public for their assistance in providing additional information to help solve
this crime.

On 06-25-08, Sheriff’s Detectives received a tip leading investigators to a residence

at 850 Talbot Rd (Transmountain Village)-located next to Gas Light Square mobile home &
RV Park. After a brief investigation, Sheriff's Detectives determined that a 10 year-old

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resident of the park was in fact responsible for the unsolved Arson fire. On 06-27-08,
Sheriff's Detectives took the 10 year-old boy into custody for Arson. The 10 year-old
admitted to Sheriff's Detectives he used a propane torch to set ablaze the fire. The 10 year-
old was taken to the Texas Juvenile Probation Department for processing. He was released
to his mother a short-time later.

REFERENCES: NFPA 921Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations 1998 and DFS Forensic Chemistry Lab Manual

Chemistry of Fire:

FUEL

Fuel is the material or substance being oxidized or burned in the combustion process.
In scientific terms, the fuel in a combustion reaction is known as the “reducing agent”. Most
common fuels contain carbon along with combinations of hydrogen and oxygen. These
fuels can be further broken down into hydrocarbon-based fuels (such as gasoline, fuel oil,
and plastics) and cellulose-based materials (such as wood and paper).

Fuel may be found in any of three (3) states of matter:

• Solid
• Liquid
• Gas

The initiation of combustion requires the conversion of fuel into the gaseous state by
heating. Fuel gases are evolved from solid fuels by pyrolysis. This is defined as the
chemical decomposition of a substance through the action of heat. Fuel gases are evolved
from liquids by vaporization. This process is the same as boiling water or evaporation of a
pan of water in sunlight. In both cases, heat caused the liquid to vaporize. No heat input is
required with gaseous fuels and this places considerable restraints on the control and
extinguishment of gas fuel fires.

Solid Fuels

Solid fuels have definite shape and size. One primary consideration with solid fuels is the
surface area of the material in relation to its mass. The larger the surface area for a given

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mass, the more rapid the heating of the material and increase in the speed of
pyrolysis. The physical position of a solid fuel is also of great concern to firefighting
personnel. If the solid fuel is in a vertical position, fire spread will be more rapid than if it is
in a horizontal position. This is due to increased heat transfer through convection and
direct flame contact in addition to conduction and radiation.

PYROLYSIS
Temperature Reaction

3920F Production of water vapor, carbon dioxide, formic and acetic

(2000C) acids

3920-5360F Less water vapor - some carbon monoxide - still primarily an

(2000-2800C) endothermic reaction (absorbing heat)

5360-9320F Exothermic reaction (giving off heat) with flammable vapors

(2800-5000C) and particulates; some secondary reaction from charcoal formed

Over 9320F Residue primarily charcoal with notable catalytic action

(5000C)

Liquid Fuels

Liquid fuels have physical properties that increase the difficulty of extinguishment and
hazard to personnel. Liquids will assume the shape of their container. When a spill occurs,
the liquid will assume the shape of the ground (flat) and will flow and accumulate in low
areas.

The density of liquids in relation to water is known as specific gravity. Water is given a
value of one. Liquids with a specific gravity less than one are lighter than water, while
those with a specific gravity greater than one are heavier than water. It is interesting to
note that most flammable liquids have a specific gravity of less than one; therefore they
would float on top of water.

The solubility of a liquid fuel in water is an important factor. Hydrocarbon liquids as

a rule will not mix with water. Alcohol and polar solvents mix with water and if large
volumes of water are used, they may be diluted to the point where they will not
burn. Consideration must be given to which extinguishing agents are effective on
hydrocarbons (insoluble) and which affect porous solvents and alcohol (soluble).

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The volatility or ease with which the liquid gives off vapor influences fire control objectives.
The density of gas or vapor in relation to air is of concern to volatile liquids and with gas
fuels.

Gas Fuels

Gases tend to assume the shape of their container but have no specific volume. If
the vapor density of a gas is such that it is less dense than air (air is given a value of one),
it will rise and tend to dissipate. If a gas or vapor is heavier than air, it will tend to hug the
ground and travel as directed by terrain and wind.
An easy way to remember those gases that are lighter than air is the acronym “HA HA
MICEN”, where:
H = Hydrogen
A = Anhydrous Ammonia
H = Helium
A = Acetylene
M = Methane
I = Illuminating Gas
C = Carbon Monoxide
E = Ethylene
N = Nitrogen

This is a significant property for evaluating exposures and where hazmat gas and vapor will
travel.

The mixture of the fuel vapor and air must be within the flammable range. The upper and
lower limits of concentration of vapor in air will allow flame propagation when contacted by
a source of ignition.

The flammable range varies with the fuel and with the ambient temperature. Usually the
flammable range is given for temperatures of 700F (210C).

When the proper fuel vapor/air mixture has been achieved, it must be raised to its ignition
temperature.

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HEAT

Heat is a form of energy that may be described as a condition of matter in motion caused
by the movement of molecules. All matter contains some heat regardless of how low the
temperature is because molecules are constantly moving all the time. When a body of
matter is heated, the speed of the molecules increases, thus the temperature
increases. Anything that sets the molecules of a material in motion produces heat in that
material. There are four (4) general categories of heat energy and they include:

• Chemical Heat Energy

• Electrical Heat Energy
• Mechanical Heat Energy
• Nuclear Heat Energy

Fire Formula
CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + H2O
1 : 2 : 1 : 2

Flame Chemistry-
Within a flame there are three very easily distinguished zones. The innermost zone
is non-luminous. It is a gas/air mixture that is at a fairly low temperature in comparison to
the other parts of the flame.
The second cone is a luminous one. This is where hydrogen and carbon monoxide
are made through decomposition. Then they begin to react with oxygen producing water
and carbon dioxide. The heat in this part of the flame can separate the gases and produce
free particles of carbon. These are eventually [Link] is actually in the third, invisible
cone that soot is picked up. Carbon monoxide and hydrogen are finally consumed here.
So if you put a cold object in this part of the flame the temperature is lowered below the
point of combustion. This is the reason that something the cold object will pick up soot,
which is made up of carbon particles.

PHASES OF FIRE

The burning process occurs in clearly defined stages. By recognizing the different phases
(or stages), a fire fighter can better understand the process of burning and fighting the fire
at different levels and with different tactics and tools. Each phase (or stage) is
characterized by differences in room temperature and atmospheric composition.

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A firefighter may be confronted by one or all of the following three phases (or
stages) of fire at any time:

Incipient Phase (Growth Stage)

In the first phase, the oxygen content in the air has not been significantly reduced and the
fire is producing water vapor, carbon dioxide, perhaps a small quantity of sulfur dioxide,
carbon monoxide and other gases. Some heat is being generated, and the amount will
increase with the progress of the fire. The fire may be producing a flame temperature well
above 1,0000F (5370C), yet the temperature in the room at this stage may be only slightly
increased.

Free-Burning Phase (Fully Developed Stage)

The second phase of burning encompasses all of the free-burning activities of the
fire. During this phase, oxygen-rich air is drawn into the flame as convection (the rise of
heated gases) carries the heat to the upper most regions of the confined area. The heated
gases spread out laterally from the top downward, forcing the cooler air to seek lower
levels, and eventually igniting all the combustible material in the upper levels of the
room. This heated air is one of the reasons that firefighters are taught to keep low and use
protective breathing equipment. One breath of this super-heated air can sear the lungs. At
this point, the temperature in the upper regions can exceed 1,3000F (7000C). As the fire
progresses through the latter stages of this phase, it continues to consume the free oxygen
until it reaches the point where there is insufficient oxygen to react with the fuel. The fire is
then reduced to the smoldering phase and needs only a supply of oxygen to burn rapidly or
explode.

Smoldering Phase (Decay Stage)

In the third phase, flame may cease to exist if the area of confinement is sufficiently
airtight. In this instance, burning is reduced to glowing embers. The room becomes
completely filled with dense smoke and gases to the extent that it is forced from all cracks
under pressure. The fire will continue to smolder, and the room will completely fill with
dense smoke and gases of combustion at a temperature of well over 1,0000F (5370C). The
intense heat will have vaporized the lighter fuel fractions such as hydrogen and methane

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from the combustible material in the room. These fuel gases will be added to those
produced by the fire and will further increase the hazard to the firefighter and create the
possibility of a backdraft.

TIME TEMPERATURE CURVE

The demarcations between the three phases can be identified by a “time temperature
curve”. During the incipient (or growth) phase of a fire, shown below as the upward curve,
the time can vary depending on the type of fuel, the size of the room, and the amount of
oxygen supplying the fire. Flashover occurs at the end of the incipient (or growth) phase
and start of the free burning (or fully developed) stage. Backdraft can occur in the
smoldering (or decay) phase.

FLASHOVER

Flashover occurs when a room or other area becomes heated to the point where flames
flash over the entire surface or area. Originally, it was believed that flashover was caused
by combustible gases released during the early stages of fire. It was thought that these
gases collected at the ceiling level and mixed with air until they reached their flammable
range, then suddenly ignited causing flashover. It is now believed that while this may occur,
it precedes flashover. The cause of flashover is not attributed to the excessive build-up of
heat from the fire itself. As the fire continues to burn, all the contents of the fire area are
gradually heated to their ignition temperatures, through “thermal radiation feedback”. When
they reach this point, simultaneous ignition occurs and the area becomes fully involved in
fire.

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BACKDRAFT

Firefighters responding to a confined fire that is late in the free-burning phase or in the
smoldering phase risk causing a backdraft or smoke explosion if the science of fire is not
considered in opening the structure.

In the smoldering phase of a fire, burning is incomplete because not enough oxygen is
available to sustain the fire. However, the heat from the free-burning phase remains, and
the unburned carbon particles and other flammable products of combustion are just waiting
to burst into rapid, almost instantaneous combustion when more oxygen is
supplied. Proper ventilation releases smoke and the hot unburned gases from the upper
areas of the room or structure. Improper ventilation at this time supplies the dangerous
missing link -- oxygen. As soon as the needed oxygen rises in, the stalled combustion
resumes, and it can be devastating in its speed, truly qualifying as an explosion.

Combustion is related to oxidation, and oxidation is a chemical reaction in which oxygen

combines with other elements. Carbon is a naturally abundant element present in wood,
among other things. When wood burns, carbon combines with oxygen to form carbon
dioxide, or carbon monoxide, depending on the availability of oxygen. When oxygen is no
longer available, free carbon is released in the smoke. A warning sign of possible back
draft is dense, black (carbon-filled) smoke.

The following characteristics may indicate a back draft or smoke explosion condition:

1. Smoke under pressure

2. Black smoke becoming dense gray yellow
3. Confinement and excessive heat
4. Little or no visible flame
5. Smoke leaves the building in puffs or at intervals
6. Smoke-stained windows
7. Muffled sounds
8. Sudden rapid movement of air inward when opening is made
This type of condition can be made less dangerous by proper ventilation. If
the building is opened at the highest point involved, the heated gases and
smoke will be released, reducing the possibility of an explosion.

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HEAT TRANSFER-

Heat can travel throughout a burning building by one or more of three methods,
commonly referred to as conduction, convection and radiation. Since the
existence of heat within a substance is caused by molecular action, the greater the
molecular activity, the more intense the heat. A number of natural laws of physics
are involved in the transmission of heat. One is called the Law of Heat Flow. It
specifies that heat tends to flow from a hot substance to a cold substance. The
colder of two bodies in contact will absorb heat until both objects are the same
temperature.

Conduction

Heat may be conducted from one body to another by direct contact of the two bodies or by
an intervening heat-conducting medium. The amount of heat that will be transferred and its
rate of travel depends upon the conductivity of the material through which the heat is
passing. Not all materials have the same heat conductivity. Aluminum, copper and iron
are good conductors. Fibrous materials, such as felt, cloth and paper are poor conductors.
Liquids and gases are poor conductors of heat because of the movement of their
molecules. Air is a relatively poor conductor. Certain solid materials when
shredded into fibers and packed into batts, make good insulation because the
material itself is a poor conductor and there are air pockets within the
batting. Double building walls that contain an air space provide additional
insulation.

Convection

Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of air or liquid. When water is heated in
a glass container, the movement within the vessel can be observed through the glass. If
some sawdust is added to the water, the movement is more apparent. As the water is
heated, it expands and grows lighter, hence, the upward movement. In the same manner,
air becomes heated near a steam radiator by conduction. It expands, becomes lighter and
moves upward. As the heated air moves upward, cooler air takes its place at the lower
levels. When liquids and gases are heated, they begin to move within themselves. This
movement is different from the molecular motion discussed in conduction of heat and is
knows as heat transfer by convection.

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Heated air in a building will expand and rise. For this reason, fire spread by convection is
mostly in an upward direction, although air currents can carry heat in any
direction. Convected currents are generally the cause of heat movement from floor to floor,
from room to room and from area to area. The spread of fire through corridors, up
stairwells and elevator shafts, between walls and through attics is mostly caused by the
convection of heat currents and has more influence upon the positions for fire attack and
ventilation than either radiation or conduction.
Another form of heat transfer by convection is direct flame contact. When a substance is
heated to the point where flammable vapors are given off, these vapors may be ignited,
creating a flame. As other flammable materials come in contact with the burning vapors, or
flame, they may be heated to a temperature where they too, will ignite and burn.

Radiation

The warmth of the sun is felt soon after it rises. When the sun sets, the earth begins to
cool with similar rapidity. We carry an umbrella to shade our bodies from the heat of the
sun. A spray of water between a firefighter and a fire will lessen the heat reaching the
firefighter. Although air is a poor conductor, it is obvious that heat can travel where matter
does not exist. This method of heat transmission is known as radiation of heat
waves. Heat and light waves are similar in nature, but they differ in length per cycle. Heat
waves are longer than light waves and they are sometimes called infrared rays. Radiated
heat will travel through space until it reaches an opaque object. As the object is exposed to
heat radiation, it will in return radiate heat from its surface. Radiated heat is one of the
major sources of fire spread, and its importance demands immediate attention at points
where radiation exposure is severe.

PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION-
When a material (fuel) burns, it undergoes a chemical change. None of the elements
making up the material are destroyed in the process, but all of the matter is transformed
into another form or state. Although dispersed, the products of combustion equal in weight
and volume that of the fuel before it was burned. When a fuel burns there are four products
of combustion:
• Fire gases
• Flame
• Heat
• Smoke

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The smoke encountered at most fires consists of a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide gases, finely divided carbon particles (soot), and a
miscellaneous assortment of products that have been released from the material involved.

Heat is a form of energy that is measured in degrees of temperature to signify its

intensity. In this sense, heat is the product of combustion that is responsible for the spread
of fire. In a physiological sense, it is the direct cause of burns and other forms of personal
injury. Injuries caused by heat include dehydration, heat exhaustion and injury to the
respiratory tract, in addition to burns.
Flame is the visible, luminous body of a burning gas. When a burning gas is mixed with the
proper amounts of oxygen, the flame becomes hotter and less luminous. This loss of
luminosity is because of a more complete combustion of the carbon. For these reasons,
flame is considered to be a product of combustion. Heat, smoke and gas, however, can
develop in certain types of smoldering fires without evidence of flame.
Some materials give off more smoke than others. Liquid fuels generally give off dense
black smoke. Oils, tar, paint, varnish, molasses, sugar, rubber, sulfur and many plastics,
also generally give off a dense smoke in large quantities.

Point of Origin (POO)-

1. Defined as where the fire originated.
2. Cause of fire may be near the POO.
3. Fire usually burns longer at POO.
4. If accelerants or ignition devices used, they may be present at the POO.
5. Multiple POO’s MAY indicate arson.
6. “V” patterns usually point to the POO.
7. Extensive ceiling damages may be present above the POO.

Investigation of Fire Cases:

Scene Management
Safety/secure atmospheric monitoring
accountability communications
law enforcement documentation
fatalities information releases
scientific method due process of law

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Scene Documentation
Scene photography sketches
notes

Examination
Exterior examination interior survey
burn patterns/origin indicators debris removal/examination
scene reconstruction building systems
cause classification

Evidence
Collection/recording marking
chain of custody property room procedures
evidence locker procedures crime lab procedures
ident lab procedures

Basic Interviewing
Interview plan witnesses
victim’s suspects
canvassing a neighborhood interview info analysis

Written Reports
Types of Fire Causes-
1. Accidental
2. Incendiary

Incendiary: Any person who maliciously sets fire to a building or other valuable or other
valuable property.

Indicators of Incendiary Cause of Fire-

1. There may be an absence of an accidental fire cause
2. Multiple fires are present.
3. Trailers are present.
4. Common equipment and/or appliance may have been used as incendiary devices.
5. Structural damage existed prior to the fire.

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6. Contents were removed prior to the fire.

7. Contents were substituted.
8. Contents were out of place.
9. Major appliances were removed
10. There is an absence of personal items.
11. Important papers are absent.
12. Location of the fire may indicate incendiaries.
13. There is evidence of other criminal activity.
14. There is an unnatural spread of the fire.
15. There is excessive fire damage (more than that which would be expected from the
fire).
16. Structural fires may produce fires up to 2000oF.
17. Melting of certain metals may indicate the presence of extreme heat.
18. The entry of fire fighters blocked.
19. The view to the structure is blocked.
20. Occupants are injured.
21. Contents are pre-burned.
22. There is a second fire in the same structure.
23. Unburned newspapers are near the POO.
24. The fire occurred on a holiday or weekend.
25. The fire occurred in the late evening hours.
26. There is unusual activity of the owner/occupant.
27. The owner/occupant is over-insured.

Investigation of Vehicle Fires-

1. Vehicular fires are investigated just as structural fires.
2. Accidental fires tend to be isolated to one area of the vehicle.
3. Incendiary fires tend to consume the entire vehicle and are very hot.
4. The loss of temper of the seat strings may be observed.
5. Investigation of Vehicle Fires (continued).
6. Check for missing or changed parts on the vehicle.
7. Examine electrical system.
8. Examine the catalytic converter(s).
9. Examine the fuel system.
10. Most vehicle fires occur at night and in rural areas.

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Rules of Thumb for Determining Fire Causes-

1. Reconstruct as much as possible.
2. Determine the path of heat travel & POO.
3. Evaluate the combustion properties of materials involved.
4. Compare similar materials and situations.
5. Fit known facts to various possibilities.
6. Corroborate information between occupants and witnesses.

ABORTION

ABORTION: By abortion is meant the expulsion of the products of conception at any period
of gestation before full term. The distinction between abortion, miscarriage, and premature
labour are not recognized in law and all are referred to as abortion. These terms are
sometimes used to signify expulsion of the embryo or foetus during the first, second, and
third trimesters of pregnancy respectively.

Abortions are classified in two groups, viz

(1) Those which occur naturally or spontaneously, and are known as natural and
(2) Those which occur as a direct result of interference with the pregnancy, and are
known as artificial. Artificial abortions may be either
(a) Legal or justifiable, and
(b) Criminal.

NATURAL ABORTION:

Natural, spontaneous or accidental abortion occurs in about 10 to 15% of all pregnancies. It

may result from:

(1) constitutional disease of the mother, such as high fever, infectious diseases, viral
diseases, and syphilis

(2) local diseases of her generative organs, such as inflammations, chronic displacements,
fibroid tumours, and congenital malformations of the uterus

(3) sudden shock, fear, joy, sorrow, and reflex irritations

(4) predisposition which some women have to abort from trivial causes, such as a fall or an
accidental blow on the abdomen, and

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(5) any cause which brings about the death of the foetus in utero, such as, faulty
development, syphilis, diseases of the decidua, and degeneration of placenta.

Direct Referable to mother:

1. Acute Infection
2. Any blood relating disease
3. Abnormalities of reproductive organ & shock
4. Drugs
5. Gastric disorder
6. Hormonal imbalance
7. Fatal anaemia

ARTIFICIAL ABORTION:
An artificial abortion is one which occurs as a direct result of interference with pregnancy. It
may be: (1) legal or justifiable when performed in accordance with legal provisions, or (2)
criminal, when performed otherwise.

Legal or Justifiable Abortion:

The Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act, 1971 (Act No. 34, of 1971), legalises
abortion on the following grounds, (1) Therapeutic (2) eugenic (3) humanitarian (4) social

Therapeutic grounds: These relate to conditions where the continuance of pregnancy

would involve risk (i) to the life of the pregnant woman, or (ii) of grave injury to her physical
or mental health. The indications include conditions such as:

(1) Organic heart disease with failure, active tuberculosis, and severe diabetes.
(2) Hypertension complicated by cardiac or renal failure.
(3) Nephrotic syndrome.
(4) Pulmonary hypertension.
(5) Hepatocellular failure, acute hepatitis, or acute pancreatitis.
(6) Toxaemia of pregnancy.
(7) Hydatidiform mole or acute hydramnios.
(8) Uterine haemorrhages or infected uterus after attempts at criminal abortion.
(9) Malignant neoplasms of breast or female genital tract.
(10) Repeated caesareans or irreducible prolapse of the gravid uterus.
(11) Threatened insanity.

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Eugenic grounds: These include conditions where there is substantial risk that the child, if
born, is likely to suffer from such physical or mental abnormalities as to be seriously
handicapped. The indications include conditions such as:

(1) German measles, small pox, chicken pox, viral hepatitis, or other serious viral infections
if contracted within the first trimester of pregnancy.

(2) Exposure to x-rays and other radiation. The possibility of foetal abnormality needs to be
considered if the pelvis has received over 30 rads, and is almost certain if the exposure is
over 200 rads.

(3) When the pregnant woman has received cytotoxic drugs, thalidomide, LSD, etc.

(4) When the parents have some inheritable mental condition or chromosomal
abnormalities.

Humanitarian grounds: These include those cases where pregnancy has been caused by
rape. According to WHO, health is not merely absence of disease but a positive state of
overall physical, mental, and social well being. Thus, where any pregnancy is alleged by
the pregnant woman to have been caused by rape, the anguish caused by such pregnancy
is presumed to constitute grave injury to her mental health.

Social grounds: These relate to conditions (a) where pregnancy in a married woman is the
result of contraceptive failure, or (b) that the environment of the pregnant woman, during
the continuance of pregnancy and at the time when the child would be born and thereafter
so far as is foreseeable, would involve risk of injury to her health.

No contraceptive is hundred per cent effective. Therefore, where any pregnancy occurs as
a result of failure of any device or method used by any married woman or her husband for
the purpose of limiting the number of children, the anguish caused by such unwanted
pregnancy is presumed to constitute a grave injury to the mental health of the pregnant
woman.

Pregnancy can also be terminated on environmental grounds, for example

(1) if the woman has some heart disease, has no one to help in her domestic work, and
the strain of rearing a child is likely to be too much for her
(2) if the new arrival is likely to create financial difficulties leading the family to poverty
line

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(3) if the woman has already two children, she is doing all her work by herself and lives
in a single room where she cooks, the family eats, and sleeps, or
(4) If there is already a subnormal child who requires considerable attention making it
impossible to look after the new arrival.

The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act lays down the following requirements for
termination of pregnancy.

In an emergency, any registered medical practitioner, irrespective of his experience or

training in obstetrics and gynaecology, can terminate pregnancy at any place irrespective of
its duration if he is of the opinion formed in good faith that the termination of such
pregnancy is immediately necessary to save the life of the pregnant woman.

Except in an emergency, where the duration of pregnancy does not exceed 12 weeks, a
pregnancy can be terminated on the opinion of one registered medical practitioner; and
where the duration exceeds 12 weeks but is less than 20 weeks, opinion from two
registered medical practitioners is necessary. It is essential that (i) the opinion must be
formed in good faith (ii) the registered medical practitioner must have specified experience
or training in gynaecology and obstetrics (iii) such practitioner must have been registered
with a Certifying Board for this purpose, and (iv) the termination must be carried out in a
hospital maintained by Government or at a place approved by the government. The written
consent only of the woman is essential; consent of the husband is not necessary; and in
case where she is a minor or mentally defective, written consent from her guardian is
essential.

Criminal Abortion:
In India, criminal abortion is resorted to mostly by widows who are prevented from re-
marriage by social customs, by unmarried girls who have become pregnant from illicit
intercourse, or when family honour is at stake. Criminal abortion appears to be practiced
even in the married in all classes of society to avoid additions to their families. Nearly all
criminal abortions take place at about the second or third month, when the woman has
become certain of cessation of her periods and morning sickness has confirmed
pregnancy. This period is especially suitable because the fact of her being pregnant is
unknown to others.

The law regards criminal abortion or attempted criminal abortion as a serious antisocial act,
and the offenses are dealt with under section 312 to 316 of the Indian Penal Code. The

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punishment varies from 3 to 10 years of imprisonment.

The following precautions should be taken by a doctor while treating a woman who has
undergone criminal abortion:

1. The usual preliminary particulars should be noted.

2. The information regarding a woman having undergone abortion is a professional secret
(doctor- patient privilege).
3. He should gather as much information as possible from the woman regarding the
manner in which abortion was attempted or performed and the circumstances under
which it was done. He should record her general condition and the signs present in her
genital organs, and treat her to the best of his ability.
4. The practitioner should be cautious and not attempt in his surgery any treatment which
could lead to criminal charges. If such treatment is possible in the patient's house, it is
advisable for him to inform a professional colleague that he has such a case under his
care.
5. If the patient is seriously ill, the police should be informed.
6. If death is imminent, he should arrange for a dying declaration, or a dying deposition by
informing the nearest magistrate.
7. He should refuse to issue a death certificate if she dies but should report the matter to
the police.

Examination of the Woman:

The doctor must be on his guard against fabricated abortions. These are cases where an
assaulted woman tries to exaggerate the offence by simulating an abortion. She may
produce a menstrual blood clot, human foetus, or even an animal foetus to substantiate the
charge.

If there is history of direct trauma to the uterus and if examination of the aborted material
fails to reveal any anomaly, then only the cause and effect relationship of trauma and
abortion should be regarded as probable.

In criminal abortions, history may not be available. If there is a history of the use of drugs or
instruments, all available facts and circumstances should be carefully reviewed.

In the living, the appearances of the genitalia are similar to those in a normal delivery, and
the findings will depend upon the period that the gestation has reached, the mode of

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abortion practiced, and the time that has elapsed since abortion.

When drugs have been used, their toxic side effects are generally evident. If abortion has
resulted from an instrumental method, such as dilatation end curettage, the tooth marks
produced by the volsellum forceps may be seen on the cervix.

A suspicion of criminal abortion should be aroused when the patient shows signs and
symptoms of localised sepsis, generalised septicaemia, extreme pallor, or mechanical
injuries. The appearance of external genitals and vagina, the condition of the os, the
presence of recent tears, the marks of forceps or other instruments, the size of the uterus,
the character and amount of discharge, and the state of abdominal walls and breasts,
should be noted. In abortion during the earlier months of gestation, the signs are very ill-
defined and return to normal within a few days. Signs persist for a longer time if sepsis has
taken place or abortion has been carried out during the later months of gestation.

In the dead, the possibility of postmortem delivery as a result of pressure of putrefactive

gases generated in the abdomen must be kept in mind. A visit to the crime scene may be
undertaken if deemed necessary. The pointers to criminal abortion are (1) sudden death of
a pregnant woman (2) disturbed underclothing (3) presence of abortifacient drugs or
instruments, and (4) fluid, soapy, or haemorrhagic discharge from the vagina.

The doctor should note the presence or absence of the signs of pregnancy visible on the
exterior of the body and, in a primipara, the expression of fluid from the breast may be of
indirect value in the diagnosis of a recent abortion. The genital tract should then be
examined for chemical or mechanical injuries. In case of local introduction of drugs, the
mucous membrane of the vagina may show signs of laceration, bruising or necrosis from
caustic substances. In case of curettage, scrape marks may be seen on the inside of the
uterus.

Special attention should be directed to the condition of pelvic contents.

An examination should be made for evidence of uterine or extrauterine infection, e.g.
cellulitis or peritonitis. Thrombophlebitis of pelvic veins may occur. Such complications are
common if the vaginal or uterine wall has been perforated. The extent and spread of the
infective· process should be noted to get an idea about the time since abortion. The uterus
and its appendages with the vagina attached should be carefully dissected to get a better
view of these parts. In clostridial infection, the serosal surface of the uterus may be
brownish; the skin may also show brownish discolouration.

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It is advisable to weigh the uterus and measure its size. The non-pregnant uterus weighs
about 40 gms (the parous uterus weighs about 100 gms) and is 7.5 cms long, 5 cms broad,
and 2.5 cms thick. The length is approximately 10 cms at the end of the third month, 12.5
cms at the end of the fourth month, 16 cms at the end of the sixth month, 20 cms at the end
of the eighth month, and 27 cms at the end of the ninth month.

Examination of the aborted material:

During abortion, the whole embryo (in early pregnancy) or portions of It may be expelled
from the uterus. Small portions of the ovum may be expelled in blood clots. Any material
found within the uterus or expelled from It should be the subject of detailed naked eye and
microscopic examination. It IS always advisable to remove a piece of tissue from what is
thought to be the placental site. Nothing should be accepted as a result of conception If It
does not show some constituent part of an ovum, eg, chorionic villi or decidual cells. If a
foetus is passed during an abortion, its dimensions should be documented, and an attempt
made to estimate its approximate age.

Foetal development at various stages of its intrauterine life:

By convention, the term ovum is used till implantation occurs in about a week or ten days,
it is called embryo till the end of second month of gestation, and foetus thereafter. Infant
is the term applied to the foetus when it is completely born. Neonate is an infant in the first
month of extrauterine life. ---
1. At the end of the first month, the entire ovum is about the size of a pigeon's egg.
The length is about 1 cm. It weighs about 2.5 Gms, The eyes are seen as two dark
spots and the mouth as a cleft. The limbs appear as bud like processes.
2. At the end of the second month, the foetus is about 4 cms in length and 15 Gms in
weight. Eyes and nose are recognizable. The hands and feet are webbed: The anus
is seen as a dark spot. The umbilical cord begins to develop. Clavicle, mandible,
ribs; and vertebrae show the centre of ossification. The sex is not distinguishable.
3. At the end of the third month, the length is about 9 cms, and weight about 80 Gms.
Fingers are well separated. Nails begin to appear in the form of thin membranes on
the fingers and toes. The sex is not yet distinguishable. Placenta is formed.
4. At the end of the fourth month, the length is about 16 cms, and weight about 200
gms. Sex is easily recognized. Lanugo is visible on the body. The pupillary
membrane is visible. The convolutions of the brain begin 10 appear. Meconium is
seen In the duodenum. The placenta weighs about 90 gms.
5. At the end of the fifth month, the length is about 25 cms, and the weight about 400

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gms. Vernix caseosa appears on the body. It is supposed to protect the foetal skin
from amniotic fluid. Fine hairs on the scalp are visible. Lanugo IS quite distinct.
Meconium IS seen at the beginning of the large intestine. Ossific centre in os calcis
appears. The placenta weighs about 180 gms.
6. At the end of the sixth month, the length is about 30 cms, and the weight about 900
gms. Hair appears on the head. The eyebrows and eyelashes are beginning to
form, the eyelids are adherent and the pupillary membrane is still present. The skin
IS red and Wrinkled for want of fat. The navel is situated a little above the pubis.
The testicles he close to the kidneys and the scrotum is empty. Meconium is seen in
the upper part of the large intestine, The centres of ossification are seen in the four
divisions of the sternum. The placenta weighs about 300 gms. The foetus is viable
in some cases,
7. At the end of the seventh month, the length is about 35 cms, and the weight about
1.5 kilograms. Subcutaneous fat begins to be deposited. The nails are thick but do
not extend to the tips of fingers and toes. The eyelids are open. The pupillary
membrane has almost disappeared. The testicles may be found in the external
inguinal ring. Meconium is seen in the whole of large intestine. Primary centre of
ossification of talus has appeared. The foetus has attained viability. The placenta
weighs about 350 gms.
8. At the end of the eighth month, the length is about 40 cms, and weight about 2
kilograms. Scalp hair is thicker. The skin is red, but not wrinkled, and covered with
soft hair. Lanugo has disappeared from the face. The nails nearly reach the tips of
the fingers and toes. The left testicle, but not the right, has descended to the
scrotum. The placenta weighs about 450 gms.
9. At the end of the ninth month, or just before birth, the crown-heel length is about 48-
52 cms, crown-rump length about 28-32 cms, head circumference about 30-35 cms,
and weight about 2.5 to 3.3 kilograms. The scalp is covered with dark hair 2-3 cms
in length. Lanugo is seen only over the shoulders. Vernix caseosa is present over
the flexures of joints and neck folds. Nails have grown over the tips of the fingers
and toes. The umbilicus is midway between xiphisternum and symphysis pubis.
Either the testicles have descended to the scrotum or the labia have closed the
vulva. Meconium is seen at the end of large intestine. Ossific centre appears at the
lower end of femur, and also perhaps in cuboid, and sometimes in the upper
epiphysis of tibia. The ossific centre in the femur is about 0.5 cm in diameter. Signs
of maturity are present. The placenta is about 22 cms in diameter, 1.5 cms thick at
the centre, and weighs about 500 gms. The umbilical cord is about 50-55 cms long

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and 1 cm thick. It appears fleshy, with a mild spiral twist, and a glistening surface.

Differences between natural and criminal abortion from a medicolegal point of view:
Natural abortion being common, criminal interference should not be alleged without clear
proof. In natural abortion in early stages, the ovum is usually expelled intact, and any
laceration suggests mechanical interference. In later stages, the site, extent and
appearance of injuries together with the physical development of the foetus help to
distinguish natural from criminal abortion. Marks of violence on the abdomen or wounds on
the membranes or on foetus provide positive evidence of criminal interference. The
following table summarizes the salient distinguishing features of natural and criminal
abortion:

Natural abortion Criminal abortion

Pregnancy in unmarried
1. Cause: Predisposing diseases
women and widows
2. Genital injuries: Not usually present May be present
Foreign body in genital
3. Nil May be present
tract:
4. Sepsis: Not usually Frequent
Signs of violence on
5 Nil May be present
abdomen:
6. Toxic drug effects: Nil May be present
7 Foetal injuries: Nil May be present

CASE STUDY:
An adolescent victim became pregnant after a sexual assault. She named the alleged
perpetrator, a man with whom she was acquainted. The alleged assailant was questioned
by the law enforcement officers and denied the sexual as-sault. A therapeutic termination of
pregnancy was performed by routine dilatation and evacuation abortion in the late first
trimester. Aborted material was recovered and embedded in paraffin for routine pathology
study at Brigham and Women’s Hospital. Histological sections of the paraffinized tissue
block were made for LCM (Fig. 1) and for DNA extraction. A nine locus STR DNA profile
was obtained (Orchid Cellmark, Gaithersburg, MD, USA) from the laser capture micro
dissected chorionic villi, which included the STR alleles of the alleged victim and that of the
suspect, consistent with the purported paternity of the named assailant.
REFERENCES: Parikh’s Textbook of Medical Jurisprudence, Forensic Medicine and Toxicology

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TOXICOLOGY

Definition:

The word “Toxicology” is derived from the Greek word “Toxicon” which was used as a
poisonous substance in arrowheads. Traditionally, the toxicology is defined as the science
embodying the knowledge, source, character, fatal effect, lethal dose, analysis of poisons
and the remedial measures. A poison is defined as the substance, which is capable of
producing injury or death when absorbed. Appropriate dosages can differentiate poison and
also the remedial measures. All chemicals can produce injury or death under certain
conditions. Hence, a poison can be defined as a substance that is capable of producing
detrimental effects on a living organism. As a result, there may be a change in the
structure of the substance or functional processes, which may produce injury or even
death. The toxicologist is specially a trained expert to examine the role of such substances
and their adverse effects. The variety of potential adverse effects and the diversity of
chemicals present in our environment contribute to make toxicology a very broad field of
science. Therefore, toxicologists are usually specialists to handle various areas of
toxicology. The professional activities of toxicologists fall into four main categories i.e.
Forensic, Industrial, Clinical and Environmental Toxicology. Forensic toxicology emerged
as the hybrid of analytical Chemistry and toxic principle effects. Forensic toxicologists are
also primarily concerned with the medico - legal aspects of the harmful effects of chemicals
on human and animals. The expertise of forensic toxicologistsis primarily utilized in
establishing the cause of death and elucidating its circumstances in post-mortem
investigation. The work of forensic toxicologist is therefore considered as highly
complicated as small quantities of poisons and their metabolites are to be isolated,
purified and quantified from a highly complex matrices.

CLASSIFICATION OF POISONS AND POISONING

CLASSIFICATION:

Poisons can be classified in a variety of ways, depending upon the interests and needs of
classifier e.g. classification may be done on the basis of mode of action of poison, toxicity
rating, in terms of their physical states, their labeling requirements, their chemistry etc. For
the purpose of toxicological analysis, poison are classified on the basis of their chemical
properties and method of isolation from tissues and other biological fluids which are given
below:

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Noxious Gases:

(1) Carbon Monoxide (CO), (2) Carbon dioxide (CO2), (3) Hydrogensulphide (H2S), (4)
Sulphurdioxide (SO2), (5) Chlorine (Cl2), (6) Nitrous oxide (N2O), (7) Methane (CH4), (8)
Methylisocyanide (CH3NCO), (9) War gases, (10) Ammonia, (11) Tear gas
(chloracetophenone).

Volatile Inorganic:

(1) Cyanide (2) Phosphine (3) Arsine (4) Phosgene, (5) Stilbine (6) Carbonyl chloride (8)
Flurocarbon (9) Isocyanide.

Volatile Organic:

(1)Methanol (2) Ethanol (3) Formaldehyde (4)Acetaldehyde (5) Chloral hydrate (6) Pyridine
(7)Ketones (8) Hydrocarbons (9) Chloroform

Non –volatile Inorganic:

Anions:

(1) Halides (2) Selenide (3) Dichromate (4) Chlorate (5) Azide (6) Nitrite (7) Sulphide (8)
Sulphate (9) Nitrtate (10) Phosphide (11) Cyanide etc.

Cations:

(1) Mercury (2) Arsenic (3) Barium (4) Thallium (5) Lead (6) Antimony

(7) Bismuth (8) Copper (9) Aluminium (10) Zinc etc.

Non-volatile Organic Neutral Compounds:

(1) Pesticides (Organophosphorous, Organochloro, Carbamates and Pyrethroids)

(2) Neutral Compounds.

Non-volatile Organic Acidic Compounds:

Acidic Drugs like barbiturates, sulpha and phenolic compounds, salicylates etc.

Non-Volatile Organic Alkaline Compounds:

All basic drugs like benzodiazepines, alkaloids etc.

Plant Poisons:

Dhatura, Aconite, Oleander, Nuxvomica, Abrus Precatorius etc.

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Miscellaneous Poisons:

(A) Mechanical: Glass powder, Diamond dust, chopped hair etc.

(B) Food poisons / mycotoxins.

(C) Animal/insect poisons.

(D) Water soluble compounds.

POISONING:

Poisons are commonly involved in homicidal, accidental or suicidal cases. These

are also used to destroy the animals and plants.

Accidental poisoning:

The accidental poisoning commonly takes place as a result of the carelessness/

negligence. The common accidental poisoning cases are:

a) Coal is allowed to burn in a room unknowingly giving rise to the production of

poisonous carbon monoxide gas.

b) Workers many times unknowingly go into abandoned wells or gutters and die
due to the presence of poisonous gases.

c) Poisonous materials like insecticides are carelessly sprayed in the farms and due
to accidental inhalation, many times may cause the death of farmers/workers.

d) Children handle some poisonous articles and develop poisonous symptoms.

e) Overdoses of medicines like barbiturates or fake medicines wrongly prescribed.

f) Allergic conditions.

g) Bites by poisonous insects and snakes.

h) Accidental cattle or animal poisoning cases.

Homicidal Poisoning:

Owing to small fatal doses, tasteless and odourless properties, miscibility with drink and
common availability, some poisons are mainly used for homicidal purposes e.g. arsenic
salts, mercury salts, cyanides, sodium nitrite, methyl alcohol, dhatura seeds, phosphides
etc. Rarely, cultures of disease germs are also used for homicidal purposes. In certain
parts of the country, opium is used as infanticidal poison.

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Suicidal Poisoning:

Some poisons are mainly popular for suicidal purposes because of their availability in
house or the working place like cyanide in electroplating units, insecticidal compounds
mostly available with farming communities, sodium nitrite in dyeing industries. Barbiturates
are normally used by the educated people. The cases of committing suicides by a few
doctors by injecting anaesthetic agents like thiopental have been reported.

Miscellaneous Poisoning:

Cases of poisoning other than the above are prevalent all over India which are caused by
stupefying agents. The intention behind this is to stupefy the person and commit robbery or
other crimes. However, many a times person dies because of overdoses. These poisons
are cigarettes containing dhatura, cannabis, drugs, arsenic etc; sweets containing
phenobarbitone or other psychotropic substances like lorazepam etc. Some times, chloral
hydrate mixed with drinks is also similarly used.

ACTIONS AND ADMINISTRATION OF POISONS:

The action of almost all the poisons is the same. They either stop the supply of oxygen to
the body tissues or inhibit the enzymes associated with the respiration mechanism and the
person dies due to stoppage of oxygen availability. However, the mode of stoppage varies
e.g. insecticides and pesticides are powerful inhibitors of cholinesterase. The site of action
is said to be at the myoneural junctions and synapses of the ganglions. At these sites,
normally, acetylcholine is liberated from nerve stimulation. The liberated acetylcholine is
hydrolysed into choline and acetic acid by cholinesterase. In poisoning by insecticides and
pesticides, the activity of cholinesterase is inhibited; acetylcholine therefore accumulates
and results in hyper excitation of the voluntary and involuntary muscles. A drop in the
activity of cholinesterase to 30 per cent of normal or lower is associated with toxic
symptoms and leads to death resulting from respiratory failure or circulatory arrest.

In carbon monoxide poisoning, the gas having greater affinity combines easily with
haemoglobin and make them unable to carry oxygen to various tissues of the body. The
glycoside poisons affect the heart muscles and the pumping of blood is stopped. Opiates,
alcohols, barbiturates, dhatura etc. paralyse the respiratory centers of the brain resulting in
respiratory failure.

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The action of poisons may be local, remote, local & remote combined or general. The local
action means its direct action on the tissues and causes corrosion e.g. strong mineral acids
and alkalis, irritation and inflammation in cantharides or some nervous effects as in the
case of dilation of the pupil by atropine. Remote action results from the absorption of the
poison into the system e.g. alcohol, alkaloids or other drugs affect the organs after being
absorbed into the system. Some poisons produce both local and remote actions. In such
cases, there is destructive action on the tissue with which they come in contact and there is
also a toxic affect after absorption e.g. oxalic acid. General action results when the
absorbed poison evokes responses from a wide variety of tissues beyond one or two
systems e.g. arsenic, mercury, insecticidal compounds etc.

Most of the poison affects the person immediately, if not, the poison is eliminated from the
body by excretions or gets metabolised or detoxified into non-toxic metabolite which is
eliminated slowly. However, some poisons have tendency to get accumulated in the body
tissues and when a fatal level is reached, the person dies. Arsenic and DDT are among
such poisons, which have been reportedly used as slow poisons since ages for homicidal
purposes. The absorption of DDT through skin and accumulation behaviour may result into
accidental death.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE INTENSITY OF POISONING:

Dose: As a general rule, the deleterious effects of a poison depend on its dose. The larger
the dose, more severe will be the symptoms.

Hypersensitivity: Some persons show abnormal response (idiosyncrasy) to a drug like

morphine, quinine, aspirin etc. due to inherent personal hypersensitivity.

Allergy: Some persons are allergic (acquired hypersensitivity) towards certain drugs like
penicillin, sulpha etc.

Incompatible combinations: Ingestion of certain medications like anti-ulcerous gels with

aspirin may lead to fatal effects.

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Tolerance: People develop a marked tolerance in the case of opium, alcohol, strychnine,
tobacco, arsenic and some other narcotic drugs by repeated and continued use. The
snake charmers develop complete immunity from snakebite by getting snakebites regularly.

Synergism: Two poisons e.g. alcohol and barbiturates or cannabis drugs and dhatura in
non-toxic doses, when taken together, may cause severe toxic symptoms due to
synergism.

Cumulative action: The repeated small doses of cumulative poisons like arsenic, lead,
mercury, strychnine, digitalis etc. may cause death or chronic poisoning by
cumulative action.

Shock: Some times, a large dose of a poison acts differently from a small dose e.g. a large
dose of arsenic may cause death by shock while a small dose results in diarrhoea.

FORMS OF POISON:

Gases or vapours act more quickly than solid and liquid poisons because they are
absorbed immediately. Liquid poisons act more quickly than solids, of which fine powders
act more quickly than coarse ones. Some substances in certain combinations become inert
e.g. acids and alkalies, strychnine with tannic acid and silver nitrate with hydrochloric acid.
Some substances in certain combinations become poisonous, such as lead carbonate and
copper arsenite which are insoluble in water but soluble in hydrochloric acid in the stomach
and becomes poisons. Similarly, the action of a poison is altered when combined
mechanically with inert substances e.g. alkaloids when taken with animal charcoal fail to
act. Poison act slowly when the stomach is full with fatty food. A poisonous powder does
not sink or float when given with a fluid having nearly same specific gravity. For this
reason, arsenic when administered for homicidal purposes, is usually mixed with milk.

METHODS OF ADMINISTRATION:

A poison acts more rapidly when inhaled in gaseous form or when injected intravenously,
next when injected intramuscularly or subcutaneously and least rapidly when swallowed or

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applied to skin. Some poisons act differently when given through different routes. Snake
venom is highly poisonous when injected but harmless when ingested orally, if there is no
any internal injuries.

Condition of the Body:

The age, health and individual allergy towards certain drugs and poisons affect the action
of poisons. As a general rule, children, old and weaker persons are affected more severely
with low doses than young and healthy adults.

Fate of poisons in the body:

A poison after being absorbed into the system, a part of it is excreted in the urine
unchanged. More frequently, it will be partly or completely metabolized. Normally the
poison is not completely destroyed by the metabolic processes and it may be detected in
the original form or in the form of intermediate products in the tissue or the excreta. The
liver is the guardian of the body against poisons. Therefore, the chances of getting
maximum amount of poisons or its metabolites are in liver. From liver, the poison passes in
general circulation and exerts its action either on cells of a particular organ or tissues for
which it has an affinity, or on the cellular tissues in general.

The main routes of excretion of poison or its end products is the urinary tract, but other
channels are the intestine, the bile ducts, the sweat glands, saliva, mucous or serous
outflows, breast tissue during lactation and the lungs. The exo and endo skeleton such as
epidermis, nails, hair and bony skeleton retain inorganic metals for long periods even after
the same have been eliminated from rest of the body tissues.

Modified Stas-Otto Method:

Procedure:
A. 50 gms of biological material is minced, mixed with plenty of rectified spirit
(about 2-3 times the weight of material) in a flask and acidified with tartaric
acid. The mixture is heated on the steam bath for 1-2 hours with thorough
shakings at frequent intervals. The extraction is then allowed to proceed for
about 24 hours with steam off. It is then filtered through a flutted filter paper.
The filtrate is evaporated and the residue is again extracted with acidulated

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alcohol in the same way, filtered and washed several times with hot rectified
spirit. The combined filtrates are evaporated in a porcelain basin on the
steam bath to a syrupy consistency.

B. To the syrupy residue about 100 ml of rectified spirit is added very slowly with
constant stirring so that insoluble matter may be granular and not gummy. If
the alcohol is added rapidly or all at a time, the insoluble matter will be
gummy causing much loss of alkaloids by enclosing them in the sticky mass.
It is warmed with occasional stirring for about half an hour and filtered. This
process is repeated once more and the combined alcoholic extracts are
evaporated almost to dryness.

C. The residue is now dissolved in about 50 ml of water acidulated with dilute

sulphuric acid and filtered after about an hour. The poisons are thus
dissolved out by the aqueous solution which is transferred to a separating
funnel and extracted with a suitable solvent such as ether, chloroform etc. in
portions of about 25 ml. The solvent would take up from the acid solution,
colouring matters, toxic oils and resins, salicylic acid and its derivatives
(aspirin, salol etc.), barbiturates, sulphonal, acetanilide, narcotine and
alkaloids of ergot, certain glycosides such as thevetin which has escaped
initial treatments for purification.

D. The acid aqueous solution is then rendered alkaline with a solution of sodium
carbonate or ammonia, which would liberate the free base from its salt. The
alkaline solution is now extracted with 25ml portions of chloroform in the
same way as in the previous stage. It will take up all the alkaloids except
morphine (only a trace being extracted) and those feebly basic substances,
which are partially extracted from the acid solution. The extraction is
repeated 2 or 3 times more.

E. If morphine is suspected, it may be extracted at this stage by amyl alcohol or

chloroform – ether (3:1) mixture or chloroform – alcohol (9:1). Of these, amyl
alcohol is the best. But as it is prone to form annoying emulsions, the
chloroform – ether mixture is used by many. If morphine is likely to be the
only poison, the chloroform extraction (stage D) described above may be
omitted altogether. The combined chloroform or amyl alcohol extracts are

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evaporated to dryness and the residue is now ready for further purification
and analysis.

F. The evaporated chloroform extract is purified by dissolving it in about 20 ml

of water acidulated with sulphuric acid and filtering through a small filter. The
filtrate is extracted with chloroform, first in acid and then in alkaline medium
as in the initial stages of extraction. These extracts are evaporated to
dryness for analysis.
REFERENCES: Laboratory Procedure Manual- Forensic Toxicology:
Directorate of Forensic Science, MHA, Govt. of India

Examination of Semen & Seminal Stains

Introduction- Semen is a human body fluid present in human males. It is a viscid
mucilaginous fluid with faint yellow colour and characteristic odour called seminal odour.
Volume is about 3 ml per ejaculate.
No. of Spermatozoa= 50,000 to 3,50,000 per ml. (10% of SP).
Length of head- 4.6 micron
Breadth of Head- 2.6 micron
Thickness- 1.5 micron
It is a suspension of spermatozoa in seminal plasma.

Semen consist of the following

1. Spermatozoa (10%)

2. Seminal Plasma (90%)

3. Epithelial Cell (< 1%)

The Spermatozoa is produced in the testis by the

process of spermatogenesis. Spermatozoa contain
lipid, proteins like protamine & histone etc. and
enzymes like dehydrogenises & transaminases.

The total length of spermatozoa is about 50 Microns. it

consist of head and tail. The head is flat, oval shaped -
4.6 X 2.6 X 1.6 Microns. in Length Width Thickness.
The nucleus, which occupies major portion of the

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head. The tail portion is responsible for the movement of sperm.

The seminal plasma is a mixture of secretion derived from the male accessory reproductive
organs like epididymis, seminal vesicles, the prostate, vasa-deferantia, bulbourethral &
urethral glands. The seminal plasma contains Citric Acid, Ascorbic Acid, Lactic Acid,
Fructose, potassium Choline Phosphate, Proteases, free Amino Acids, Ergothioniene, Zinc,
Calcium, Spermine, Lipids, Enzymes like Fibrinogenase, Diastase, Acid & Alkaline
Phosphatase, Glysidases, a & ß Mannosidases a & ß Glucosidases, ß Givcouridases.

MEDICOLEGAL SIGNIFICANCE OF DETECTION OF SPERM & SEMEN

Rape, Sodomy (Anal intercourse), Bestiality (Sexual intercourse by a human being with a
lower animal like dogs, calves, sheep etc.),In case of false Accusation by a women , Incest
(Sexual intercourse in blood relation) and Sexual Murders.

Where to look for Seminal Stains

1. Clothes : Underwear, Bed sheet, Carpet, Towel, Pillow cover.

2. Body : Perineum, thigh, Vagina & pubic hair.

3. Seen of crime : On the floor or grass etc.

Method of Collection

Handling of articles bearing stains should be done very carefully to avoid damage to
spermatozoa.

Vaginal / anal / penile swabs should be sent along with their smears on slides. Swabs
should be taken on sterile gauze / cloth and their smears prepared on sterile slides. These
should be dried in air at room temperature (37 degrees celcius) and swabs dispatched in
sterile test tube and slides in clean wrappers.

Methods Applied for Detection of Seminal Stains are Classified as:

1. Physical Examination
2. Chemical Examination
3. Microscopic Examination

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Physical Examination:
Colour: Thick, yellowish white, glairy, opalescent, secretion having a characteristic odor
known as seminal odor.
Texture: On touch, seminal stains are starchy.

Appearance: Garments sent for forensic examination are usually dirty having variety of
stains, in natural light some stains are reddish coloured, while others are brown, yellow or
faint grey in colour. These are often mixed with stains of blood vaginal discharge, urine and
semen, so as to restrict the investigation to seminal stains only, preliminary examination is
done under filtered UV light. The fluorescence of the seminal stains is of a bluish white
colour.
Presumptive Test:

Acid Phosphate Test: (SAP) Sodium alpha-naphthyl phosphate method

Reagent Preparations:
Buffer
Glacial Acetic acid - 1ml
Sodium acetate anhydrous - 2g
Distilled water - 100 ml

Step 1 Reagent
Buffer - 50 ml
Sodium alpha-naphthyl Phosphate, 0.25% (w/v) - 126mg

Step 2 Reagent
Buffer - 50 ml
Naphthanil diazo blue B, 0.5% (w/v) - 250mg

Step 1 Reagent and Step 2 Reagent can be made up in bulk and aliquoted
into test tubes and frozen. When needed, one tube of each reagent can be
thawed under warm running water for use.

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Procedure:
1. Place a small piece (2 x 2 mm) of suspected seminar stain material on Whatman
filter paper or other suitable test paper. Use proper standards and controls
including positive, negative and unstained controls;
2. Add 1-2 drops of Step 1 Reagent and allow to react for 30 seconds. (No colour
should develop at this stage).
3. Add 1drop of Step 2 Reagent. Record the result after 10 seconds.
A positive reaction is recorded upon rapid development of a purple colour,
which is indicative of semen. This is not a confirmatory test for semen

Carry Hotch-Kiss:
1) Solution- (7% mercuric chloride + 1% NaOH)
2) Take slide, immerse in 50% absolute alcohol – 2 min
3) Take slide out- Introduce in to distilled water, immerse 1g of iodine + 3 + DW
4) Take slide out + Eosin 5%
Apply it for 1 min
5) Take out, - 50% ab. Alcohol + 2ml 5% Glacial acetic acid (1/2 ml of HCL)
6) 1 or 2 ml of dilute HCL
7) Haematoxylin 2% for 1 min.
8) Take slide, Dry it… Observe under Microscope.
9) Colors- Head= Pink, Remain part= Bluish violet.

Confirmatory Test:

Microscopic Examination
Upon obtaining a positive preliminary test for acid phosphates, the suspected stain can
be extracted as follows:

1. Cut a small portion (1 cm2 maximum) of the stain and place in a test tube.
2. Add a few drops of acidulated water to cover the stain.
3. Agitate the stain on a vortex, or in an ultrasonic cleaner bath or manually, by flicking
the tube. This will aid in freeing the spermatozoa from the dried stain.
4. When the solution is cloudy, withdraw the liquid with a pipette and place into a
disposable 400ul plastic centrifuge tube and centrifuge in a microfuge for 30
seconds.

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5. Carefully withdraw the supernatant, which contains soluble group-specific

substances, enzymes and other solutes from seminal plasma.
6. Collect the button of cellular and other insoluble components from the tube and
place on a clean-labeled microscope slide.

Fix in dilute H2SO4 acid and dry. It is now ready for staining.

Gram Staining-
Reagent Preparations:
Reagent 1: Ammonium oxalate crystal violet solution.

A: Add 0.2 g of crystal violet dye to 20 ml of 95% ethanol.

B: Add 0.8 g of Ammonium oxalate to 80 ml of distilled water.
Mix Solution A and Solution B to form Reagent 1
Reagent 2: Gram’s iodine
Iodine 1g
Potassium Iodine 2g
Distilled water 300 ml
Reagent 3: Decolorizer – 95% ethanol.
Reagent 4: Safranin solution.
Safranin (2.5% in 95% ethanol) 10 ml
Distilled water 300 ml

Procedure:
1. Fix the smear or stain extract to the slide by gentle heating or chemical fixative.
2. Add Crystal violet Solution (Reagent 1) to slide for 1minute.
3. Rinse with tap water (some of the material on the slide will remain as violet colour).
4. Add Gram’s iodine Solution (Reagent 2) to the slide for 1minute (This fixes the
crystal violet to the tissue). Rinse with tap water.
5. Add decolorizer (Reagent 3) and tilt the slide back and forth, watching most of the
violet colour wash away. This takes about 10 seconds.
6. Rinse with tap water. Add Safranin Solution (Reagent 4) for 1minute.
7. Allow to air dry. Examine with oil immersion at 1000X.

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Gram positive protein will stain violet, gram-negative protein will stain red. Spermatozoa
will appear as differentially stained purple bodies, somewhat oval in shape with a clearly
discernible acrosomal cap.

Grading of Spermatozoa on Smear

1. Few; difficult to locate
2. Some in some fields
3. Some in many fields; easy to locate
4. Many in most fields

CROSS-OVER ELECTROPHORESIS
Seminal Material can be identified by demonstrating the presence of P30, a semen specific
protein. One method of doing this is Cross-Over Electrophoresis.
An extract of the suspected stain is placed in the cathode well of a gel plate and anti P30 is
placed in the anode well. Electrophoresis is commenced for 20 minutes at 200 volts,
forcing two components together. When the antigen (P30) meets the antibody (anti-P30), a
precipitin band is formed. The presence of a precipitin band within an extract of an
unknown stain proves that the stain contains seminal material.

Plate Preparation:
1. Clean 1” x 3” or 2” x 3” microscope slides with detergent. Rinse and polish dry.
2. With a diamond tipped scribe number the slides in the upper right-hand corner.
Slides should be consecutively numbered.

Pre-coating Plates: (Note: Omit this step if gel bond is used instead of glass slides.
(In order for final 1% agarose to adhere to the glass slide, it is necessary to pre-coat the
slide with a thin layer of 0.2% agarose).

1. Add 1 gm of 0.2% stock agarose to 10 ml distilled water and boil until dissolved.
2. Paint a thin coating of this solution onto the pre-numbered glass slides with a soft
brush.
3. Wipe the edges of the slides with tissue paper or Kimwipe to remove any overflow.
4. Allow to air dry.
5. Store pre-coated slides in a numbered slide box for later use. They will keep
indefinitely.

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Coating Plate with Gel:

1. On a level surface, place a pre-coated slide onto a small inverted beaker, allowing
the slide edges to be suspended.
2. Place one or two tubes containing 3.5 ml each of 1% agarose gel in a water bath to
liquefy.

1 – 3.5 ml tube for a 1” x 3” slide

2 – 3.5 ml tube for a 2” x 3” slide

3. Pour the liquefied 1% agarose onto the slide. Surface tension and pre-coating of
slide will prevent the liquid from overflowing the edges. A smooth level surface is
formed. Allow to cool and harden.
Punching The Sample Wells:
1. Center the coated slide under the multi hole punch using the lines on the punch as
a guide.
2. Depress the plunger once and release.

Remove the plugs of agarose from the slide with a pipette connected to a vacuum
aspirator.

Sample Preparation:
Extract a small portion of the stain to be tested with a drop of saline at 4oC for 1 hour.
Centrifuge and collect the cell-free extract. Prepare sample extracts: neat, 1:1 saline.

Electrophoresis Tank Preparation:

1. Remove the cooling plate.
2. Fill tank with tank buffer.

Cut 3 MM filter paper bridges and arrange onto the support panels in the tank. Support
panels must be close enough together to support a microscope slide i.e. slightly less than 3
inches apart.

Sample Application and Electrophoresis:

1. Using a double drawn pipette, fill the right-hand sample well of the pair with stain
extract. (Volume is approximately 2 ul per well).
2. Fill the left hand well of the pair with the proper antiserum.

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ANTI-P30 O O SUSPECTED SEMEN EXTRACT

ANTI-P30 O O SUSPECTED SEMEN EXTRACT 1:1 SALINE
ANTI-P30 O O SUSPECTED SEMEN EXTRACT 1:3 SALINE

3. Invert the slide onto the filter paper bridges of the electrophoresis tank. The inverted
number on the slide should now appear in the lower right-hand corner of the plate
with agarose gel in contact with the filter paper bridges. The stain extract should be
nearest to the cathode, the antiserum nearest to the anode. If inverted in wrong
way, the same components will be driven apart, not together.
4. Electrophorese for 30 minutes at 120 volts. Record the conditions.
5 Following Electrophoresis, switch off the power supply and remove the plate.
6. Observe the plate with the aid of a lamp. A fine white line of precipitate between a
pair of wells is a positive reaction.
Record result in Electrophoresis Book. Recheck after staining.

Staining Procedure:
1. Place the slide in 1 molar saline overnight at room temperature to wash away any
un-reacted proteins.
2. Wash for one hour in distilled water at room temperature to remove all saline.
3. Remove the water, cover with a piece of damp filter paper cover with a dozen
thickness of dry paper towel followed by a glass plate. Place a weight on top of the
glass to press the liquid from the gel. After 30 minutes, retrieve the slide with the
pressed gel and place in the oven to dry.
4. Place in Amido Black stain for 10 minutes.
5. Transfer to distain solution, examining periodically.
6. Remove when background is clear and precipitin bands are trained a deep
blue/black.
7. Allow to dry and double check results.

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Examination of Vaginal Fluid & Stains of Vaginal Secretions

Physical Examination
Vaginal Secretions, appear stiff on feeling when these are on clothing, under UV light
examination, these show fluorescence.

SAP/VAP Electrophoresis
Although SAP/VAP electrophoresis is used only to identify the presence of seminal
material, it can be used to indicate the origin of other acid phosphatase activity. A
suspected stain should be extracted in a minimum of water for 10 minutes and placed in
the gel. When used in conjunction with known samples of vaginal acid phosphatase, as
per the Standards and Controls, the analyst can determine if the source of the activity in
the unknown could be from vaginal secretions. This test is not Confirmatory for Vaginal
Acid Phosphatase. The activity of the enzyme acid phosphatase in vaginal secretions is
comparatively low. But this examination coupled with microscopic examination of the
vaginal secretion can give conclusive proof regarding the vaginal origin of the stain.

TANK BUFFER (pH 8.5)

Sodium barbital (0.021M)- 4.35g
Barbital (0.013M)- 2.39g
Distilled water- 1000ml
Adjust with 0.1N NaOH to pH 8.5

GEL BUFFER (pH 8.5) Tank buffer

SUPPORT MEDIUM- 1% Agarose
AMOUNT REQUIRED

Lysate Stain: A small thread of the stain is moistened with a minimum of water.
Allow to soak 10 minutes. Place in sample slot on gel plate.

TEMPERATURE &CONDITIONS- Cooling plate @ 4oC

VOLTAGE AND DURATION- 250V for 2 hours

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REACTION BUFFER (pH 3.0)

Citric acid (0.05M)- 10.5g
Distilled water- 1000ml
Adjust with 0.1N NaOH to pH 3.0

REACTION MIXTURE
4-Methylumbelliferyl phosphate (4-MUP) 4 mg
Reaction Buffer 10 ml

Soak onto 3 MM filter paper and overlay onto gel from origin to anode. Place in moisture
box at 37oC for 30-60 minutes. Read under long wave UV.

LUGOL’S Stain
Reagent Preparation:
Iodine 1g
Potassium iodide 2g
Distilled Water 200 ml
Dissolve the Potassium iodide in the water then add iodine.

Procedure:

1. Make a thin smear of the questioned material on a glass microscope slide.

2. Fix the smear by gentle heating or methanol fixation.
3. Cover the smear with Lugol’s iodine solution. Add an equal volume of water to the
smear.
4. Place a cover slip on the stain area.
5. Allow to stand 3-5 minutes at room temperature,
6. Observe microscopically at 200-400x.
7. Squamous epithelial cells with high glycogen content (notably vaginal and penile
urethral epithelial cells) will exhibit a chocolate-brown or tan colour. Other epithelial
cells will exhibit a yellow or gold colour.

Examination of Saliva and Saliva Stains

The saliva identification in Forensic Investigation is usually done on cigarettes or bidi ends,
apparels and in sexual offenses to determine the secretor status.

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Starch- Iodine Test-

Reagent Preparation:
1. 0.5% soluble starch solution (50 mg soluble starch / 10 ml H2O).
2. Lugol’s iodine solution.

Procedure:
1. Place 3 tubes in a rack and add the following:
a) In the first tube, place a 5 mm x 5 mm piece of sample to be tested.
b) In the second tube, place a similar sized unstained control piece.
c) In the third tube, place a 5 mm x 5 mm piece of a known saliva stain.

2. Add 3 drops of soluble starch solution to each tube.

3. Mix, cork and incubate the tubes for 1 hour at 37oC.
4. Add 2 drops of Lugol’s iodine and note the colour formed.
5. A dark blue starch-iodine complex should be observed in the second and fourth tubes.
The absence of the dark blue colour indicates that the starch has been hydrolyzed and is
no longer available for complexing. Therefore, the lack of blue colour is a positive result for
amylase activity, indicative of the presence of saliva. This is not a confirmatory test for
saliva.
Radial Diffusion Test for Amylase
Reagent Preparation:
1. 0.1M Phosphate buffer, pH 6.9 prepared as follows:
NaH2PO4 anhydrous - 2.7 g
Na2HPO4 anhydrous - 3.9 g
NaCl - 0.2 g
Distilled water - 500 ml

2. Gel test plates (2% agarose, 0.1% soluble starch)

Buffer, pH 6.9 - 10 ml
Agarose - 0.2 g
Soluble starch - 0.01 g

Heat to boiling and continue stirring constantly until all the agarose is dissolved. Divide gel
solution and pour into 302” disposable plastic petri dishes. Allow to polymerize
completely. Store gels inverted (to retard dehydration) at 4oC.

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3. Iodine development solution –

KI - 1.65 g
I2 - 2.54 g
Distilled water- 30 ml
Dissolve by stirring for 5 minutes at 65oC. Store saturated I2 solution in dark stoppered
bottle. Working solution in 1/50 dilution with distilled water.

Sample preparation:
Extract approximately 3 mm2 piece of stained material with 50 ul of distilled water.
Prepare an extract of unstained material (when available) in the same manner.
Procedure:
1. Punch holes in gel plate with a vacuum pipette, leaving 1.5cm between the sample
wells.
2. Place samples to be tested in the sample wells using a precision pipettor. Each well
holds approximately 4 ul of liquid.
3. Cover the petri dish and place in an incubator at 30oC for 6 hours or overnight.
4. Stain the plate by pouring a 1:50 dilution of saturated iodine solution onto the surface.
Rinse with H2O.
5. Clear circles around the wells indicate areas of amylase activity. The diameter of the
clear circle is proportional to the square root of the concentration of amylase.
1. Positive Controls:
a. Known dilutions of fresh liquid saliva (1/200, 1/500 in H2O)
b. Known dried saliva stain extracted with H2O (3 mm2 extracted in 50 ul H2O)
2. Negative Control: distilled H2O
3. Unstained Control: 3 mm2 unstained material extracted in 50 ul H2O).

References: Dr. Imran Sabri, Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, JN

Medical College, AMU, Aligarh ([Link]); Biology Lab Manual, Director of
Forensic Science Laboratory

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Forensic Biology:
Forensic biology is the application of biology to law enforcement.
It includes the sub disciplines of Forensic anthropology, Forensic botany, Forensic
entomology, Forensic odontology and various DNA or protein based techniques.

Forensic Anthropology:
Forensic anthropology is the identification and recovery of remains. In extreme cases
where conventional techniques are unable to determine the identity of the remains
anthropologists are sometimes able to deduce certain characteristics based on the skeletal
remains. Race, sex, age and stature can often be determined by both measuring the
remains and looking for structural clues in the bones.

Forensic Odontology:
Odontologists or dentists can be used in order to aide in an identification of degraded
remains. Remains that have been buried for a long period or which have undergone fire
damage often contain few clues to the identity of the individual. Tooth enamel as the
hardest substance in the human body often endures and as such odontologists can in
some circumstances compare recovered remains to dental records.

What is the Difference between Human and Animal Hair?

While there are a number of similarities between human and animal hair, there are also a
few significant differences as well. While these differences are relatively well known to
scientists as well as companies that manufacture hygiene products that are formulated for
household pets, most people are unaware of how animal hair or fur differs from human hair.
Here are a few examples of the characteristics that often help to make it possible to tell the
difference between human and animal hair

One of the key differences between human and animal hair is the core of the hair follicle.
With animals, the core has properties that allow for the coating of hair to provide excellent
insulation from not only heat and cold, but also a fair amount of protection from rain as well.
The combination of thermal regulating qualities along with the coarse nature of animal hair
work as a great means of holding in cold or heat, as well as preventing rain and moisture to
work all the way to the skin of the animal. Human hair, by contrast, does little to nothing to
provide temperature regulation for the body, and lacks the ability to prevent rain from
soaking through to the scalp.

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The growth pattern also differs between human and animal hair. In humans, the strands of
hair tend to grow independently. For animals, the process of hair growth tends to be more
synchronized. This is an important distinction, as it sets the stage for shedding during
periods when the coat is too heavy for the weather conditions related to the season. While
human hair has to be cut to the specifications of the individual, animal hair will grow to a
certain point and then simply fall out, to be replaced by new hair when and as the time is
right.

One other notable difference between human and animal hair is the composition of the
human head of hair and the pelt of an animal. Human hair tends to have the same texture,
while animal hair generally includes a double composition. In addition to the coarser top
layer of hair or fur, there is a shorter, finer layer that is referred to as the under fur. The
under fur is found closer to the skin and helps to provide some of the temperature control
for the animal. Along with helping to keep the body of the animal at an acceptable
temperature, the under fur also helps to protect the roots of the longer hair strands from
harm.

Role of Forensic Odontology in Tsunami Disasters:

The Indian Ocean tsunami of 26 December 2004 created unprecedented challenges for
forensic identification of dead bodies. For identification different methods were used for
identification such as DNA (Dental tissue, rib, femur), dental identification.

Forensic dentistry team was divided into two parts i.e. dental examination and dental
radiology. The first forensic team consists of two odontologists and one senior odontologist.
Facial bilateral dissection was performed to examine the maxilla and mandible. The teeth
were rinsed/brushed for clear examination. Dental examination was denoted on pink DVI
form Interpol charting system (World Dental Federation Tooth Numbering). During the
dental examination, teeth that might have received root canal treatment were identified for
further radiographic investigation. Two untreated teeth with large pulp were selected for
DNA profiling. If teeth were not available, then femur shaft or rib was selected. Two
bitewing radiographs were taken and labeled, each exposed film with body number by two
dentist. The radiograph was recorded with pink DVI form. Teeth were sent for DNA
profiling. After final check of the documents and radiographs, body was released to the
refrigerated containers.

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Dental structures are the hardest and most resilient tissues of the human body.
Examination of European tourists in tsunami by gold inlay, crown, bridge work and dental
implants. It has been found that even identifical twins do not have identical dentition.

Missing teeth, caries, fillings and prostheses, any other disease, or any pathologic lesion
and dental material used for identification. Implant system used were popular in European
and Scandinavian designs, suggesting that the deceased might have been foreign
nationals. In post mortem pink teeth were found, it is possible to have a positive
identification based on a single unusual dental feature. In dental examination, dental
records made before death were compared to the dentitions of the unknown deceased. The
more accurate and complete the dental records were, the greater would be the likelihood of
a positive identification. Shortage of forensic experts caused incomplete data collection
from the every corpse. At the beginning, since there are many groups of people engaged in
the scene, both official and volunteers, and this is the first experience of Thai disaster team
in a tsunami, the DVI protocol are not fully deployed.

Role of Forensic Odontology:

1. Identification of unknown human remains through dental records
2. Assisting at the scene of a mass disaster
3. Age estimations of both living and deceased persons
4. Analysis of bite marks found on victims of attack
5. ID of bite marks in other substances e.g. wood, leather and foodstuffs
6. Analysis of weapon marks using the principles of bite mark analysis
7. Presentation of bite and weapon mark evidence in court
8. Building a picture of lifestyle and diet at an archaeological site

Detection of Semen & Seminal Fluid Stains:

Semen is a human body fluid present in human males. It is a viscid mucilaginous fluid with
faint yellow colour and characteristic odour called seminal odour.
Volume is about 3 ml per ejaculate.

No. of Spermatozoa= 50,000 to 3,50,000 per ml. (10% of SP).

It is a suspension of spermatozoa in seminal plasma.

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Semen consist of the following

1. Spermatozoa (10%)
2. Seminal Plasma (90%)
3. Epit helial Cell (< 1% )

he Spermatozoa is produced in t he test is by the process of

spermatogenesis. Spermatozoa contain lipid, proteins like protamine &
histone etc. and enzymes like dehydrogenises & transaminases.
The total length of spermatozoa is about 50 Microns. it consist of head and
tail. The head is f lat, oval shaped - 4.6 X 2.6 X 1.6 Micr ons. in Length
W idth Thickness. The nucleus, which occupies major port ion of the head.
The tail portion is responsible f or the movem ent of sperm.
The seminal plasma is a mixt ure of secretion der ived f rom the male
accessor y reproductive organs like epididym is, sem inal vesicles, the
prostate, vasa- def erantia, bulbouret hral & urethral glands. The seminal
plasma contains Citr ic Acid, Ascor bic Acid, Lactic Acid, Fr uct ose, potassium
Choline Phosphate, Proteases, f ree Amino Acids, Ergothioniene, Zinc,
Calcium, Spermine, Lipids, Enzymes lik e Fibr inogenase, Diastase, Acid &
Alkaline Phosphat ase, Glysidases, a & ß Mannosidases a & ß
Glucosidases, ß Givcouridases.

MEDICOLEG AL SIG NIFIC ANCE OF DETECTION OF SPERM & SEMEN

Rape, Sodom y (Anal intercourse), Best ialit y (Sexual intercour se by a human
being with a lower animal like dogs, calves, sheep etc.),In case of f alse
Accusation by a women , Incest (Sexual intercourse in blood relat ion) and
Sexual Murders.

W here to look f or Seminal Stains

1. Clot hes: Under wear, Bed sheet, Carpet, Towel, Pillow cover.
2. Body: Perineum, thigh, Vagina & pubic hair.
3. Seen of crime: On the f loor or grass etc.

Method of Collect ion

Handling of articles bear ing stains should be done ver y car ef ully to avoid
damage to spermatozoa.

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Vaginal / anal / penile swabs should be sent along with t heir smears on
slides. Swabs should be taken on sterile gauze / cloth and their smears
prepared on sterile slides. These should be dr ied in air at room temperature
(37 degrees Celsius) and swabs dispatched in ster ile test tube and slides in
clean wrappers.

Methods Applied f or Detect ion of Seminal Stains are Classif ied as:
1. Physical Examinat ion
2. Chem ical Exam ination
3. Micr oscopic Exam inat ion

Physi cal Examination: Include Visual Exam ination. To naked eye seminal
stains generally appear translucent or opaque spots, at t imes with yellowish
tint and darker border depending on colour and thickness of substrata,
which, if absorbent, also acquire stif f ness due to dried semen. On good
substrata seminal stains may appear to be f luorescent under ultraviolet
light.

Chemical examinati on:

PH = 7.4 Alkaline.

The tests used to detect Seminal Stains are:

1. Florence Test
2. Barber io Test
3. Acid Phosphatase Test
4. LDM Isoenzym e Method
5. Acid Phosphatase Isoenzyme Test
6. Creatinine in Phosphokinase
7. Ammonium Molybdate Test (Phosphor us)
8. Semen Specif ic Glycoprotein (P30 ) Test
9. Enzyme- linked im munosorbent assay (ELISA), the SEMA® assay, f or a
seminal vesicle-specif ic antigen (SVSA)

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Florence Test

Basis: Choline is det ected in this method.

Procedure: A f ew drops of wat er y solution of the stain is extracted and

taken on a slide and a drop of Florence reagent (8%) W /V solution of Iodine
in water containing 5% W /V of Potassium Iodide) is poured & allowed t o mix
slowly under a cover slip. Dark brown cr ystals of choline per iodide,
generally needle shaped, f ormed with a f ew minutes. Non-specif ics & f alse
negative results are common.

ACID PHOSPHATASE SPOT TEST:

Modif ied ‘Fishman and Lerner ’s’ method. The f luid obtained af ter thorough
maceration of a small cloth piece (about 4mm2 ) is placed in a cavit y on a
porcelain t ile land t wo drops each of citrate buf f er (Ph 4.9) and 1% W /V
aqueous solut ion of disodium Phenyl phosphate ar e added. Af ter 10 minutes
the phenol is detect ed by the addition of 2 drops of phenol reagent & 2
drops of 20% W /V solution of sodium carbonate. Blue colour developed
which indicat es the presence of acid phosphatase.

LDH ISO ENZYME METHOD

Detect ion of Spermatozoa
Procedure: Sem inal stains are extracted with 1 ml of water. 0.25 ml of clear
extract is mixed wit h 0.25 m l of 40% W /V of sucrose. 0.1 ml of this mixture
is subjected to vertical polyacr yl amide gel electrophoresis. Electrophoresis
is carried out in ref rigerators f or 150 minutes using a cur rent of 5 m A
Isoenzyme bands ar e revealed by staining.
This method gives a specif ic biochemical detect ion of spermatozoa in
semen in the presence of Vagtinal Fluid, Blood, Nasal Secret ion, and Saliva
& Urine.

ACID PHOSPHATASE ISOENZYME MET HOD

Procedure: Sem inal stains are extracted with water and is used in
polyacr ylmile gel Electrphoret ic method f ollowed by staining with methyl

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bellif eryl. Phosphate reagent enable the seminal acid phosphatase to be

dist inguished f rom that of other substance like vaginal secret ions.
The method is suff iciently specif ic & applicable to semen derived f rom
normal, oligospermic azoospermic & vasectemized individuals.

CREATININE PHOSPHOKINASE:
Bases: Detect ion of creatinine phosphokinase. Normal sem inal f luid content
- 385 - 14000 U of CPK/W .
Diagnosis: >400V of CPK / ml.
Adv: Enzym e is st able & can be demonstrated in old status of six months.

CHOLINE AND SPERMI NE TEST:

Bases: Unique combinat ion of choline & spermine is present only in semen.
Liquid semen & dried seminal stains can be ident if ied by a thin layer
chromatographic Technique.
1 ML of semen present can be detected by this method.

MICROSCOPI C EX AMIN ATION:

The Micro Scopic detection of the seminal stains is based in morphology of
spermatozoa.
Microscopic det ection of spermatozoa: Cloth pieces f rom diff erent stains
are taken in 0.5 ml of 0.01 N HCL in small test tubes placed in a beaker
containing water. Af ter sonication f or 5 minutes the extracts and the cloth
pieces are transf erred to separate m icro scope slides and cloth pieces
delicately teased with a needle. Threads are rem oved and the residual
liquid is gently evaporated to dr yness. Residue obtained is stained
haematoxylin and eosin.

Fluorescence MicroScopy:
It is also used f or detection of spermatozoa. It is based on the principle that
Y Chr omo some is f luorescent to quinacr ine. W ith this method it is possible
to detect both intact spermatozoa as well as the disconnected heads.

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Medici-Legal Impor tant of teeth

Ci vil

1. Malpract ice and all aspects which may event ually bad to criminal charges in
the f orm of fraud.
2. Neglect, wher e damages may be sought.
3. Identif ication of individual remains where death is not due to suspicious
circumstances.
4. Identif ication of a living person – less of memory.
5. Major or mass disaster – the identif ication of wetion of an air craf t or train
disaster or a f ire in a public building.

Criminal

1. Identification
• Living Person
• Dead person
2. Bite Marks
• In f ood stuff
• On the assailant
• On the vict im
• Self inf licted
• Inf licted by another

MECHANICAL INJURIES

An injury is any harm, whatever illegally caused to any person in body, mind, reputation or
property (Sec. 44, LP.C.). Mechanical injuries (wounds) are injuries produced by physical
violence. A wound or injury is a break of the natural continuity of any of the tissues of the
living body.
'The question of wounds may be raised in a Court of law in both civil and criminal cases.

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CLASSIFICATION:

(I) Mechanical Injuries:

1) Abrasions 2) Contusions 3) Lacerations 4) Incised wounds

5) Stab wounds 6) Firearm wounds 7) Fractures and dislocations

(II) Thermal Injuries:

1) Due to cold: a) Frostbite b) Trench foot c) Immersion foot

(2) Due to heat: a) Burns: b) Scalds

(III) Chemical Injuries:

a) Corrosive acids b) Corrosive alkalis

(IV) Injuries due to electricity, lightning, X-rays, radioactive substances, etc.

Legally, injuries are classified into:

(1) Simple, and (2) Grievous

General Principles:

A wound is caused by a mechanical force which may be either a moving weapon or object,
or the movement of the body itself. In the first case, the counterforce is provided by the
inertia of the body, and in the second case by the rigidity of some stationary object against
which he falls. A combination of these two events is seen in most cases. Due to the impact
between the forward moving force and the counterforce, energy is transferred to the tissues
of the body, which causes a change in their state of rest or motion. The human body
contains many complex tissues which greatly vary in their physical properties, such as state
of solidity, fluidity, density and elasticity, and because of this a change in the state of rest or
motion of the body produced by a forceful impact does not affect the tissues uniformly.
Some of the energy is spent in moving the body as a whole. But most of the energy may
cause non uniform motion of localised parts of the body, due to which the affected tissues
will be subjected to compression or to traction strains or to a combination of both. All the
body tissues, except those which contain gas, are resistant to compression, i.e., they resist

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force tending to reduce their· volumes. Mechanical force does not cause compression of
the tissue but causes their displacement and deformation, and traction strains are produced
in the affected tissues. Such strains may be due to forces causing simple elongation of
tissues, but they may be due to more complex mechanism, such as bending, torsion or
shearing.

Factors Influencing the Nature and Extent of Wounds:

1. The Nature of the Object or Instrument:

With a blow from a pointed or sharp-edged weapon, the force is concentrated
over a limited area; due to which deep penetration or incision of the tissues occurs.
The hardness of the tissues and the friction of the divided tissues against the sides
of the object resist the passage of object through tissues. With a blow from a blunt
instrument, the force is distributed over a relatively large area, due to which the
damage caused to a unit mass of tissue is less than when the force is concentrated
over a smaller area.

2. The Amount of Energy Discharged During Impact:

The amount of kinetic energy present in a moving object is measured by the
formula mv2/2, where m = mass, and v= velocity of the moving object. An object of
definite weight moving at a definite speed produces a definite amount of energy. If
the weight of the object alone is doubled, the kinetic energy is doubled, but if the
velocity only is doubled, the kinetic energy is quadrupled. Therefore, the velocity of
the object is more important than the weight.

3. The Conditions under which the Energy is Discharged:

Most of the energy liberated in an impact may he spent in causing generalised
movements of the body, which may he sufficient to knock down a person, although
the local injury may be minimal. If the body or part of the body struck is immobilized,
the greater part of the kinetic energy may be spent in causing localised deformation.
If the head is free to move, a blow may cause little damage, but if the head is well
supported, a similar blow may cause marked injury to skull.

4. The Nature of the Affected Tissues:

Skin: The shape of the skin is readily changed when struck as it is very pliable
and a little elastic. The skin is strongly resistant to traction forces due to the firm

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coherence of its tough layers of keratinized cells, and it is often not damaged when
struck with a blunt instrument, though the underlying tissues may be damaged
severely. When crushed against rigid bone, the skin is readily split.

Subcutaneous Tissues: The subcutaneous tissues are very plastic due to their
fat content and the pliability of their' supporting connective tissue fibers.

Muscles: The muscles are usually not damaged from blows due to their great
plasticity and elasticity but may be crushed or torn against bone or lacerated by
fragments of displaced and broken bone

Bones: The bones are relatively rigid. The bones may bend without breaking
when a force is applied, and then may recoil to its normal shape due to its elasticity.
A blow to the chest may bend the ribs without fracture, but the thoracic organs may
be damaged. Fracture occurs when the bone is bent beyond the limits of its
elasticity, which starts at the point of maximum convexity caused by the bending.

Body Fluids and Gases: Fluid is incompressible but is easily displaced.

Powerful hydrostatic forces may be produced in a hollow organ which contains fluid
due to a blow, which are transmitted equally and uniformly in all directions and may
rupture anatomically distant and mechanically weak tissues.

ABRASIONS:

An abrasion is a destruction of the skin, which usually involves the superficial layers of the
epidermis only. They are caused by a lateral rubbing action by a blow, a fall on a rough
surface, by being dragged in a vehicular accident, fingernails, thorns or teeth bite. Some
pressure and movement by agent on the surface of the skin is essential. In its simplest
form, the epidermal cells are flattened and their nuclei are elongated. If sufficient friction is
applied, partial or complete removal of the epithelium may occur and the superficial layer of
dermis is damaged.

An abrasion is a superficial injury, commonly known as a 'graze' or 'scratch'.

This type of wound damages only the epidermis (uppermost skin layer), and should not
therefore bleed. However, abrasions do usually extend into the dermis causing slight
bleeding.
Abrasions are commonly caused by a 'glancing' impact across the surface of the skin, but if
the force is directed vertically down onto the skin surface it may be termed a 'crush' injury.

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These wounds are seen where an object has struck the skin (eg a blow from a fist), or
where the injured person has fallen onto a rough surface, such as road.
Abrasions may be 'linear', or commonly known as a single 'scratch', whereas if a broader
surface is affected, it is called a 'graze' or 'brush abrasion' (eg where a motorcyclist is
thrown from their vehicle, and comes into contact with the road surface in a skidding
fashion). Such an abrasion often covers a relatively large area of skin, and is often called a
'friction burn' in lay language.

Abrasions are of four types:

1. Scratches 2. Grazes 3. Pressure abrasions 4. Impact abrasions

Age of the Abrasions:

The exact age cannot be determined.
Fresh: Bright red.
12 to 24 hours: Lymph and blood dries up leaving a bright scab.
2 to 3 days: Reddish-brown scab.
4 to 7 days: Epithelium grows and covers defect under the scab.
After 7 days: Scab dries, shrinks and falls off.

Ante-mortem and Post-mortem Abrasions:

Abrasions produced slightly before or after death cannot be differentiated even by

microscopic examination. In superficial lesions or when decomposition is advanced,
differentiation is difficult. After death, the abraded epidermis becomes stiff, leathery, and
parchment-like, brown, more prominent, and may be mistaken for burns. On drying,
abrasions become dark-brown or even black. In a body recovered from water, abrasions
may not be seen on first inspection, but they are easily seen after the skin dries. Abrasions
may be produced after death when a body is dragged away from the scene of crime. The
distribution of such abrasions depends upon the position of the body while it is being
dragged.

Medico-legal Importance:

1) They give an idea about the site of impact and direction of the force.
2) They may be the only external signs of a serious internal injury.

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3) Patterned abrasions are helpful in connecting the wound with the object which produced
them.
4) The age of the injury can be determined, which helps to corroborate with the alleged
time of assault.
5) In open wounds, dirt, dust, grease or sand are usually present, this may connect the
injuries to the scene of crime.
6) Character and manner of injury may be known from its distribution.
(a) In throttling, crescentic abrasions due to fingernails are found on the neck.
(b) In smothering, abrasions may be seen around the mouth and nose.
c) In sexual assaults, abrasions may be found on the breasts, genitals, inside of the
thighs and around the anus.
(d) Abrasions on the face of the assailant indicate a struggle.
(e) Abrasions on the victim may show whether the fingernails of the assailant were
long, irregular or even broken.

BRUISES / contusion

Bruises are caused by blunt trauma / injury to tissues, resulting in damage to blood vessels
beneath the surface. Blood leaks out ('extravasation') into surrounding tissues from
damaged capillaries, venules and arterioles. Bruises may be surface bruises, or deeper
within tissues or organs.

Unlike abrasions, the characteristics of the object causing a bruise cannot easily be
determined, because blood tends to spread out in a diffuse manner from the site of injury,
particularly along fascial planes. Indeed, this phenomenon results in the apparent 'shifting'
of bruises after time. For example, a scalp injury may result in a black eye. Bruses may
also 'appear' after some days due again to the same phenomenon of blood tracking along
tissue planes, and pathologists often re-examine a body again to look for such bruising.

Intra-dermal bruises, however, provide an exception to this general rule, as they are
superficial - lying just under the epidermis. In this case, there may be good correlation
between the bruise seen and the characteristics of the causative object.

Contusion is an effusion of blood into the tissues, due to the rupture of blood vessels,
caused by blunt trauma. Contusions may be present not only in skin but also in internal
organs, such as the lung, heart, brain and muscles. The bruise is usually situated in the
corium and subcutaneous tissues, often in the fat layer. In contusion, there is a painful

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swelling, and crushing or tearing of the subcutaneous tissues usually without destruction of
the skin. The extravasated blood is diffusely distributed through the tissue spaces, and tile
margins are blurred. Bruises may be seen in association with abrasions (abraded-
contusion) or lacerations. When a large blood vessel is injured, a tumour-like mass called
haematoma is formed. A fresh bruise is usually tender and slightly raised above the surface
of the skin, and even a deep-seated bruise shows some swelling when compared with tile
opposite limb or part of tile body. A bruise has lighter color in tile centre because
extravasated blood is pushed outward by the impact. Mongolian spot (hyperpigmented skin
in the lumbosacral region) should not be confused with contusion.

Size: Bruises vary in size from pinhead to large collections of blood in the tissues. The size
of a bruise is slightly larger than the surface of the agent which caused it as blood
continues to escape into the area. Development of marked tissue swelling in the vicinity of
a bruise usually results in loss of its original shape. As a general rule, the greater the force
of violence used, the more extensive will be the bruises, but size and shape are modified
by the following factors.

(1) Condition and Type of Tissue: If the part is vascular and loose, such as face, vulva,
scrotum, a slight degree of violence may cause a large bruise, as there is sufficient space
for blood to accumulate. If the tissues are strongly supported, and contain firm fibrous
tissues and covered by thick dermis, such as abdomen, back, scalp, palms and soles, a
blow of moderate violence may produce a comparatively small bruise.

(2) Age: Children bruise more easily because of softer tissues and delicate skin and old
persons bruise easily because of loss of flesh and cardiovascular changes.

(3) Sex: Women bruise more easily than men, because the tissues are more delicate and
subcutaneous fat is more. Fat people bruise easily,' because of greater volume of
subcutaneous tissue. A slight pressure with the fingers on the arm of a woman, and
especially if she is obese and not accustomed to work or exercise, may produce a definite
bruise.

(4) Color of Skin: Bruising is more clearly seen in fair-skinned persons than those with dark
skin, in whom they may be better felt than seen. The areas of extravasated blood appear
darker even on heavily pigmented Negroid skin. If the body is embalmed, skin bruises
become more prominent probably (1) by forcing of additional blood into the damaged area,
(2) increased transparency of overlying skin, and (3) formation of a dark pigment complex.

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(5) Natural Disease: When the vessels are diseased as in arteriosclerosis, bruising occurs
very easily and may even result from coughing or slight exertion. In children, small bruises
may be caused by the violent coughing as in whooping cough. In purpura haemorrhagica,
leukaemia, haemophilia, scurvy; vitamin K and prothrombin deficiency and in phosphorus
poisoning, bruising may 'be out of all proportion to the' amount of violence used.

(6) Gravity shifting of the Blood: Bruises do not always appear at the site of impact. Blood
escaping from deep tom vessels may be prevented from reaching the skin at the point of
impact, because of fascial plane arrangements at the injured area. The bruise may appear
at a relatively distant place, where the fascial pattern permits it to reach the surface (ectopic
bruising).

The Age of Bruise:

At first: Red.
Few hours to 3 days: Blue.
4th day: Bluish- Black to brown(haemosiderin).
5 to 6 days: Greenish (haematoidin).
7 to 12 days: Yellow (bilirubin).
2 weeks: Normal.

Medico- legal Importance:

1) Patterned bruises may connect the victim and the object or weap, e.g., whip, chain,
cane, ligature, vehicle; etc.
2) The age of the injury can be determined by color changes.
3) The degree of violence may be determined from their size.
4) Character and manner of injury may be known from its distribution. (a) When the
arms are grasped, there may be 3 or 4 bruises on one side and one larger bruise on the
opposite side, from the fingers and thumb 'respectively, indicating the position of the
assailant in front of, or behind the victim.
(b) Bruising of the arm may be a sign of restraining a person.
(c) Bruising of the shoulder blades indicates rum pressure on the body against the
ground or other resisting surface.
(d) In manual strangulation, the position and number of bruises and nail marks may
give an indication of the method of attack or the position of the assailant.
(e) Bruising of thigh especially inner aspect, and of genitalia indicates rape.

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(5) In the case of fall, sand, dust, gravel or mud may be found on the body.

Bruises are of less value than abrasions because:

(1) Their size may not correspond to the size of the weapon.
(2) They may become visible several hours or even one to two days after the injury.
(3) They may appear away from the actual site of injury.
(4) They do not indicate the direction in which the force was applied.

INCISED WOUNDS

Incised wounds are sharp cut-like injuries, made by knives or broken glass etc.
The edges of the wound will vary according to the nature of the cutting edge of the object,
in that a razor will leave regular margins, whereas an axe may leave the wound margins
crushed and bruised, resembling a laceration.

Slash Wounds:
These are wounds where the length is greater than the depth, eg a slice wound across the
skin. If the wound involves major blood vessels, it can be life threatening, but in general,
they are not as serious as stab wounds.

Stab Wounds:
These are wounds where the depth of injury is greater than the length. They penetrate
more deeply than slash wounds and tend to come into contact with vital organs in the chest
and abdomen.
Stabbing is the most common mode of homicide in the UK, due to the strict control of guns.
Stab wounds are caused most obviously by knives, but are also caused by bayonets and
swords, as well as scissors and even blunter instruments such as screwdrivers.
These types of wounds have the following features,

Causes:

l) Striking the body with the edge of Sharp-cutting weapon,

2) By drawing the weapon, and

3) By using the weapon like a saw in which case there may be more than one cut in the
skin at the beginning of the wound which merge into one at the end.

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A curved weapon like a sickle produces a stab from the pointed end, and incised wound
from the blade, sometimes with an intervening intact skin. When the skin becomes folded
under the cutting edge of the weapon, a single movement of a sharp weapon may produce
a series of incised wounds, separated one from another by bridges of normal skin.

Characters:

l) Margins 2) Width 3) Length 4) Shape

5) Hemorrhage 6) Direction 7) Bevelling cut

CHOP WOUNDS: They are deep gaping wounds caused by a blow with the sharp-cutting
edge of a fairly heavy weapon, like a hatchet, an axe, a sabre, or a cleaver. The
dimensions of the wound correspond to cross-section of penetrating blade. The margins
are sharp and may show slight abrasion and bruising with marked destruction of underlying
organs. If the edge is blunt, the margins are ragged and bruised. Undermining occurs in the
direction towards which the chop is made. When the whole blade strikes the body at the
same time, the depth may be same throughout the wound. Usually the lower end (heel) of
the axe strikes the surface first, which produces a deeper wound than the upper (toe) end.

STAB OR PUNCTURED WOUNDS:

Stab wound is penetrating injury caused by sharp and/or pointed objects, such as knife,
dagger, nail, needle, spear, arrow, screw driver, etc. penetrating the skin and the
underlying tissues that is deeper than its length and width on skin. This can occur by driving
the object into the body or from the body's pressing or falling against the object. They are
called penetrating wounds, when they enter a cavity of body. When the weapon enters the
body on one side and comes out from the other side, perforating wounds or through-and-
through puncture wounds are produced. The wound of entry is larger with inverted edges,
and the wound of exit is smaller with everted edges, due to tapering of blade. The victim of
a fatal penetrating injury may not show signs and symptoms of injury until many hours have
passed.

Characters:

1) Margins: The edges of the wound are clean-cut. There is usually no abrasion or bruising
of the margins, but in full penetration of the blade, abrasion and bruising may produced by

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the hilt or the handle. The margins may be abraded, and ragged if the cutting edge is blunt.
The mark will be symmetrical, if the knife strikes the skin at right angle. If the knife strikes in
a downward angle, the mark will be prominent above the stab wound, and if the knife
strikes in an upward angle, the abrasion will be below the stab wound. In oblique stab
wounds, a knife striking from the right will have an abrasion on the right side and vice
versa.

(2) Length: The length of the wound is slightly less than the width of the weapon up to
which it has been driven in, because of stretching of the skin. Deliberate lateral, forward, or
backward movement of the weapon during its withdrawal from the body tends to widen the
wound, and the length will be more than the maximum width of the blade.

3) Depth: The depth (length of track) is greater than the width and length of the external
injury. It is not safe to find out the depth of a stab wound by introducing a probe, because it
may disturb a loose clot and may lead to fatal hemorrhage, or cause serious damage.

LACERATIONS:

These wounds are commonly known as 'gashes, tears or cuts' of the skin. The skin surface
is split or torn following blunt trauma, and the force causes the full thickness of the skin to
be damaged. Lacerations therefore bleed profusely.

Areas of the body that are commonly the site of lacerations are those with underlying bony
support, such as above the eyebrows, on the scalp and face, or over the knees etc, whilst
they are less common on areas of the body that are softer such as the buttocks.

Contact with motor vehicles may also cause splitting of the skin due to grinding type
movements over the surface.

They are caused by blows from blunt objects, by falls on hard surfaces, by machinery,
traffic accidents, etc, If the force produces bleeding into adjacent tissues, the injury is a
'contused-laceration' or 'bruised-tear'. If the blunt force produces extensive bruising and
laceration of deeper tissues, it is called "crushing" injury. The force may be produced by
some moving weapon or object or by a fall.

Types:

1) Split Lacerations: Splitting occurs by crushing of the skin between two hard objects.
Scalp lacerations occur due to the tissues being crushed between skull and some hard

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object, such as the ground or a blunt instrument.

Incised-like or Incised-looking Wounds- Lacerations produced without excessive skin

crushing may have relatively sharp margins. Blunt force on areas where the skin is close to
bone, and the subcutaneous tissues are scanty, may produce a wound which by linear
splitting of the tissues, may look like incised wound.

2) Stretch Lacerations: Overstretching of the skin, if it is fixed, will cause laceration. There
is localised pressure with pull which increases until tearing occurs and produces a nap of
skin, which is peeled off thee underlying bone or deep fascia. This is seen in the running
over by a motor vehicle, and the flap may indicate thee direction of the vehicle. They can
occur from kicking, and also when sudden deformity of a bone occurs after fracture, making
it compound.

3) Avulsion: An avulsion is a laceration produced by sufficient force (shearing force)

delivered at an acute angle to detach (tear oft) a portion of a traumatized surface or viscus
from its attachments. The shearing and grinding force by a weight, such as lorry wheel
passing over a limb may produce separation of the skin from tile underlying tissues
(avulsion) over a relatively large area. This is called "flaying". The underlying muscles are
crushed, and the bones may he fractured. The separated skin may show extensive
abrasions from tile rotating frictional effect of tile tyre, but one portion is still in continuity
with adjacent skin. Internally, organs can be avulsed or torn off in part or completely from
their attachments.

4) Tears: Tearing of the skin and tissues can occur from impact by or against irregular or
semi-sharp object, such as door handle of a car. This is another form of overstretching.

5) Cut Lacerations: Cut lacerations may be produced by a heavy sharp-edged instrument.

The object causing a lacerated wound crushes and stretches a broad area of skin, which
then splits in the centre. The edges are irregular and rough, because of tile crushing and
tearing nature of the blunt trauma. Frequently, the skin, at the margins is abraded due to
the flatter portion of the striking object rubbing against the skin as it is indented by the
forceful blow.

Medico-legal Importance:

(1) The type of laceration may indicate the cause of the injury and the shape of the blunt
weapon.

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(2) Foreign bodies found in the wound may indicate the circumstances in which the crime
has been committed.
(3) The age of the injury can be determined.

DEFENCE WOUNDS:

Defence wounds result due to the immediate and instinctive reaction of the victim to save
him, either by raising the arm to prevent the attack, or by grasping thee weapon. If the
weapon is blunt, bruises and abrasions are produced on the extensor or ulnar surfaces of
the forearms, wrists, backs of the hands and knuckles. The size and shape of the bruises
depends upon the attacking object. Fractures of the carpal bones, metacarpals and digits
may occur. There may also he defence bruises and abrasions on the thighs and a cut may
be seen in the web between the base of the thumb and index finger. If the weapon is sharp,
the injuries will depend upon the type of attack, whether stabbing or cutting. In stabbing
with a single-edged weapon, if me weapon is grasped a single cut is produced on the palm
of the hand or on the bends of the fingers or thumb. If the weapon is double-edged, cuts
are produced both on the palm and fingers. The cuts are usually irregular and ragged,
because the skin tension is loosened by gripping of the knife. When attacked, the victim
usually holds up the hand or forearm and receives cuts on the hand, wrist, ulnar border of
the forearm and on the fingers. They are often irregular in depth and distribution. A typical
knife defence wound is seen in the web between the base of the thumb and index finger,
when the blade is grasped. Rarely, defence wounds are found on the feet or legs, e.g.
when the victim kicks at the knife, or curls up and tries to cover vital areas with his legs.
Defence wounds indicate homicide. Defence wounds are absent if the victim is
unconscious, or is taken by surprise, or attacked from the back, or under the influence of
alcohol or drugs.

SELF INFLICTED AND FABRICATED WOUNDS:

Self-inflicted wounds are those inflicted by a person on his own body. Fabricated wounds
(fictitious, forged or invented wounds) are those which may be produced by a person on his
own body, or by another With his consent. They may be produced for the following
reasons.

1) To charge an enemy with assault or attempted murder.

2) To make a simple injury appears serious.
3) By the assailant to pretend self-defence or to change the appearance of wounds, which

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might connect him with the crime.

4) By policemen and watchmen acting in collusion with robbers to show that they were
defending the property.
5) In thefts by servants or messengers for the above reason.
6) By prisoners, to bring a charge of beating against officers.
7) By recruits to escape military service.
8) By women to bring a charge of rape against an enemy.

Fabricated wounds are mostly incised wounds, and sometimes contusions, stab wounds
and burns. Lacerated wounds are rarely fabricated. Incised wounds are usually superficial,
multiple and parallel. The direction is from behind forwards on the top of the head, from
above downwards on the upper arm, from below upwards on the forearms, variable on the
legs and vertical on the abdomen. Stab wounds are usually multiple and superficial and
seen about the left arm or shoulder and sometimes on the chest. Burns are superficial and
seen usually on me left upper arm. The clothes are not cut and if cuts are seen they are not
compatible with the nature of the wounds. The history of me assault is incompatible with
the injuries.

Therapeutic Wounds:
These are wounds produced by doctors during the treatment of a patient, such as surgical
stab wounds of me chest for insertion of chest tubes, of the abdomen for drains,
thoracotomy and laparotomy incisions, incisions on the wrists, antecubital fossae and
ankles, and tracheostomy incisions. Some of these wounds may be mistaken for traumatic
wounds, e.g. a surgical stab wound of me chest for putting a drainage tube. Sometimes, a
traumatic wound may be enlarged and included in the surgical procedure, or a drainage
tube may be put in a homicidal stab wound.

REFERENCES: [Link] (D e p a r t m e n t o f F o r e n s i c Me d i c i n e , A.M.U. Aligarh)

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TOOL MARKS:

TYPE OF TOOLMARKS –

1) COMPRESSION MARKS
2) STRIATED MARKS
3) COMBINATION OF COMPRESSION AND STRIATED MARKS
4) REPEATED MARKS

Compression type tool marks are produced when a tool strikes the surface with a
pressure. Striated type tool marks are produced when a tool scrapes the surface.
Repetitive type marks are produced when a tool strikes the surface a number of times.

The features of the tool marks can be divided into three parts as class characteristics, sub
class characteristics and individual characteristics.

• Class Characteristics: These are the features produced by similar type tools.

• Sub class characteristics: These are the features produced by tools of one type
manufactured on the same machine.

• Individual characteristics: Some individual characteristics are developed by a tool

while in use due to wear and tear. No two tools can produce identical random
individual marks.

Examination of tool mark

Whenever a tool mark is found at the scene of crime the following procedure should
be adopted for its collections and examination.

1 Photography: Tool marks should be photographed. At least two photographs

should be taken, one showing the background with the impression and another a
close up of the impression. Scale should always be kept at the same level of the
tool marks while taking the photograph. Camera should be kept perpendicular to

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the surface of the tool marks. More details are obtained by using oblique
illumination.

2 Tracing: Tool marks can be traced on a tracing paper. This helps in comparing the
class characteristics.

3 Lifting of tool marks: A cast or mould is simply a reverse or negative three-

dimensional image of an impression. The following materials are generally used for
making a mould of a tool mark.

Plastic/rubber: This is a material for lifting fine details of a tool mark. A lump of
material is softened by pressing in fingers and then applied on the surface. It is
pressed carefully as it is likely to be disturbed by out side pressure.

Dental casting material: This also gives fine details of tool marks.

4 Plaster of Paris: This material is used when the impression is of large size.
Plaster of Paris is partly hydrated calcium sulphate (CaSO4)2 1/2 H2O. First on the
surface of tool marks talcum powder is sprayed. This helps in removing the cast
without disturbance. Then solution of plaster of Paris is put on the surface. This is
allowed to dry and the cast removed carefully. For preparing plaster of Paris
solution, water is taken in a container and plaster of Paris added until water does
not absorb any more plaster of Paris. 7 parts of plaster of Paris are generally put in
4 parts of water. To increase rigidity of surface details a thin layer of shellac
dissolved in alcohol is sprayed on the surface by means of sprayer of the type used
for spraying insecticides. The shellac is carefully sprayed from a distance of several
feet so that air pressure does not disturb the details. The plaster is then poured in.
When the caste has hardened the shellac is peeled off. The talcum powder permits
the peeling off the shellac without affecting the cast.

5 Metal casting: The mould of tool mark can also be made by metal casting. The
suitable metal for this purpose is known as woods metal. This is a metal of low
melting point (71oC), which is suitable for casting tool marks. Its composition by
weight is Bismuth 50%, Lead 25%, Tin 12.5% and Cadmium 12.5%.

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6 Cellulose acetate: Tool marks from stone, concrete, wood, etc. can be lifted by
cellulose acetate dissolved in acetone. A layer of 1/16 inch is made. However the
cellulose acetate cast should be photographed, with scale, immediately otherwise
the layer is likely to shrink.

Examination of foreign material/materials on Tool

The suspected tool is examined for presence of all traces of metal or wood and foreign
particles sticking to the tool/blade using the stereo microscope. The physical and chemical
characteristics of these particles should be compared with the material of the surface on
which the tool mark was made.

Taking test impression

The material on which the test impression is to be made must be chosen carefully. It must
be soft enough so that the tool edge will not be altered.
When the original mark is in wood, paint or soft metal, the standard should be made with a
similar material. Several test impressions should be made at various angles with the tool.
When the original mark is on hard metal such as steel or brass, it is desirable to use the
same material for the standard. Sheet lead, tin or aluminium may be employed
successfully.

COMPARISON OF TOOL MARKS

The tool mark is negative replica of the tool and mould is negative replica of the tool mark.
A tool mark must be compared with tool mark, mould with mould and photograph with
photograph having same magnification. The comparison is best done by using comparison
microscope and with oblique illumination. Magnification of test and crime sample should be
identical.

Specific problems:
1- To determine whether a lock is forced open or not
The key manufactured for a specific lock always plays through a prescribed path inside the
lever mechanism of the lock with out causing any scratch on the surface of the levers. On
the other hand, if a duplicate key, foreign tool, etc, are used to open a lock, then several
fresh scratches can be observed on the levers and internal surfaces of the questioned lock.
If the lock was opened by applying heavy mechanical thrust, tool marks can be found on
the body of the lock.

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The lock is examined under a stereo microscope to locate the point of disturbance and tool
marks on the body of the lock Then the questioned lock is cut open in such a way so that
the lever mechanism remain intact. The lever mechanism is to be observed under a
stereomicroscope in oblique illumination for any tool marks or other disturbances. Usually,
the recent marks and scratches have bright metallic lustre. If the surface of the lock bears
any tool marks or deformation caused due to hammering with tools, then the entire defect
and abnormality are to be matched with respect to its original position of locking

2- Tool marks in the case of cutting of electric wires/cables

Crimes involving the use of wires are not infrequent. The clipping of cables and wires is
found in wire and transformer theft case sabotage cases etc. The cut wire is used as
evidence material. If the wire cutters are also seized, the tests impression/exemplars are
produced and compared with those on the evidence cut wires.

3- Tip of the broken tool

If a broken piece of tool tip is found embedded in the surface, the physical matching of the
broken part with the suspected tool gives a definite proof of the tool used in the crime. The
broken part may also be found fallen on the ground at the scene of crime.

4- Staple marks
Use of staple is increasing day-by-day due to its low cost and convenience. Two types of
problems are encountered in the staple cases. One is source identification and second is
to link the stapler with the staple. For source identification the marks of manufacturing of
the staple can be compared under microscope. Material of the staple can be compared with
elemental analysis techniques. To link the stapler with the marks on the pin, the test marks
are made with the questioned stapler and compared with the marks present on the crime
pin, by conventional tool marks comparison techniques.

Methods Used to Obliterate Identification Marks

1 Filing or grinding- The original number would have been filed away or ground with a
power grinder followed by polishing and then over stamping with a new number.

2 Peening- This involves hammering the surface with a round punch to hide the
number.

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3 Over stamping- Here a new number is simply stamped over the old. For numbers
with curved surfaces i.e. 2,3,5,6,9 and 0, the stamp 8 is the one most often chosen.
For numbers with straight surfaces i.e. 1 and 7, the stamp 4 is the obvious choice.
Serial numbers with a preponderance of ‘8’ or ‘4’ numbers should be treated with
suspicion.

4 Centre punching- The surface bearing number is obliterated with a pointed punch.

5 Substitution- Substitution of an iron plate with a new number over the original
surface by pasting or welding.

6 Drilling- It removes the number and the surrounding metal with a drill. The cavity is
usually filled up with either lead solder or welding material.
7 Welding- Heating the surface with either an oxy-acetylene welder or an arc -welder
until the metal flows.

8 Occasionally an original finish would be given to a previous obliterated number

surface

CHEMICAL ETCHING METHOD FOR RESTORATION

The chemical etching method is the simplest and most effective method for restoring
obliterated numbers. It is simple to apply and it requires no expensive equipment. It works
well on any size or type of object.

The techniques involved require considerable skill and great patience. The materials used
are potentially dangerous and should be used with full awareness of health and safety
requirements. They should only be used in areas specially set aside for this purpose.
Rubber gloves will protect the hands from corrosive acid and when using volatile liquids
work in the open air away from any seat of naked flame, if laboratory conditions are not
available.

In case of motor vehicles remove the engine from the vehicle if necessary for ease of
access to the engine number surface, and for better quality of photographs of the
restoration process.

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1 Preliminary Examination

Examine the metal surface after cleaning oil and dirt away, using acetone. Examine the
surface with a hand magnifier and see whether any erasure has taken place at all. Look for
any disturbance in the pattern at the background. This pattern will be present either in the
form of milled marks caused by grinding the surface before stamping the serial numbers, or
cast marks produced during the manufacturing process. If it is disturbed, suspect erasure.
Even if no erasure is noticed, remove the paint over a wide area around the surface to
check whether the portion carrying the chassis number was removed by cutting and
substitute for it by welding or pasting a metal plate with a new number. Remove the pasted
plate if any, from the original surface by using trifluoroethanol, after recording the original
appearance. Remove the welded plate too. Examine the lower surface for any obliterated
marks. Note how the mark has been erased and whether it has been repaired after
erasure. See if any digits or parts of digits are visible. Note these down. Examine the
surface by carefully adjusted illumination preferably oblique lighting to see the erased
number.

For photography, use a single light for striking the surface bearing the serial number at a
low angle. Take several exposures, the light being moved in each instant to strike the
surface from a different position. Use process film. This method assists to bringing out the
faint serial numbers.

Identify the type of metal from which the object is made. This is necessary to choose
the appropriate chemical etchants.

2 Preparation of surface

(i) Clean the surface using preferably benzene or acetone to free it from grease or
paint. Solvents such as gasoline, commercial paint remover or 50/50 mixture of acetone
and chloroform may also be used. To assist the solvent a soft toothbrush should be used
to dislodge deposits from the stamped surface.

(ii) Hand polish the area to a smooth, mirror like finish or a reasonably smooth surface
with emery cloth, or other fine abrasive. Emery paper with coarse grade is used by first
removing all scratches, and other gross marks with fine emery. Do not remove more metal

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than is necessary. Leave deep scratches. Examine the surface during polishing, as digits
are sometimes revealed during the process.

(iii) Clean again the area with a solvent, such as acetone or other grease solvent. Do
not touch the area with bare fingers because fingerprints can interfere with the reaction.

(iv) Heating- Treat the area with a blow lamp or Bunsen burner. Care should be taken
not to over heat. If the metal is heated to red hot, the temperature is sufficiently high to
soften the metal and, on cooling, the metal becomes homogeneous and can no longer be
differentiated. A useful guide is to heat the metal surface until it is just too hot to touch.
The metal should be allowed to cool before etching begins 1, 2.

(v) Photograph the entire item, and record details of the obliterated area by close-up
photography. Use 35 mm camera with a macro lens and extension and a fast film, 400,
ISO.

ETCHING PROCEDURES ON DIFFERENT SURFACES

1 Steel surfaces (chassis and engine of cars, guns, gas cylinders etc.)

(i) The etching reagents are in two solutions.

Solution 1 (Fry’s reagent)

Crystalline cupric chloride 90gms.

Concentrated hydrochloric acid 120ml.
Water 100ml.

Solution 2
15 per cent Nitric acid.

Apply the Solution 1 by swabbing the surface for approximately 2-3 minutes with
cotton wool dipped in the reagent. Look for any digits revealed and record these.
Clean the surface with acetone (not water). Examine again.

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Apply the Solution 2 by swabbing the surface for approximately 1 minute with cotton
wool dipped in this solution. Look for any digits revealed and record these.

Continue etching alternatively with Fry’s and 15% nitric acid etching reagents until
the complete number is visible. This may take up to 2 or 3 hours. A consistent
check should be made on the appearance of the mark since faint marks appear and
then disappear again before the mark is completely etched.

(ii) Alternate Solution

Solution 1
Hydrochloric acid 80ml.
Water 60 ml.
Copper Chloride 12.9 gms.
Alcohol 50 ml.
Solution 2
15 per cent Nitric acid.

The method is similar to the previous one. Apply with a swab a little of the acid
copper chloride solution and continue to apply for 60 seconds. Dry with cotton wool
and then apply the nitric acid for a similar period.

This alternate swabbing with solutions (1) and (2) is continued until the number is
developed. Time, 5 minutes to as long as 1 hour.

(iii) Ferric chloride etching reagent can also be successfully used on steel
surface.

Notes:

1. If etching results in areas of dark contrast surrounded by metal with normally

etched appearance, this indicates that the mark has been “torched” with a welding
torch, and further efforts to restore the mark are a waste of time.

2. When nitric acid reagent is applied after the Fry’s reagent, copper is
sometimes deposited on the surface. This does not matter. It can usually be

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removed by rubbing vigorously with the nitric acid swab, or alternatively, it will
disappear when Fry’s reagent is applied again.

2 Copper, Brass, German Silver and other Copper Alloys

These metals react to:

Ferric Chloride 19 gms.

Hydrochloric acid 6 ml.
Water 100 ml.

Apply the reagent as a swab until the number appears. When the reagent is slow to
develop the erased mark, form a wall of plasticine around the erased mark. Use the
solution as a bath. Let the reagent remain on the metal for 24 hours. Some
workers have found that 20 gms. Ammonium persulphate made up to 100cc., with
water gives the best result for brass and copper.

3 Stainless Steel

Swab either with dilute sulphuric acid or 10 per cent solution of hydrochloric acid in
alcohol.

4 Lead (Motor car batteries etc.)

Glacial acetic acid 3 parts

Hydrogen peroxide

This solution has yielded excellent results. Time 10-30 minutes. When the erased
number ppears, clean the metal in concentrated nitric acid.

5 Zinc Alloys

(i) Sodium hydroxide 10 per cent solution in water.

Development is slow. So, use the plasticine bath method.
Time 10-16 hours.

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(ii) Alternate solution

Chromic acid 20gms.

Na2 SO4 1.5 gms
Water (or) 100 ml.
Nitric acid 25%

6 Cast Iron and Cast Steel

Apply constantly a 10 per cent solution of sulphuric acid plus potassium dichromate.
Action will be slow. Apply constantly the reagent. It may even be necessary to
build a wall of plasticine around the number and fill the hollow with the reagent.
Remove the solution at intervals, examine the surface, replace fresh solution. Over
development results in the obliteration of the restoration.

7 Aluminium Alloys (Engine surface of the motor bikes, auto-rickshaw engine,

vehicle identification plates etc.)

(i) The best reagent is Villela’s solution.

Glycerin 30 ml.
Hydrofluoric acid 20ml.
Nitric acid 10 ml.

Apply the reagent as a swab until the number appears. Use the reagent with
caution as it attacks the fingers vigorously. Time 5-15 minutes.

(ii) An alternative and safer formula is Hume Rothery solution and is made up
as follows:

Copper chloride 200 gms.

Hydrochloric acid 5 ml.
Water 1000 ml.

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As soon as this solution is applied a copper deposit is formed. Remove this copper
deposit by alternative swabbing with Hume Rothery reagent and distilled water, until
the number appears. Time 5 minutes to 1 Hour.

(iii) FBI Laboratory recommends the following for etching aluminium surfaces

Apply the ferric chloride reagent to the surface to be etched. Several hours of
application may be necessary to reveal the erased mark. Various methods of
application can be used to avoid constant swabbing for hours, such as:

Soak a large piece of cotton wool in the reagent and it will stick to the metal surface
by surface tension. The cotton wool must be removed and resoaked in the reagent
at 20 minutes intervals, and the effect closely noted. If the surface to be etched can
be made to be horizontal, a “puddle” of reagent can be left over the area, and
replaced when it has lost its colour. Do not, however, build up a “plasticine” bath
around the area as the etching reagent attacks plasticine.

Inspect the surface periodically. When the number is visible, clean the surface with
acetone and dry it.

8 Tin
Hydrochloric acid 10 per cent solution.
Alternate swabbing and washing. Time 10-20 minutes.
(i) German Silver
Ferric chloride 25%
Hydrochloric acid(conc.) 25%
Water 50%
Swab the area. Time 10-20 minutes.

(j) Silver
Concentrated nitric acid

Immerse the specimen for few seconds. After each dipping wash with running
water.

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9 Gold and Platinum

Nitric acid 1pt.
Hydrochloric acid 5pts.
Distilled water 6 pts.

Carry out etching at 15oC. Time 1 hour or longer.

10 Wood (punched marks)

Many wooden articles are stamped with identifying markings which may be erased by
cutting, filing or the use of abrasive. Provided the area beneath the exposure has been
disturbed by the original punching, legible results may be obtained. Play a jet of steam
onto the erased surface. The steam softens the wood and causes the fibres which were
bent during punching the number to spring back and the broken fibres to swell. Where the
mark has been, the wood now projects above the surface and the mark can be deciphered.
Pretreat with a solution of caustic soda or potash for hard woods such as are employed for
tool handle. This softens the wood and accelerates the treatment.

11 Leather
(i) Try all the methods of development given below, as the treatment of leather is
empirical. Clean the surface with cotton-wool swab soaked in chloroform, and examine
under ultraviolet light. This works admirably when the embossed letters have been filled
with an oil paint. The oils are brought to the surface by the chloroform and outline the
letters as a bright fluorescence.
(ii) Swab the surface with cotton wool soaked in 2N caustic soda solutions. The loose
disturbed surface absorbs the solution, softens and darkens. The compressed leather,
which has been embossed, does not absorb the solution so quickly. This differential
absorption enables the erased mark to be deciphered.
(iii) When the carbon ink has been used on the embossed number and the same has
been soaked into the surface.

Clean the surface as above and take an infrared photograph. When the ink has been a
carbon ink and has soaked into the surface, cleaning in this way gives a surface which
photographs as white under infra-red while the traces of carbon ink are photographed
intensely black.

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12 Rubber
Some rubber articles are stamped, and when stamping is erased the suspect area can
be treated by lightly swabbing with petrol or even on occasions carbon-disulphide. This
latter solution acts upon rubber very rapidly and should be used with caution.

13 Polymers
(i) It is not possible to make use of alteration of structure in the case of polymers.
These materials have no organized macro structure and the die does not, therefore,
produce alterations of structure capable of being treated with reagents. Numbers or other
markings in a polymeric material are presently produced using a heated stamp. Laser
drilling is also used to produce an identification mark. Polish the surface as before and then
flood the surface with a deeply colored solution such as a dye solution. When excess
solution is removed, the dye soaked into the crevices of the mark is plainly visible and the
mark can be deciphered.
(ii) Conduct experiments using swelling techniques with various solvents, relief
polishing and heat-treatment. Follow the table below.
Polymer type Method
Polyethylene (high density) (PE- Heat (100oC, 5 min.), swelling with ethanol, light
HD) petroleum (40-60)
Styrene acrylonitrile (SAN) Polishing heat (140oC, 10 min.), swelling with light
petroleum (40-60)
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene Polishing heat (100oC, 10 min.), swelling with light
(ABS) petroleum (40-60)
Polyamide (PA 6) Polishing heat (150oC, 5 min.), swelling with light
petroleum (40-60)
Polyoxymethylene (POM) Polishing heat (150oC, 30 min.), swelling with light
petroleum (80 oC)
Polybutylene terephthalate Polishing heat (200 oC, 10 minutes)
(PBTP)
Polycarbonate (PC-GF) Swelling with ethanol, ethyl ether, heat (120 oC, 5
min.)
Epoxy resin (EP) Swelling with acetone, formic acid, ethyl acetate,
light petroleum (40-60)

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Visualization and photography of the restored marks

Restored marks are to be distinct enough to be visualised and photographed, as far as
possible. Better visualisation and photography can often be obtained if the etched surface
is moistened slightly with etchants. There should be sufficient lighting to view the restored
number because of the difficulty to view properly the number especially on the engine and
the chassis of the motor vehicle. Portable beam lighting can be positioned to produce low
angle illumination across the surface area for viewing.
However, for photography a powerful light source adjusted suitably for catching their
images on the camera screen should be available. Flexible powerful fibre optics
illuminators are excellently suited for this purpose. A 35 mm camera screwed on a tripod
for time exposure will be very useful. A macro lens with extension rings would enable the
camera to keep a close distance from the number area and ensure a magnified image on
the film. Use a fast film 400 ISO. A photograph with a contrast film (100 ISO) should also
be made. Process the negatives in the usual manner. Print on a normal grade paper for
normal contrast.

METHODS FOR RESTORATION OF OBLITERATED ENGRAVED MARKS

1 Scope
Identification of articles of plate and jewellery, and common articles like stainless
steel and tool steels by restoring the obliterated engraving identification marks.

2 Engraved Marks
Engraved marks are made on plate and jewellery using an engraving tool and
engraved marks on hard metals like stainless steel and tool steels are produced by
an electric engraver. All engraved marks are made by removing the metal with the
tool. The underlying metal is not seriously disturbed, and no routine guaranteed
method of restoration is possible.

Methods of Restoration

(a) Use (HCL) etching methods for restoring engravings on plated articles. Use
acidic ferric chloride on chromium plated on brass plate. Use Fry’s reagent for
chromium-plated on mild steel plate. Choose an etching solution which
preferentially etches the two metals.

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(b) In case of electrical engraving, the instrument heats the metal at the point of
engraving, and partially fuses it. If the number has been filed out, polish the surface
carefully. The remains of the fused areas reflect light slightly different from the rest
of the metal. Therefore, throw a beam of light onto the polished surface and view
through the correct angle. The erased number will be seen as a dark shadow on
the bright background

1 Preservation of the restored punched and engraved marks

1. If a mark is successfully restored, it is important that the number is recorded and,

as far as possible, preserved. In an attempt to preserve the mark, the area should
be washed with dilute ammonia solution to neutralize the acid (if the surface is acid-
etched), cleaned thoroughly with acetone and dried. Clear lacquer should then be
thickly sprayed over the mark.

2. It is also important to clean up around the mark. Etching reagents are often
splashed or dropped over surrounding parts of the article being examined, and if not
cleaned off, corrosion can result.

3. Remember that different parts of marks will appear and disappear as restoration
proceeds. A series of records may be required.

METHODS FOR RESTORATION OF OBLITERATED PAINTED NUMBERS AND OTHER

MARKS

Scope: Identification of motor vehicle, registration number plate etc., by restoring the
obliterated original painted number, and sticker numbers.

Methods of obliteration

Some number plates consisted of letters and figures painted onto the metal plate.
Obliteration normally consisted in painting over the surface with black or other paint
and inserting the false numbers. In a similar manner some floral and ornamental
designs, registration numbers and some other identifying features all originally
made on the painted motor vehicle surface are obliterated with new designs and
numbers.

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METHODS OF RESTORATION

1- Take photographs the suspected obliterated surfaces before treating it in any manner.
Examine the number plate and the vehicle surface at different illuminations, especially the
oblique one. The obliterated marks may sometimes be visible.
2- Wash away the fresh paint and the fresh number with chloroform or dioxan. Remember
that this action has its dangers because the underlying paint and the marks tend to wash
away along with the top layer. Try suitable solvents mixtures of solvents at some
other place and thus choose the suitable solvent or mixture of solvents for application in the
obliterated surface
3- Apply the chosen solvents in cotton swabs over the paint surface suspected of being
obliterated. Wait till the top layer just swells. Remove this layer carefully by gentle rubbing
with cotton. Look for the obliterated marks and record them by photography and detailed
notes. Take care that the underlayer is not washed away and removed along with top layer.
Use the above procedure to discover more than one obliterated marks underneath
4- X-ray shadowgraph- If the article is portable try this method. Best results are possible
when the underlying layers are painted with a paint containing heavy elements, such as
lead, while the top paint is free from such elements. With the correct exposure the outlines
of obliterated marks can be deciphered.
5- In the case of number plates where original sticker number is removed or replaced, try
specular reflection. Throw an even light on the plate from an angle and photograph the
plate from above. The brightly polished areas, which have been protected by the lettering,
reflect the light specularly away from the camera. The weathered areas diffuse the light to
some extent and some of this diffused light enters into the camera. As a result, the
lettering appears black on a light background
6- Expose the plate to ultraviolet radiations. If the area fluoresces in ultraviolet light record
the appearance by photography. Photograph following the techniques of UV fluorescence
photography.
7- A photographic records of the restored marks should be made.

REFERENCES: Laboratory Procedure Manual- Forensic Physics:

Directorate of Forensic Science, MHA, Govt. of India

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GLASS

Explain Glass types and glass fractures with Collection and preservation of Glass evidence:

Glass Types:
Safety Glass:
Tempered glass- is made strong by rapid heating- and –cooling process that introduces
stress to the glass
When the tempered glass breaks it breaks into tiny cubes with no sharp edges.
Tempered glass is used in the side and back windows of the car.

Laminated glass- Safety glass very strong because it is made of 2 layers of glass
sandwiching a layer of plastic, Auto window shields are this type.
Other types are- Wire glass, Colored glass, Light sensitive glass.

Glass bends in response to any force that is exerted on anyone of its surfaces; when the
limit of its elasticity is reached, the glass fractures. Frequently, fractured window glass will
reveal information that can be related to the force and direction of an impact; such
knowledge may be useful for reconstructing events at a crime-scene investigation.
The penetration of ordinary window glass by a projectile, whether it is a bullet or a
stone, produces a familiar fracture pattern in which cracks both radiate outward and
encircle the hole, as shown in Figure 4-16. The radiating lines are appropriately known as
radial fractures, and the circular lines are termed concentric fractures.

Radial Fracture - A crack in a gloss that extends outward like the spoke of a wheel from
the point at which the glass was struck.

Concentric Fracture - A crack in a glass that forms a rough circle.

Often it is difficult to determine just from the size and shape of a hole in glass whether
it was made by a bullet or by some other projectile. For instance, a small stone thrown at a
comparatively high speed against a pane of glass will often produce a hole very similar to
that produced by a bullet. On the other hand, a large stone can completely shatter a pane
of glass in a manner closely resembling the result of a close-range shot. However, in the
latter instance, the presence of gunpowder deposits on the shattered glass fragments does

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point to damage caused by a firearm.

When it penetrates glass, a high-velocity projectile such as a bullet often leaves a
round, crater-shaped hole that is surrounded by a nearly symmetrical pattern of radial and
concentric cracks. The hole is inevitably wider at the exit side and hence its examination is
an important factor in determining the direction of impact. However, as the velocity of the
penetrating projectile decreases, the irregularity of the shape of the hole and of its
surrounding cracks increases, so that at some point the hole shape will provide no
assistance for determining the direction of impact. At this time, information derived from an
examination of the radial and concentric fracture lines may prove a useful alternative for
determining the direction of impact.
When a force pushes on one side of a pane of glass, the elasticity of the glass permits
it to bend in the direction of the force applied. Once the elastic limit is exceeded, the glass
begins to crack. As the first fractures form on the surface opposite that of the penetrating
force, and these fractures develop into radial lines. The continued motion of the force
places tension on the front surface of the glass, resulting in the' formation of concentric
cracks. An examination of the edges of the radial and concentric cracks frequently reveals
stress markings whose shape can be related to the side on which the window first cracked.
Stress marks are shaped like arches that are perpendicular to one glass surface and
curved nearly parallel to the opposite surface. The importance of stress marks stems from
the observation _ that the perpendicular edge always faces the surface on which the crack
originated. Thus, in examining the stress marks on the edge of a radial _ crack near the
point of impact, the perpendicular end is always found to be located opposite the side from
which the force of impact was applied. For a concentric fracture, the perpendicular end
always faces the surface on which the force originated. A convenient way for remembering
these observations is the 3R Rule-Radial cracks form a Right angle on the Reverse
side of the force. These facts will enable the examiner to deter mine readily the side on
which a window was broken. Unfortunately, the absence of radial or concentric fracture
lines prevents the above observations from being applied to broken tempered glass

COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF GLASS EVIDENCE

The gathering of glass evidence at the crime scene and from the suspect must be thorough
if the examiner is to have any chance to individualize, the fragments to a common source. If
even the remotest possibility exists that fragments may be pieced together, every effort
must be made to collect all the glass found. For example, collection of evidence at hit-and-
run scenes must include all the broken parts of the headlight and reflector lenses. This

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evidence may ultimately prove to be an invaluable means of placing a suspect vehicle at

the accident scene by actually matching the fragments with glass remaining in the headlight
or reflector shell of the suspect vehicle. In addition, an examination of the headlight's
filaments may resolve any questions regarding whether or not an automobile's head lights
were on or off before the impact.
When an individual fit is thought improbable, the evidence collector must submit all
glass evidence found in the possession of the suspect along with a representative sample
of broken glass remaining at the crime scene. This standard/reference glass should always
be taken from any remaining glass in the window or door [Link], as close as possible to
the point of breakage. About one square inch of sample is usually adequate for this
purpose. The glass fragments should be packaged in solid containers to avoid further
breakage. If the suspect's shoes and/or clothing are to be examined for the presence of
glass fragments, they should be individually;' wrapped in paper and transmitted to the
laboratory. It is best that the field investigator avoid removing such evidence from garments
unless it is thought absolutely necessary for its preservation.
When a determination of the direction of impact is desired, all broken glass must be
recovered and submitted for analysis. Wherever possible, the exterior and interior surfaces
of the glass must be indicated. In. cases in which this is not immediately apparent, the
presence of dirt, paint, grease, or putty may provide an indication as to the exterior surface
of the glass.

PAINT
Some important definitions related to Paint:

Paint: Commonly known as a pigmented coating. Paint is a complex mixture consisting of

pigments, modifiers, extenders, and binders.

Binder: A nonvolatile portion of the liquid vehicle of a coating, which serves to bind or
cement the pigment particles together.

Coating: A generic term for paint, lacquer, enamel, or other liquid or liquefiable material
that is converted to a solid, protective, or decorative film or a combination of these types of
films after application.

Discriminate: To distinguish between two samples on the basis of significant differences;

to differentiate.

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Discriminating Power: The ability of an analytical procedure to distinguish between two

items of different origin

Known Sample: A coating sample of established origin

Pigment: A finely ground, inorganic or organic, insoluble, and dispersed particle. Besides
color, a pigment may provide many of the essential properties of paint such as opacity,
hardness, durability, and corrosion resistance. The term pigment includes extenders.

Questioned Sample: A coating sample whose original source is unknown

Significant Difference: A difference between two samples that indicates that the two
samples do not have a common origin.

Additive (modifier): Any substance added in a small quantity to improve properties.

Additives may include substances such as driers, corrosion inhibitors, catalysts, ultraviolet
absorbers, and plasticizers.

ANALYZING PAINT WITH INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY:

THE ANALYTE: Paint (from a car, or on a weapon or someone's clothing...)

THE IDENTITY TEST: Paint has been recovered from a crime scene. Investigators must
record the evidence and keep track of it. Since there is a limited amount of paint, the first
tests to be done should be nondestructive. Colors, layers, texture, and other physical
properties are recorded, using a microscope as well as the naked eye.

Finally, the individual layers of paint are analyzed by infrared spectroscopy. The results can
be compared to IR results of known paint.

THE IDENTITY AND THE CRIME:

SCENARIO #1: There has been a hit-and-run accident. The victim has paint smears on
their clothing. A witness remembers part of the license plate. There are several
possibilities.

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After narrowing the cars down to those with a overcoat of paint the same color as the
smear, the sample is analyzed with IR. Using a computer database of car paint processes,
the paint is identified with a specific make, model, and year of vehicle.

The possible cars are narrowed down to one. The investigators use a combination of the IR
results and other evidence to prosecute the owner of the vehicle.

SCENARIO #2: A robber has broken into a home using a blunt object. After obtaining a
warrant, investigators find that a suspect is in possession of a crowbar that has some
crushed paint chips on the end.

Using infrared spectroscopy, a forensic chemist matches the paint on the crowbar to paint
on the door of the house that was burglarized. The suspect is convicted and sent to trial.

ANALYSIS OF PAINT LAYERS BY LIGHT MICROSCOPY, SCANNING ELECTRON

MICROSCOPY AND X-RAY MICRO-DIFFRACTION

The most common way to analyze paint layers is the preparation of a cross-section of
properly sampled specimens, where the sequence of all layers is preserved. The
examination of the cross-section by light microscopy and UV-fluorescence microscopy
provides frequently sufficient information about the structure of the paint layers, grain size
and grain size distribution of the various pigments as well as varnish layers or organic
binding media. However, for the identification of individual pigments present in the various
paint layers additional investigations of the cross-section are necessary. Scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) combined with energy dispersive x-ray microanalysis (EDX) has been
used widely to obtain information about the elements present in the pigments as well as
their distribution in the different layers. Single pigments can be identified by comparing their
color and elemental composition with standard materials known to be used in the present
or past for painting artefacts.

However, many inorganic materials and some of the most interesting pigments can occur in
different crystalline structures. CaCO3 – chalk, which has been often used as filler in the
ground layer, e. g. can occur in the modification of calcite as well as aragonite. Therefore,
x-ray diffraction analysis has been proved to be a valuable tool for the examination of the
paint layers too. With common XRD it is rather difficult to carry out those investigations of
specific pigments, as the thickness of the paint layers is in the range of several tens
micrometers or even below. Therefore, synchrotron induced x-ray micro-diffraction at ID22

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of the ESRF could be used in the present work, where the step scan resolution can be
much smaller than the thickness of the paint layers.

The sample investigated consisted of 7 layers in total, whereby a thin layer of pure gold
was suspected to be the uppermost layer. The sequence of the various paints layers as
well as the distribution of the elements present in the pigments could be obtained from the
cross-sectioned specimen. Additionally, synchrotron induced x-ray micro-diffraction
analysis (XRD) enabled the identification of the crystalline structure of the pigments used
for the painting. Traversing the sectioned sample through a focused x-ray beam with a size
of

2 µm allows microscopic resolved analysis of the crystalline constituents within the diverse
paint layers. By this, it is possible to attribute the usage of various pigment minerals within
the paint layers, even including a 2 µm thick gold layer at the surface.

Scope:

1. Forensic paint analyses and comparisons are typically distinguished by sample size that
precludes the application of many standard industrial paint analysis procedures or
protocols. The forensic paint examiner must address concerns such as the issues of a case
or investigation, sample size, complexity and condition, environmental effects, and
collection methods. These factors require that the forensic paint examiner must choose test
methods, sample preparation schemes, test sequence, and degree of sample alteration
and consumption suitable to each specific case.

2. This document is an introduction for the forensic examination of paints and coatings. It is
intended to assist personnel who conduct forensic paint analyses in the evaluation,
selection, and application of tests that may be of value to the investigation. The guidelines
that follow describe methods to develop discriminatory information using an efficient and
reasonable order of testing. The need for validated methods and quality assurance
guidelines is also addressed. This document is not intended to be a detailed methods
description or rigid scheme for the analysis and comparison of paints but a guide to the
strengths and limitations of each analytical method. The goal is to provide a consistent
approach to forensic paint analysis.

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FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY

Forensic assessment

A forensic psychiatric assessment may have a number of purposes. A forensic assessment

may be required of an individual who has been charged with a crime (usually a violent
crime), to establish whether the person has the capacity (in legal terms) to stand trial. If a
person with a mental illness is convicted of an offence, a forensic report may be required to
inform the Court's sentencing decision, as a mental illness at the time of the offence may
be a mitigating factor. A forensic assessment may also take the form of a risk assessment,
to comment on the relationship between the person's mental illness and the risk of further
violent offences.

Medico-legal assessment

A medico-legal psychiatric assessment is required when a psychiatric report is used as

evidence in civil litigation, for example in relation to compensation for work-related stress or
after a traumatic event such as an accident. The psychiatric assessment may be requested
in order to establish a link between the the trauma and the victim's psychological condition,
or to determine the extent of psychological harm and the amount of compensation to be
awarded to the victim.

Polygraphy:

Lie detection is the practice of determining whether someone is lying. Activities of the
body not easily controlled by the conscious mind are compared under different
circumstances. Usually this involves asking the subject control questions where the
answers are known to the examiner and comparing them to questions where the answers
are not known.

Lie detection commonly involves the polygraph. Voice stress analysis may also be
commonly used because it can be applied covertly to monitor voice recordings.

The polygraph detects changes in body functions not easily controlled by the conscious
mind. This includes bodily reactions like skin conductivity and heart rate.

An fMRI can be used to compare brain activity differences for truth and lie. In episode 109
of the popular science show Mythbusters, the three members of the build team attempted

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to fool an fMRI test. Although two of them were unsuccessful, the third was able to
successfully fool the machine, suggesting that fMRI technology still requires further
development.

BRAIN ELECTRICAL OSCILLATION SIGNATURE PROFILING (BEOS)

Introduction:
Brain Electrical Oscillation Signature Profiling (BEOS) is an application of
Electroencephalogram (EEG) and Event Related Potential (ERP) in the field of forensic
sciences with an aim to identify individuals who are involved in criminal activities. This test
intends to check for the presence and or absence of ‘Experiential Knowledge’, a term
coined by the inventor of this technique Prof. C.R. Mukundan, to refer to the various
autobiographical components of experience a person possesses as a result of his or her
personal participation in an event. This technique is very unique as the Experiential
Knowledge is found to be present only in a person who has committed a crime and
therefore has a memory stored in his brain related to the event.

The Basics of BEOS:

Electroencephalograph (EEG) is a method of recording electrical activity in the brain
related to levels of consciousness such as waking state, sleep etc. EEG is obtained by
attaching through electrodes attached to various areas of the scalp and recording the
ongoing electrical activation activity. Event Related Potential (ERP) is any change
superimposed on ongoing EEG evoked by or resulting from the presentation of a stimulus.
ERP studies are very common in neurocognitive research as it is an effective way of
understanding the parts of the brain responsible for different cognitive functions such as
thinking, remembrance or imagination. Here, ERP could be any change in the degree of
electrical activation in particular areas of the brain due to cognitive processing related to the
presentation of a picture, a sentence etc. In the BEOS system, a probe acts as a stimulus
or event that activates memory related areas in the brain, leading to changes in the
electrical properties. The activated electrical signals are recorded and analyzed
automatically by the BEOS system to finally produce a report indicating the presence or
absence of Experiential Knowledge in the person.

Prof. Mukundan’s Contribution:

This technique was developed by a well-known Indian Neuroscientist, Prof.
Mukundan, who has more than 30 years of experience working in the field of neuroscience.

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He is a former Professor and Head of Clinical Psychology Department as well as the

Neuropsychology Laboratory at National Institute of Mental Health & Neurosciences
(NIMHANS). After many years of research in the area of neuropsychology and
electrophysiology, he developed this system, considering the lack of a reliable tool that
would differentiate a person who committed a crime from another who just possesses the
information regarding the same crime. As it was described by Prof. Mukundan, he has only
developed a system that can be used in a forensic set up based on the existing published
and peer-reviewed literature. There has already been abundant literature available on
‘Dual- Process Memory’, differentiation between the ‘Semantic’ and ‘Episodic’ memory and
the structural & functional neural systems that mediate two types of cognitive processing.
Other contributions of Prof. include developing a Neuropsychological Battery for diagnostic
purposes and also a computerized cognitive retraining programme known as Brain
Function Therapy that can be used with the psychiatric as well as neurological patient
population. He also has a number of international publications to his credit including a book
titled “Brain Experience – a Neuroexperiential Perspective” that was released recently.
Currently, he is also a consultant to the Directorate of Forensic Sciences under the Ministry
of Home Affairs of Govt. of India, New Delhi.

BEOS at DFSL, Mumbai.

It was in the year 2003, a BEOS system was acquired by the Central Forensic
Science Laboratrory, Chandigarh, the first by any forensic science laboratory in India,
followed by Directorate of Forensic Sciences, Gandhinagar Gujarat. In 2006, the
Directorate of Forensic Science Laboratories (DFSL), Mumbai, under the Home
Department of Govt. of Maharashtra acquired BEOS system when the Forensic Psychology
Department was established along with Cyber Forensic and Speaker Identification & Tape
Authentication. BEOS was set up in DFSL with the most modern infrastructure including
well - equipped sound - proof rooms with copper - floated floors and cellulose fiber -
sprayed walls. Home Department of Govt. of Maharashtra has also appointed Prof.
Mukundan as the Technical Advisor to the Forensic Psychology Department. Officers
working in this department are qualified in various branches of psychology including
Neuropsychology and Clinical Psychology and have received special training in using
BEOS technique. Currently, there are two BEOS systems functioning at this laboratory and
almost 80 BEOS tests have already conducted within the last 2 years. There have been
numerous cases in which the BEOS Profiling has given really encouraging results as they
were corroborated by physical evidences or even confessional statements directly from the

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subjects themselves. Moreover, many BEOS reports have already been scrutinized by
various courts and have been considered as corroborative evidence in a number of cases.

Validation of BEOS:
This technique has already been validated by the Directorate of Forensic Sciences
under the Ministry of Home Affairs, New Delhi under Dr. Rao, the director and the Chief
Forensic Scientist, Directorate of Forensic Science, New Delhi, through a project conducted
at DFS, Gandhinagar, Gujarat. This project, funded by Technical Information Forecasting
and Assessment Council (TIFAC), New Delhi, aimed at establishing the reliability and
validity of BEOS technique with the help of a crime-like situation, which was simulated.
Results of this experiment revealed that this technique successfully differentiated between
the three groups of individuals; one who participated in the experimental condition, another,
which observed the simulation and the third, to which the entire simulation was described.
The Sensitivity, Specificity and the Error Rates of this technique have also been
established in this project.

Scientific Peer Review & Evaluation of BEOS:

This technique has already been evaluated by neuroscientists in several counties
where it was presented in a series of workshops and conferences. This included
presentation and demonstration at the International Cognitive Neuroscience Conference
organized in New York in 2007. Following this, several workshops and seminars have also
been conducted at Forensic and Medical institutions in the US and well appreciated by both
scientists and other law enforcement agencies. Similarly, Prof. Mukundan was invited by
the British Psychological Society (BPS) to present this system in a series of workshops in
the UK, where experts from the laboratories where BEOS is established in India were also
invited. The director of DFSL, Mumbai Dr. Rukmani Krishnamurthy and Mr. Sunny Joseph
from the Forensic Psychology Department, DFSL, Mumbai also presented the forensic
application of this technique with the help of a number of cases already evaluated in this
laboratory. A group of Forensic Scientists, Neuroscientists and Officials from Home,
Defense & Security Departments including Scotland Yard participated in this workshop and
appreciated the applicability of this technique in evaluating the forensic cases.

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What is Forensic Document Examination?

The term "forensic" means simply, "having to do with the law." Document Examination, as
an established field of scientific study, came into being early in this century as a means of
identifying forgery and establishing the authenticity of documents in dispute. It grew out of
the need of The Court to be able to correctly evaluate document evidence. It has been
stated that "Forgery was practiced from the from the earliest times in every country where
writing was the medium of communication" (The Law of Disputed and Forged Documents,
J. Newton Baker). It was especially profitable in those earlier times of general public
illiteracy. For the reason that most of an examiner's work involves some form of handwriting
problem, the field is sometimes referred to as "Handwriting Identification" and the
practitioner as a "Handwriting Expert". Albert S. Osborn , with the publication of his book
Questioned Documents in 1910, is rightfully credited with laying the foundation of this field
of forensic examination.

Definition of a Document

A document may be broadly defined as anything that bears marks, signs, or symbols which
have meaning or conveys a message to someone.

Scope of Document Examination

• Identification of handwriting and signatures

• Identification of a document as a forgery
• Identification of typewriters, check writers, and photocopies
• Detection of alterations, additions, deletions, or substitutions
• Deciphering alterations and erasures
• Identification and deciphering of indented writing
• Comparisons of inks and identification of type of writing instrument

Handwriting Identification

Handwriting identification is based on the principle that, while handwriting within a language
tends to be alike to the degree that we can meaningfully read it, there are individual
features that distinguish one person's writing from that of another. Just as no two people
are exactly alike, the handwritings of no two people are exactly alike in their combination of

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characteristics. There are, of course, natural variations within the handwriting of each
individual. These variations must be closely and carefully studied by the examiner, so that
he can distinguish between what is a "variation" and what is a "difference".

The examiner must also be cognizant of the differences between "class characteristics"
and "individual characteristics". Class characteristics are those which are common to a
group such as a particular writing system, family grouping, foreign language system, or
professional group. Individual characteristics are those which are personal or peculiar
letters or letter combinations, which, taken together, would not occur in the writing of
another person.

Handwriting identification is a comparison study requiring authenticated specimens of

known handwriting from the individual(s) concerned. These are closely compared to the
handwriting characteristics exhibited by the questioned writing in order to determine
authorship. Like must be compared to like: printing to printing and cursive to cursive, with
comparable letters, letter combinations, words, and numerals.

Forgery

Below are the classes of forgery commonly encountered:

• No attempt is made by the forger to imitate the genuine signature of the person
purportedly signing the document.
• There is an attempt to imitate the genuine signature by some method of tracing of a
model signature.
• There is a freehand attempt to simulate the genuine signature from a model.
• The document and the purported signer are fictitious.
• A "cut & paste" job wherein a genuine signature, or copy thereof, is transferred from
some authentic source to a fraudulent document.

Other disputed signatures include those which are genuine but which were disguised, or
written in some illegible manner, by the writer for the purpose of later deniability; and
signatures which, though genuine, the author either has no memory of executing or is
unwilling to accept as genuine.

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It is possible for the document examiner to identify a document or signature as a forgery,

but it is much less common for the examiner to identify the forger. This is due to the nature
of handwriting in that, while the forger is attempting to imitate the writing habit of another
person, the forger is, at the same time, suppressing his own writing habit, thereby
disguising his own writing.

In attempting to either disguise one's own writing or imitate that of another, the briefer the
body of writing the easier it is to continue the disguise. As the writing becomes more
extended, the greater the probability that one's own subconscious habit will intrude itself
into the disguise attempt.

There are no reliable methods of predicting from the writing whether the author was male or
female, or right-handed or left-handed.

Identification of Typewriters and Checkwriters

With regard to typewriters, questions arise as to whether a series of documents were

prepared on the same typewriter; what make/model of typewriter was used; or when was
the typed document produced?

Typewriters are identifiable as to make and model by means of class characteristics such
as manual/electric, fabric ribbon/carbon film ribbon, typebars/daisywheel/ball element,
typeface design, and so on. Machines may acquire individualizing characteristics to varying
degrees due to use or misuse, damage, and general wear. The degree of success in a
given case will vary with the type of machine with which the examiner is faced.

Check writers, also known as check protectors, may be identified as to manufacturer by its
mechanism and typeface design, and individualized by accidental characteristics resulting
from damage and wear and tear.

Identification of Indented Writing

Indented writing is an imprint which may be left on the underlying pages when the top sheet
of paper is written upon. This impression of the writing is influenced by pen pressure and
thickness of the paper. Indented writing is very useful as a form of connecting evidence,
such as tying a robbery note to a writing pad recovered from a suspect. Classically,

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indented writing was identified and deciphered by means of low angle oblique light and
photography. More recently, an instrument known as an Electrostatic Detection Apparatus,
or ESDA, is now used to produce a visual image of the indented writing on transparency
film. This procedure is non-destructive, and rather non-detectable.

Detection and Decipherment of Obliterations and Alterations:

These examinations are performed in order to detect whether a portion of a document has
been altered, some portion rendered not readily visible, or some text added. If an
obliteration/alteration is identified, then the method is determined and described, and if
possible the text of the obliterated entry deciphered. Instruments such as a Video Spectral
Comparator (VSC) assist in this study. The VSC allows the examiner to examine the
document through infrared illumination using an infrared sensitive CCD camera as a
detector. The image is examined by viewing on a monitor, and digital image processing
through a computer. This is very useful in ink differentiation.

Qualifications of a Forensic Document Examiner

A Forensic Document Examiner must have a sound basic education through the
baccalaureate degree. The typical training period is two years of study and practical
experience in an established questioned documents laboratory where the examiner trainee
studies the basic literature, completes study projects, becomes familiar with the role of
forensic sciences in general and questioned documents in particular as they relate to the
legal system.

It should be understood that questioned documents is a valid and legitimate field of study
as a discipline in forensic examinations and identification. It is not to be confused with
"graphologists" or "grapho-analysts" who claim the ability to access personality traits of a
person from their handwriting. Whether the claim is valid or not, the association of these
individuals with handwriting has caused some of them to claim sufficient expertise to
determine whether or not a signature is genuine. (Source: Southeastern Association of
Forensic Document Examiners, [Link])

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Why Is Document Examination Conducted?

The examination of a document is conducted to determine:
• Its origin, i.e., where did the document come from?
• Its production source, i.e., what person or machine produced it?
• Its production process, i.e., how was it made?
• Its inscription, i.e., what has faded or been obliterated?
• Its chastity, i.e., what changes, if any, have been made to it?
• Its integrity, i.e., is it genuine or false?
• Its legitimacy, i.e., is it an original or a reproduction, and if so, what generation?

Handwriting:
Handwriting is an acquired skill and clearly one that is a complex perceptual motor
task, sometimes referred to as a neuromuscular task.

Skilled writing movements are so commonplace that one is inclined to overlook their
complexity. Without exaggeration, however writing is one of the most advanced
achievements of the human hand.

The hand is an extremely complex and delicate mechanism, containing some

twenty-seven bones controlled by more than forty muscles. Most of the muscles are
situated in the lower arm and connect to the fingers by an intricate set of tendons. Their
ability in manipulating a writing instrument is precisely coordinated by a timing system
under a neural control of movements of the arm, the hand, and the fingers. The precise
ordering and timing of the movements determines the structure of the pattern i.e., recorded
with the pen or pencils.

The development of writing is complex because, it is, in part, culture dependent,

and cultures differ with locales and undergo constant change. The evidence of this
dependence in manifesting in class, system, or national characteristics.
Writing is a continuous or flowing task, not one of discrete or separated actions.
There are apparent interruptions at word boundaries, but in many cases the pen movement
may be continuous and uninterrupted, although not recorded as an inked line.
A feature of skill performance, and certainly of handwriting, is that it involves the
movement occurs at its proper time and place in the sequence. The particular pattern of
these movements constitutes the habitual aspects of writing that are peculiar to each

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individual. The fact that, with practice and skill, the execution of writing habits becomes
more automatic renders the writing process less subject to conscious control.

*1. Huber, A. Roy; Headrick, M.A (1999) Handwriting Identification: facts and fundamentals; CRC press ltd.

Handwriting identification:

There are two fundamental fields of study pertaining to handwriting:

1. The study of handwriting as a neuromuscular activity, its development as a skill

and the effect upon it of various and external factors.
2. The study of handwriting identification as a discriminatory process.

Handwriting identification is a discriminatory process that derives from the

compression of writing habits and an evaluation of significance of their similarities or
differences.

What has been commonly and frequently referred to characteristics or writing

features, or qualities are simplified manifestations of the habits formed. They are the
discriminating elements of handwriting.

Writing characteristics have been commonly described as being of one of two types:
class characteristics (the products of prescribed writing systems) and individual
characteristics (the particular idiosyncrasies of the individual). Class characteristics were
seen in predominant writing system but the current move of the many more excellence of
modern writing, class characteristics are progressively less discernible and identifiable in
the inscription of present day writers. The individual characteristic – is a large combination
of handwriting system.

*1. Huber, A. Roy; Headrick, M.A (1999) Handwriting Identification: facts and fundamentals; CRC press ltd.

Process of underlying identification:

The careful and systematic use of evidence, which is common to the many
disciplines of forensic science, is directed toward the identification of an unknown. The
process involves three distinct steps or stages:

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1. Analysis or discriminating element determination: The unknown item and the

known items must, by analysis, by examination or study, be reduced to a matter
of their discriminating elements. These are the habits of behavior or of
performances that serve to differentiate between products or people, which may
be directly observable, measurable or otherwise perceptible aspects of the item.
2. Comparison: The discriminating element of the unknown, observed or
determined through analysis, examination or study, must be compared with
those known, observed, or recorded of the standard items.
3. Evaluation: Similarities or dissimilarities in discriminating elements will each
have a certain value for discrimination purposes, determined by their cause,
independence, or likelihood of occurrence. The weight or significance of the
similarities or the difference of each element must then be considered and the
explanation for them proposed.

Accordingly, we would suggest five respects in which a signature, or a writing, may

be judged to rate its intricacies or complexity:

1. The aggregate line length: Generally speaking, the longer the line, the more
complex the design, there are of course some stylist signature that contain
length of strokes of no purpose. We are not referring to this.
2. The number of pronounced directional changes in the line: When directional
changes are angles in the vicinity of 180° they constitute retraces. When less
than 90° they may be departure in straight-line movement or commencement of
curves. If not the directional changes in writing will be due simply to allograph
design.
3. The number of overwriting: Overwriting can be misleading stroke direction, and
thus confusing as to allograph construction. These are two types retracing and
superimposition. We define retracing as a line situated over another line, but is
generated by pen motion in the opposite direction. A superimposition define a
line situated over another line and is generated by pen motion in the same
direction.
4. The continuity of the pen movement: It is based on continuation of pen, pen lift,
pen pause, etc.
5. The repetition of well segregated, complex pen motion: Fluent and complex pen
motion can be executed with ease but only when natural or practiced.
*1. Huber, A. Roy; Headrick, M.A (1999) Handwriting Identification: facts and fundamentals; CRC press ltd.

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Class characteristics:
The handwriting characteristics reflected in a group of individuals and are learnt by the child
at the onset of learning to write. The style of writing, which is acquired by the learner, is
what which is fashionable at the particular time and place. Following are the features, which
are covered in class characteristics:-

1) Type of movement
2) Line quality
3) Speed and skill
4) Rhythm
5) Spacing between letters, word and line
6) Slant
7) Alignment
8) Connection and strokes between letters
9) Size and proportions of letters
10) Pen pressure, pen hold, pen position and pen shading
11) Coordination of writing muscles

*3. Ellen, David; scientific examination of documents; 3rd edition; 2001; Taylor & [Link].

Individual characteristics:
The writer with the passage of time acquires personal characteristics and each
individual develops peculiarities in his handwriting some are consciously acquired for style
and pictorial appearance or for convenience, while others habits become rooted in the
writing process. The principle on which the individual handwritings characteristics are found
in the handwriting are: -
1) Identifying and differentiating characteristics which are most divergent
from the regular copy-book standard are of the most force
2) Repeated characteristics which are inconspicuous should be first sought
3) Characteristics those are modified or individualized by different writers in
different ways. The curious physical twist in the formations of characters
would show individualized characteristics of a writer.

*3. Ellen, David; scientific examination of documents; 3rd edition; 2001; Taylor & [Link].

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National Characteristics:

To the extent that writing system within a country share common features and
induce class characteristics in the writing of its people, which are different from the
products of writing system of other countries, such features are referred to as National
Characteristics.

*1. Huber, A. Roy; Headrick, M.A (1999) Handwriting Identification: facts and fundamentals; CRC press ltd.

Accidentals characteristics in writing:

There are occurrences in writings that may have little or no plausible explanation.
They may be unusual forms, shapes or movements, breaks in the writing lines, even the
doubling of some letters or parts of letters. They are more often minor in nature, in
frequent, and of insufficient concern to the writer as to warrant attention or correction.

Definition: Accidentals are isolated, brief, or temporary digressions from normal writing
practices. Rather a designation or label given to an element of a questioned writing that
digresses significantly from the normal and natural writing practices observed in the writing
standards.

*1. Huber, A. Roy; Headrick, M.A (1999) Handwriting Identification: facts and fundamentals; CRC press ltd.

Circumstances for the production of handwriting:

Osborn and others have generally agreed that despite numerous similarities in two
sets of writing a conclusion or identity can’t be made if there are one or more differences in
fundamental features of writing. There are some points suggested for this:
i) Adequacy of standards
ii) Accidental occurrences
iii) Alternative styles
iv) Ambidexterity
v) Carelessness or negligence
vi) Changes in health condition of writer
vii) Changes in physical condition of writer
viii) Changes in mental condition of writer

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ix) Concentration on the act of writing

x) Disguise or deliberate change
xi) Influence of Drugs or alcohol
xii) Influence of medications
xiii) Intentional change for later denial
xiv) Nervous tension
xv) Natural variation
xvi) Writing condition – place or circumstances
xvii) Writing instrument
xviii) Writing position – including stance
xix) Writing surface
xx) Writing under stress

*1. Huber, A. Roy; Headrick, M.A (1999) Handwriting Identification: facts and fundamentals; CRC press ltd.

What makes handwriting identification difficult?

There are a number of circumstances that have an effect upon the conclusion,
which can be drawn in handwriting studies and examination. These include:

 The qualitative insufficiency of the habits exhibited by the questioned material

 Wide variation in the standard from one writing occasion to the next
 The quantitative insufficiency of the habits that the questioned material contains
 Poor writing skill and degeneration of letter forms
 The unreliability of reproductions as a record of writing habits and of the character
of the original document, when examination of the original is not possible
 The deliberate distortion or disguised of the questioned writing or of the writing
standards
 An anomalous condition of the writer or circumstances of writing of the questioned
document

*1. Huber, A. Roy; Headrick, M.A (1999) Handwriting Identification: facts and fundamentals; CRC press ltd.

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A. Elements of Style

1. Arrangement
• Influenced by artistic ability, sense of proportion and instruction received.
• The product of a group of habits.

2. Class of Allograph
The four styles of allograph.

3. Connections
• Interword.
• Intraword.

4. Designs of Allograph and their Constructions

• Correspondence to foreign/domestic or particular writing systems.
• Number, nature, position, sequence, and direction of strokes in letter
composition.
• Use of two or more forms for the same letter.
• Capitalization – divergences from standard practices.

5. Dimensions
• Proportions of elements of letters, i.e., of bowls to the staffs, bodies to
loops, of arches to loops.
• Absolute sizes.
• Relative sizes – of specific letters to specific letters,
– According to position in words.

6. Slant or Slop
• Of the writing in general, and,
• Of letters of parts of letter in particular.

7. Spacing
• Interword.
• Intraword.

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B. Elements of Execution

8. Abbreviations
• Word contractions that eliminate letters.
• Letter combinations that sacrifice from for speed.

9. Alignment
The relation of successive letter of a signature, a word or line of writing to an actual
or imaginary base line.

10. Commencements and Terminations

• Their length, direction, and path
• Their taper (the abruptness with which the instrument approaches and leaves the
paper)

11. Diacritics and Punctuation – presence, style, and location.

12. Embellishments
Including flourishes, ornamentation, rubrics, and underscrores.

13. Legibility or Writing Quality

Ease of recognition of letter or adherence to copybook form.

14. Line Continuity

The presence/ absence of pen stops, pen lifts, or retracings.

15. Line Quality

The degree of regularity (i.e., smoothness and /or gradation) to the writing stroke as
is judged from the consistency of its nature and of its path in a prescribed direction. It
varies from smooth and controlled to tremulous and erratic.

16. Pen Control

o Pen Hold
o Pen Position
o Point Load (pen pressure)
• To be considered if and when determinable.

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• Evidenced by shading, greater deposition of ink or graphite or by the

depression of the paper, Called rhythm, or fluency or a flowing hand when it
materializes as a harmonious and graduated recurrence.
• Absolute – occurring in all writing.
• Relative – greater or lesser in some strokes.

17. Writing Movement

o Variants in the predominating action of the writing instrument. May be three-
dimensional.
o Observed in letter formation and interword connections that may be:
a. Garlanded – anticlockwise movements predominate.
b. Arched – clockwise movements predominate.
c. Angular – straight lines take precedence to curves.
d. Indeterminable

C. Attributes of All Writing Habits

18. Consistency or Natural Variation

The precision with which the habits are executed on repeated occasions.

19. Persistency
The frequency with which a given habit occurs when the occasion permits.

D. Combinations Writing Habits

20. Lateral Expansion

o Ranges from contracted to expand.
o The product of spacing and letter formation.

21. Word Proportions

o Vertical dimension versus horizontal dimension.
o The product of size and spacing.

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Classification style

1. The classification of inherent characteristics of handwriting, e.g., skill, letter

forms, etc.
2. The classification of variations in the arrangement of handwriting on a
document, particularly the manner of completing a cheque form, sometimes
referred to as the completion method.

There are nine aspects according to Angst and Erismann(1972) in Zurich

kantonpolizei laboratory;

o Writing skill
o Line quality
o Slope
o Size
o Width (lateral expansion)
o Angularity
o Type and degree of connection
o Position of diacritics
o Construction of cursive and block letters

Another measurement of handwriting analysis given by Allan, Pearson, and Brown

(1978)

o The number of lines taken to write a passage

o The margin widths
o The paragraph indention
o The length of the last 10 spaces
o The length of last 11 words and spaces
o The length of first 10 spaces
o The length of the first 11 words and spaces
o The ratio of relative heights of letters with ascenders

Ansell, (1979) reviewed a number of the classification programs developed to that

point, including unpublished work that he conducted with [Link] at the
metropolitan police forensic science laboratory in London. There are 18 parameters

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use for classify the samples of block lettering from 134 subjects, that was
successful in discriminating between all but three pairs of subjects. The 18
parameters are summarized as concerning:

o The design and shape of the “A”.

o The commencement of the “A”, “B”, “D”, and other letters.
o The termination of the “G”.
o The number of strokes in the constructions of the “K”.
o The centers of the “M” and “W” (long or short).
o The termination of the “U”.

McCarthy (1981), in three case illustrations, reiterates what others had said, that
asynchronous writings display:

1. Greater variation:
a. In writing styles
b. In arrangement or location of written material
c. In the use and manner of abbreviations
d. In methods of record production
e. In writing angles and in pen pressures
f. In writing inks, instruments and pen performance
2. Less evidence of progression in left hand margins
3. Less evidence of prior knowledge of text to be written
4. Less or no evidence of relatable indentations on pages behind or (in page
substitutions) from pages above.

Foley (1987), classify another measurement:

1. The writing instrument

2. The writing position
3. The writing media (pen or pencil and paper)
4. The paper position relative to the writer
5. The writing space

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On the other hand internal influences should include:

1. The writer’s state of mind
2. The writer’s state of health
3. The formality and informality
4. The level of trauma and pleasure
5. The writer’s state of intoxication or psychosis.

*1 for reference

What is Forensic Science?

The field of science that is used in the judicial process. A number of scientific disciplines
commonly make up the more active segments of forensic science. Some are derived from
the physical, medical and dental sciences, and the best qualified workers specialise in the
court oriented aspects of each discipline. Questioned document examination is a notable
part of forensic science in that it nearly developed directly from the need of court experts to
answer problems regarding documents instead of growing out of established fields of
science.

What is Documents?

In its fullest meaning, any material that contains marks, symbols, or signs either visible,
partially visible or invisible that may ultimately convey a meaning or message to someone.
Pencil, or ink writing, typewriting or printing on paper are the more usual forms of
documents.
A term suggesting that there is an argument or controversy over the document, and strictly
speaking this is its true meaning. In this text, as well as through prior usage, however,
disputed document and questioned document are employed interchangeably to signify a
document that is under special scrutiny
Any Document about which some issue has been raised or that is under scrutiny are known
to be as questioned document.

Questioned Documents

Questioned documents are those suspected of being fraudulent or whose source is

unknown or background is disputed. Not all questioned documents are fraudulent. There

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may be a variety of reasons for questioning a document other than to invalidate it or to

establish the basis for a criminal action. Many documents are examined closely only to
identify their authors or to establish their source. Of those suspected of being fraudulent,
probably at least half are exactly what they claim to be perfectly documents. But the
remainders, which involve fraud, forgery, blackmail or a host of other lesser crimes or
offenses, are instruments that may represent to the individual concerned sizable wealth,
property or personal possessions or reputations and respectability. Thus the truth about
these questioned assumes importance of large magnitude to all which they concern.

Examination of Questioned Documents

One who studies scientifically the details and elements of documents in order to identify
their source or to discover other facts concerned to them are known to be as Document
Examiners. Document examiners are often referred to as handwriting identification experts,
but to day the work has outgrown this latter title and involves other problems than merely
the examination of handwriting.
The act of making a close and critical study of any material, and with questioned
document is the process necessary to discover the facts about them. Various types of
examinations are under taken, including microscopic, visual, photographic, chemical, UV
and IR examinations.

Expert witness

A legal term used to describe a witness who by reason of his special technical
training or experience is permitted to express an opinion regarding the issue, or a certain
aspect of the issue, which is involved in a court action in order to assist the court in
administering justice.

Types of cases acceptable in the forensic organizations

- Bank Frauds: cheques, traveler cheques, withdrawal forms, loan bonds, fixed
Deposit receipts, misappropriation and impersonation cases.
- Co- operative society frauds
- Postal insurance frauds
- Chit fund frauds
- Cases of scams and leakages
- Murder cases-letters written by the accused to mislead, lodge registers

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- Lockup death cases

- Dowry death cases
- Suicide cases
- Threatening letters
- Departmental cases such as educational cases etc.
- Cases of civil nature such as Registered/Unregistered deeds, agreements, promissory
notes etc.

Marking, Preservation and Collection

Marking:

The process of segregating the disputed portion of text from out of the total document by
marking distinctively for comparison is known as “Marking of Documents”.
• The Questioned portions should be encircled and numbered as Q1, Q2, Q3….
• The Standard portions should be encircled and numbered as S1, S2, S3….

Handling and Preservation:

• Documents should be handled with clean hands carefully

• They should not be cut, torn or trimmed even if they are bigger in size.
• Partially torn documents should be joined with clean cellophane tape carefully.
• Documents should not be exposed to moisture, sunlight, etc.
• Documents should be packed in clean paper/ cloth lined/ cellophane covers.
• The investigating officer should not make any additions or underlines on the
disputed or standard portions.
• The investigating officer should put initial, date and numbering etc., in one corner,
especially away from the marked portions.
• The documents should be sent in original form not folded or unfolded.
• Charred documents should be carefully lifted and placed in a suitable card board
box and should be transported with care.

Collection of samples:
When samples are taken, there are two essential and easily remembered principles that
have to be followed:
• It is necessary to compare like with like.
• There must be adequate material.

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• Comparisons are made of each letter of the questioned sample with that of
specimen sample.
• Nothing is gained by comparing the letter `a’ with some other letters. It is also
important that all those present in the questioned writings are represented in the
known writings.

When samples of writing are taken it is necessary to obtain adequate amounts of

comparable writing. The subject is allowed to write the same wordings as that in
questioned, in the same style of writing i.e. block capitals, cursive, or disconnected
script. Subject should be asked to write the required passage at least five or ten times.
The pen used could play important role in the quality of writing.

PROCUREMENT OF STANDARDS

Standards:

Standards are writings or signatures or initials etc., written by a known person taken for the
purpose of comparison, that is standards also include typed/ printed, scripts, seals, stamp
impressions, etc., taken from a known source. Standard writings are of two types-

• Admitted writings
• Specimen writings

METHODS OF EXAMINATION

The methodology of forgery analysis is first a question, where the authenticity checking
takes place. Depending upon the form of fraud and the type document involved a first
examination will not necessarily be done in the document laboratory, but at the first line of
inspection; for example blank institutions, immigration services, social security services etc.
therefore, the personnel should be capable of identifying a false document (in the time
available and technical support) before ending it to the Forensic document laboratory for
thorough checking. For suspect documents, that are not identified by a first line of
checking, the entire examination process will be handled by Forensic experts to confirm or
refute the suspection. There are three levels of forged documents, depending upon the
authenticity features to be checked.

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LEVEL – I : It Includes features, which can be visually examined without special

equipment, such as stamps, mechanical erasure, perforation of staples, residues of
adhesives, obliterated writing and other visible traces of manipulation.

LEVEI – II : It refers to features to be checked with technical facilities such as- visible light
to look at printing or writing quality, small magnifiers which give magnification upto 10X,
UV light to detect UV visible forgery traces (chemical eradication), infrared radiation to
examine writing inks etc., can be used.

LEVEL – III: Examinations have to be carried out in the document laboratory, with
sophisticated equipment that cannot be used for field examination.
• Electrostatic examination of latent impressions of handwriting and detection of
indentations (indentations or erased writings, traced signatures on cheques or
passports).
• Juxtaposition as well as superposition comparison with microscope.
• High magnification microscopic examination to detect trace evidence of mechanical
erasure or substitution (residues of writing and printing ink, adhesives, traces of
cutting, evidence for manipulation of staples, binding, stitching, etc).
• Infrared absorption and infrared luminescence examination to decipher non
destructively faint or obliterated writing and printing (traced signatures, modified
stamp cachets).
• Detection of chemical erasures.
• Spectroscopic examination using instruments like Video Spectral Comparator.

Different Types of Cases as Concerned to Questioned Document

“Handwriting”

What is handwriting?
Handwriting is a neuromuscular process that originates in the brain. Some researchers
have called it brain writing. For litigation purposes it is important to know whether the
normal process has in any way been impeded either through the use of medication or
drugs, or through illness or extreme old age.
“In its restricted sense therefore handwriting may be considered as the written speech of
individual; like his every act it soon becomes impressed with characteristics peculiar to him,
and tending to differentiate him from all other individuals. This establishes for him a

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customary and distinctive style in writing which may be more or less varied from time to
time by accidental causes such as haste, carelessness, position in writing, excitement,
weakness or disease.
* Article in American law Journal Cited in 21, or. L.J. 46

Principles of Handwriting

1) The handwriting of every nature writer is personal and individual to him alone.
2) A person cannot produce in a mechanical manner exactly what has been written first.
There must be certain natural variation in writing of the same person.
3) Related to the above principle, it is a fact that one cannot write two signatures precisely
alike.
4) If two signatures are precisely alike than one of them, must be a disguised or forged
signature.
5) Every person’s writing undergoes gradual changes in the course of life however in most
of the cases the change are very slow.
6) Two different person cannot write in a similar style
7) A writer cannot exceed his writing, skill and ability unless he makes serious effects and
practice.
8) A persons cannot adopt different styles of writings at different times, as to change one’s
normal style of writing is an exceeding difficult task.
9) An attempt to disguise lead to an inferior quality of writing and the disguise is always
superficial. The writer however skilled he may be can never be able to effectively
disguise his handwriting in respect of all the characteristic feature of writing.
10) The attempt disguise is most of the simple in nature.
11) Handwriting does not exclusively depend upon the physical movement of hand or the
writing instrument used.
12) In spite of all the external factors such as nature of writing instrument, position of writer,
nature of writing support, lighting condition, influence of external condition etc, it is a
proved fact that handwriting is ‘BRAIN WRITING’ controlled by the signal sent by
nervous system through hand.

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Process of underlying identification

The careful and systematic use of evidence, which is common to the many disciplines of
forensic science, is directed toward the identification of an unknown. The process involves
three distinct steps or stages:
4. Analysis or discriminating element determination: The unknown item and the
known items must, by analysis, by examination or study, be reduced to a matter of their
discriminating elements. These are the habits of behavior or of performances that
serve to differentiate between products or people which may be directly observable,
measurable or otherwise perceptible aspects of the item.
5. Comparison: The discriminating element of the unknown, observed or determined
through analysis, examination or study, must be compared with those known, observed,
or recorded of the standard items.
6. Evaluation: Similarities or dissimilarities in discriminating elements will each have a
certain value for discrimination purposes, determined by their cause, independence, or
likelihood of occurrence. The weight or significance of the similarities or the difference
of each element must then be considered and the explanation for them proposed.

In evaluating the results, a careful deliberation is made regarding the discovered

particulars, similarities and/or differences and the unique value thereof. The knowledge and
experience of the examiners as well as consulting collections, plays an important role.
Often, it is more difficult to draw definite conclusions on the authenticity or a common
source of documents, than to draw conclusions on differences.

Natural Variations
No two samples of writing prepared by any one are identical in every detail, since
variation is an integral part of the Natural writing.
The amount and kind of variation differs among writers and in its way forms an
important element in the Identification.
Variation is primarily due to the lack of machine like precision in the human body,
but it is also influenced by external factors, such as writing position, writing instrument or
care of execution.
Writing variation is also influenced by physical and mental conditions, such as
fatigue, intoxication, drug use, illness and nervousness. These several factors produce a
verifying degree of deterioration in the quality of writing. Age of person has a greater

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influence on variation. There are changes or variations in handwriting (Gradual

Development with respect to the stages of life). The variations are minimal after maturity.

All the factors that identify hand writing fall into two general and some what overlapping
groups, General and Individual Characteristics. General characteristics, as the name
implies are those common to a number of writers and may result from influences such as
writing system studied, family, association, trade, training or education. Individual
characteristics are more or less peculiar to a specific writer.
General characteristics, of course, have little weight in identifying a writer, as it can readily
be seen that there are others with the same writing traits. Individual characteristics, on the
other hand, constitute the backbone of an identification; but if two specimens of writing
were not prepared by the same writer, this can be established through significant
differences in either individual or class characteristics.

General characteristics
The handwriting characteristics reflected in a group of individuals and are learnt by the child
at the onset of learning to write. The style of writing, which is acquired by the learner, is
what which is fashionable at the particular time and place. Following are the features, which
are covered in class characteristics:-
• Skill level
• Slant
• Speed
• Spacing
• Alignment
• Line quality
• Movement
• Pen pressure
• Pen Lift
• Pen Position
• Shading
• Splicing
• Relative size and proportion of letters

Individual characteristics
The writer with the passage of time acquires personal characteristics and each individual
develops peculiarities in his handwriting some are consciously acquired for style and

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pictorial appearance or for convenience, while others habits become rooted in the writing
process. The principle on which the individual handwritings characteristics are found in the
handwriting are: -
4) Identifying and differentiating characteristics which are most divergent from the regular
copy-book standard are of the most force.
5) Repeated characteristics which are inconspicuous should be first sought .
6) Characteristics that is modified or individualized by different writers in different ways.
The curious physical twist in the formations of characters would show individualized
characteristics of a writer.

A Characteristic that is highly personal or peculiar and is likely to occur in other instances,
which leads to an unmistakable identity of two writings. Some such minute and
inconspicuous characteristics are:-
• Commencement and finish of the letters - a, b. c, etc.
• Length and width of top and bottom loops - d, f, g, y, etc.
• Planning of diacritics and their execution – i, t
• Commencement or finish of circles – a, d, g, 0, 9
• Execution of numerals – 0 to 9
How a person executes a particular letter in different words and in same words,
connections with previous letter or the succeeding letters are also considered in individual
characteristics.

Accidentals characteristics in writing

There are occurrences in writings that may have little or no plausible explanation. They
may be unusual forms, shapes or movements, breaks in the writing lines, even the doubling
of some letters or parts of letters. They are more often minor in nature, in frequent, and of
insufficient concern to the writer as to warrant attention or correction.

Factors affecting handwriting characteristics

1. Extrinsic: Physiological constraints, circumstantial, literacy and education, imitations,

surface and texture of writing surface, type of pen, physical environment, etc.
2. Intrinsic: Physical health, mental health, temporal states (alcohol, drugs, and hypnosis),
genetic factors, etc.

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Thus it is the job of the document examiner to understand these factors as they might
relate to a specific situation. Our aim is to understand the relationship between mental
status of an individual and his or her handwriting.

“Signatures”
The name of the person or mark representing it, as written by himself or herself is termed
as signature. The signature becomes highly individualized, often in a style quite distinct
from that of the writer’s other handwriting. How a person signs his name depends upon
numerous factors such muscular control, co-ordination, health, age, nervous temperament,
the frequency at which he is called upon to write and to some extent upon his personality.
Through repetition the writer executes a semi automatic formation of strokes, which tends
to assume a consistent pattern, but always varying slightly from his ideal and from other
specimens of his/her signatures.

Characteristics of Genuine Signatures

• Authentic writer writes freely or subconsciously because he has been signing his
signature for years.
• Authentic signature is rapid, smooth, rhythmic, carelessness or obvious corrections
are normally seen.
• Combination of heavy pressure of delicate strokes.
• Flowering ending strokes.

The Examination process-

1. Regardless of the type of exhibits submitted for analysis or the purpose of the forensic
examinations, certain preliminary examination procedures should be followed inn variably
before taking up the analysis of the exhibits.
2. The document examiner should always verify that all the exhibits listed in the requisition
form are available prior to commencing any examination
3. The document examiner should write the case number and the exhibit number on each
exhibit unless otherwise requested by the investigator. If the exhibit cannot be labeled, it
should be appropriately covered upon which the above information should be written.
Exhibit tags or labels can be attached to certain items (e.g. Rubber Stamps, Seals,
Typewriters etc.) to facilitate the marking of these items.
4. Before commencing the examination, the synopsis of all the exhibits is prepared. This
will provide a description of all the exhibits received regarding the origin, the writing
instrument and the date of tits production.

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5. The following information should be recorded during the examination of the exhibits
a) The physical condition of the exhibits
b) Any suspicious or unusual factors
6. Most conventional forensic document examinations involve two classes of material-
‘Questioned’ and ‘Standard’. The handwriting includes signatures initials numerals and the
other written material.
7. The questioned writing should be examined with the aid of a hand magnifier or
alternatively with a stereo microscope to evaluate the following:
a. Line quality
b. Inherent signs of forgery
c. Features indicative of disguise
d. Evid4nce of more than one writer
e. Paper fiber disturbances
f. Features indicative of tampering
g. Any unnatural and unusual features
8. The standard writings obtained from each writer are also to be examined using hand-
magnifier or a stereo microscope to study the following
a. Line Quality
b. Evidence of more than one writer
c. Features indicative of disguise or distortion
d. Suitability of specimens as a basis for comparison with the questioned material and
e. Any other noteworthy features
9. It should be ensured that all the specimens supplied belong to the same writer on inter
se comparison before the comparison process is taken up.
10. The writing habits comprising of the general and individual writing characteristics of the
writer are to be carefully and properly evaluated both in the questioned and the standard
writings before the comparison of the questioned and the standard writings is made.
11. Any dissimilarity or divergence must be treated as significant features unless it is
reasonably accounted for.
12. The opinion should be arrived at after a precise conclusion is made after the
examination and the comparison of the questioned and the standard writings/material is
completed.
The data thus generated from the4 questioned writings in the form of individual writing
characteristics detailed above is then carefully analyzed and correlated with the individual’s
writing habits from the specimen writing. After careful and thorough examination i.e.
analysis, evaluation and interpretation of data, both in the form of general and individual

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writing habits, a definite conclusion regarding the common authorship or otherwise for a set
of handwritings or signatures will be arrived at.

Case 1: Signature Comparison

Description:
Comparison of red enclosed Questioned signature marked as ‘Q-1 to Q-4’ with Specimen
Signatures marked as ‘S-1 to S-5’ and Admitted Signatures marked as ‘A-1, A-2, A-3’.

Observation:
On careful examination, dissimilarities were observed in writing habits of the writer such as
relative size and proportion of various characters, skill, hesitations, pen pauses, slightly
slower speed in the questioned signatures marked as Q-1 to Q-4 on comparison with the
specimen signatures S-1 to S-5.
Dissimilarities were observed in individual writing characteristics in the form and formation
of various characters. Some of the dissimilar characters are ‘G, s, d & y'; the loop of the
letters ‘d, d’ in word “Reddy”; the style and pattern at the finishing of the letter ‘y’; the
beginning stroke of letter ‘G’.

Opinion:
The person who wrote the blue enclosed signatures marked S1 to S-5; A1 to A3 did not
write the red enclosed signatures marked Q1 to Q4.

“Forgery”
Forgery is the making of a false document or part of a document dishonestly or fraudulently
to support any claim or title and a person is said to make a false document.
1. Who dishonestly makes a signs or executes a document or part of a document.
2. Who without lawful authority, dishonestly or fraudulently, by cancellation or otherwise,
alters a document in an material part.

Features of forged handwriting documents:

• Where as in the case of forgery attention is paid and an unnatural appearance is
seen in signature.
• Lack of individuality
• Appearance being slowly written.
• Unnatural appearance of drawing

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• Study attention to the formation of letters.

• Careful correction of mistakes.
• Identically written signatures indicate tracing.
• Unnatural starts or stops.
• Have of rhythm
• Inconsistent letter formation.

Types of Forgery
For the purposes of the subject of identification of handwriting forgeries may be classified
as following-
1. Freehand or simulated forgery
2. Traced forgery
3. Forgery by memory
4. Forgery By Impersonation
5. Forgery over a genuine signature.
6. Forgery by transplanting a genuine signature
7. Forgery of rubber seals or stamps.

Freehand or Simulated Forgery

Freehand Or Simulated Forgery is merely an imitation or a copy of a genuine writing or
signature and is also known as “imitation” or “copying” forgery.
In this type of forgery, the forger keeps the model before him and tries to copy or imitate the
apparent broad features of the writing as best as he can accord his power of observation,
ability and skill.

Traced Forgery
A traced forgery is one in which an attempt is made to reproduce the exact outlines of the
model by some Tracing Process. A forgery thus committed necessarily bears a close
resemblance to the model, especially in the general forms of the letters.
Traced forgery shows-
1. Exact Replica
2. Mathematical similarities
3. Line quality is defective
4. Close resemblance with model

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Methods of Tracing:
1. Tracing by Glass Plate and Torch:-

2. Tracing by Carbon Paper:-

Tracing can be done by using the carbon paper. The carbon paper is placed on the
document on which the forgery is to be done and then the model of genuine signature is
placed over the carbon paper. Move the pointed object or pointed pencil over the genuine
signatures so that this signature is traced on the underlying document.
This type of forgery leaves traces of carbon paper on the document on which the forgery is
committed.

3. Tracing by pointed pen and torch:-

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Forgery by Memory
Forgery by memory is very much akin to freehand forgery. The forger in such cases mostly
depends upon his mental impressions of the forms of the letters of the letters of the
intended writer's signature and does not usually have a model before him.
As a matter of fact, no two opposite writing habits co-exits in the hand writing of one and
the same individual and any divergence therein is a conclusive proof of the forged nature of
the writing.

Forgery by Impersonation
Forgery by impersonation refers to writing or a signature made by a person representing
himself to be another person to whom the writing or the signature may either be made
bonafide by the person. Such types are also called as Allograph signatures or writings.

Forgery over a genuine Signature

This type of forgery is commonly practices in India to sign on blank sheets and entrust them
to their trusted clerks, attorneys or others in whom harmful, for the there have been several
instances where the confidence has been betrayed and such papers have been made use
of dishonestly for making an agreement. Promissory note, receipt, will etc.

Forgery by transplanting a genuine Signature

In such type of forgery the genuine signature is transplanted over the forged document.
As some person have a very peculiar habit of signing on the revenue stamp or stamps in
such a manner that no part of the result is that the stamps can be conveniently removed
and reaffixed to some other document dishonestly which subsequently becomes a matter
of dispute.

Forgery of rubber seals or Stamps

It is not uncommon to find that rubber stamps or seals are also forged. Some persons are
under the impression that these can be successfully duplicated and the fraud cannot be
detected.
The identification of such document is very tough task but, there always remain some
lacunae which clearly establish the fraud.

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Identifying a forger

One of the most difficult problems is to establish from a study of the writing who prepared a
forgery, often the question cannot be answered, since the process of forgery is itself an
excellent form of disguise.
With only a fair imitation of the genuine signature, identification of the forger by means of
his writing alone is the exception rather than the rule. Seldom do enough of the forger’s
own writing habits to serve as the basis for identification.
In rather rare instances, however the forger may be identified by a number of his small but
highly individual habits that occur in simulated signatures
With spurious (non-imitated) signatures, especially those in whi9ch the writer did not
attempt to change or disguise his natural writing, it is much easier to establish who
prepared the signatures.
The following instruments are useful for identification and detection of forgeries
1. Simple magnifying glasses
2. Stereoscopic Microscope
3. VSC-1, VSC-4, VSC-5000 and universal Comparator Projectina
4. The transparency sheet method

ADMITTED

Description:

Whether the signatures marked as Q1 and Q2 are genuine or not.

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Observations:

On careful and thorough examination, fundamental differences were found between the
questioned signatures marked Q1 & Q2 and the admitted signatures marked A1 to A3.

Differences such as pen lifts in letters ‘P’, ‘K’, hesitations, slightly slower speed, the
formation of letters ‘P’, ‘K’, ‘a’ and the defective line quality were observed in questioned
signatures marked as Q1 & Q2 on comparison with admitted signatures marked A1 to A3.

Opinion:

The person who wrote the admitted signatures A1 to A3 did not write the questioned
signatures marked Q1 & Q2. This is Free-Hand Forgery.

Case 2- TRACED FORGERY IDENTIFICATION

(Images Hidden)

Description:

Identification of the traced signatures.

Observations:

On careful and thorough examination, it was found that the above disputed signatures
marked D1 & D2 were not written by the same writer who wrote the specimen signatures
marked S1 & S2. D1 and D2 are the mathematical replicas of the actual model signature.

The differences, such as defective line quality, more pen pressure, slower speed,
deviations from the path were observed in the disputed signatures marked D1 & D2 when
compared with the actual model signature and the specimen signatures marked S1 & S2.

Opinion:

The person who wrote the specimen signatures marked S1 & S2 did not write D1 & D2.
This is a Traced Forgery.

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Case 3 -TRACED FORGERY

Description:
The given signature is genuine or not.

Observation
The given signature is examined in VSC-5000 under different illuminations and it shows the
symptoms of tracing from the genuine signature on the given document. So, it can be
concluded that the genuine signature has been used as a model for forgery by tracing from
the genuine signature with different inks.

Opinion
The given signature on the document is forged.

Case 4 – CHEQUE FRAUD

Description:
Identification of the Cheque Fraud.

Observation:
The suspected document was subjected to a ULTRA VIOLET FLUORESCENCE
INSPECTION BOX to detect any watermarks and secret (invisible) writing which was
followed by photography at each and every step. On careful and thorough examination, the
chemical and mechanical watermarks were not observed in the suspected document which
can be seen in the original HDFC cheques. The faint colour, poor texture of cheque was
also observed in the disputed document.

Opinion:
The disputed document was found to be fake on comparison with the provided specimens.

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Suspected Document: No Chemical Watermarks visible under UV light.

Specimen Cheque 1: Chemical watermarks visible under UV light.

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Specimen Cheque 2: Chemical Watermarks appear as “HDFC BANK” under UV light.

“Tampered Document”

Examination of tampered documents involve a decipherment of following categories of

tampering

a. Erasures
b. Additions and alterations
c. Obliterations
d. Damaged Documents
e. Indented impressions
f. Invisible writings

(A) Erasures
Removal of something from the original document is called Erasure. Erasures are
usually of two types -
• Physical Erasures
• Chemical Erasures

Physical or Mechanical Erasures:

Use of any erasure or sharp instrument to remove any thing from the document is called
Physical or Mechanical erasure. Physical erasures cause abrasion or scratching which

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generally leave much more definite telltale traces consisting of disturbed paper fibers and
portions of the original strokes that were not completely removed. There can be holes or
thinness of paper also depending upon the intensity of erasure. In case of erasure in
checks, the security print will be disturbed. If anything is written on the erased part, some
feathering is seen because of disturbed paper fibers. In some cases it is even possible to
decipher original writings.

Detection- Mechanical Erasures can be detected and deciphered using a different light
arrangements including transmitted light and illuminated stereoscopic microscope
In some cases the original writings can be developed using IR rays
Modern instruments like VSC-1, VSC-2000, VSC-5000, projectina comparison microscope
etc are helpful to detect and decipher the erasures.

Chemical Erasures:
By the use of any chemical, existing writing can be removed. Chemicals reac5t with the
paper to form visible or latent stains and if an attempt is then made to write over the erased
area with a fluid fountain pen, the fluid ink is very apt to spread out microscopically
wherever the paper sizing ahs been affected by the liquid.

Detection- Chemical erasures can be detected under Ultra Violet Fluorescence and
Infrared Luminescence using instruments like VSC-1, VSC-2000, VSC-5000 and
Projectina.

Silent features of the erasures

- Thinning of the erased portion.
- Disturbances in paper fiber.
- Feathering of the ink or erased portion.
- Pale yellow stain on erased portions.
- Shrink on the erased portions.
- Loosening of the paper fibers

(B) Additions and Alterations

Any material additions or alterations in a document affects its legal validity and therefore
becomes necessary to determine whether such addition or alteration is genuine or
fraudulent. |Fraudulent additions or alterations are made after the document has been

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signed and sealed and an intense effort is made to conceal them. In order to ascertain
whether a particular addition or alteration is genuine or false, the document has to be
carefully examined.

(C) Alterations
Any alteration either made in a word, digit or a figure by the writer himself will always be
made boldly and without any unnecessary overwriting or retouching. Fraudulent alteration
is usually made after a lapse of several days or months, it will not be possible to match the
color of the ink, and the forger may in such cases some of the letters or figures of the
genuine writing in order to show the same ink was used throughout.

Examination- microscopic examination is conducted under different magnifications using

stereomicroscope and under luminescence and UV fluorescence using instruments like
VSC-1, VSC-2000, VSC-5000 and Projectina.

(D) Obliterated Writings

Blotting out or smearing over of some contents of a document to make the original invisible
is termed broadly as obliteration. Successful decipherment or restoration depends
principally upon the medium employed for the original handwriting and the covering
material. Two possible methods of solution present themselves:
(1) To penetrate the covering layer photographically so that the original writing lying
beneath is thus revealed.
(2) Studying the impression from the original writing or typewriting that has not been
destroyed by the obliterating action.

Photographic Methods can succeed only if the difference in color or chemical composition
exists between the original writing and the covering material. Separation may be affected
with photographic filters of a color similar to the obliterating material. Transmitted light,
infrared sensitive films, ultraviolet radiation and oblique lighting to supplement photography
with a filter may enhance the chance of success. No0rmally the original material can be red
by transmitted or by viewing of the back of the sheet under IR Luminescence under
different filter ranges.

Examination- The disputed document is viewed for detection and decipherment under
transmitted light/IR Luminescence using instrument like VSC-1, VSC-2000, VSC-5000 and
Projectina.

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(E) Damaged Documents

Removal of ink by usage of fluids, light faded inks, torn documents, charred documents are
considered to be as damaged documents. Whenever a case of damaged documents is
reported following methods are employed.

(a) Oblique Lighting

The best result of visual examination is obtained by the use of oblique lighting. Illumination
from a point source at shallow angle will produce shadows in the depression and render
them visible. The light source is moved so that the angle of incidence is changed to show
different parts of the indentations more clearly. The documents can be photographed
under the best lighting conditions to provide a record of indentations.

(b) Electrostatic Detection

An entirely different technique which does not rely on a visual examination and does not
damage the document is the electrostatic method of detection. Impressions made on a
paper affect its dielectric properties, so an electric change applied to the surface produces
a potentially different where impressions are present from that of the surrounding area.

Electrostatic Detection Apparatus (ESDA) is fairly a good instrument used in developing

indented impressions in any modern document laboratory.

(F) Invisible writings

A material used for writing that is not visible until treated by some developing process, also
referred to as secret inks or sympathetic ink.
The disputed document is viewed for a study of UV Fluorescence and IR Luminescence by
using instruments like VSC-1, VSC-2000, VSC-5000 and projectina and through filtered
photography.

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Examination under UV light illumination in VSC 5000.

Mechanical Erasures detected under high magnification in VSC 5000.

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Case 1- Alteration
Description:
Whether the enclosed numeral marked as X-3 has been tampered or not.
Observation
The enclosed numeral was examined under VSC-5000 and observed that the numeral‘2’ is
being altered to ‘3’ with a different ink. The document was observed under different
illuminations. The tint of inks has shown different fluorescence under the spot light
illumination.
Opinion
The original numeral ‘2’ in the portion marked X-3 has been altered to the existing numeral
reading ‘3’

Case 2 –Erasure
Description:
Whether the enclosed numeral has been tampered or not?
Observation:
There is a disturbance of paper fibers in the vicinity of existing figure ‘1’as observed in high
magnification under White light. It has been found that the existing numeral ‘1’ has been
written after erasing the original writing mechanically. Some remnants of the original writing
are visible but it has not been possible to completely decipher the original figure.
Opinion:
The enclosed numeral has been altered by mechanical erasure.

Examination of altered writing under White Light as seen in VSC 5000.

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INSTRUMENTAL EXAMINATION

Instrumental Techniques:
(A) Non-Destructive Testing
Different features of paper and ink can be studied by
I. Travel FTIR Spectrophotometer System
II. SEM
III. FT-Raman
IV. VSC (Visual Spectral Comparator) (latest model)
V. ESDA (Electrostatic Detection Apparatus)
(B) Destructive Testing
Chemical constituents of paper and ink, as per need, can be studied by
I Gas Chromatography
II HPTLC
III FTIR
IV SEM-EDXA

INSTRUMENTS:-

Hand Magnifiers:
Magnification is an important feature in document examination. Hand magnifiers can be
used for this purpose which are more portable. Instruments which are hand held and have
a built-in light source can give
magnifications up to [Link] may be
satisfactory for the examination of hand
writings, because they enable the method
of construction of certain letters to be
determined when this is not possible by
direct vision. Other hand lenses or
magnifying glasses provide enlargement of
two or three times and are usually of value
to examiners of middle age whose visual
accommodation has declined and who find close observation difficult. They enable little
extra to be seen by those capable of examining a document from a distance of a few
inches, but assist those who are unable to do so.

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Microscopic Examination:-
Any study or examination made with the microscope in order to discover minute physical
details.

Stereomicroscope: -
It gives three-dimensional view of an image. It is very useful in determining the sequence of
strokes and studies the pen movement, line quality, pen pressure etc.

Oblique light examination: -

An examination with the illumination so controlled that it grazes or strikes the surface of the
document. From one side at a very low angle; also referred to as a side light examination.

Transmitted light examination: -

An examination in which the document is viewed with the source of illumination behind it &
the light passing through the paper.

UV- examination: -
UV radiation is invisible and occurs in the wavelengths just below the visible blue violet end
of the spectrum (rainbow). The invisible rays react on some substances so that visible light
is emitted, a phenomenon known as UV fluorescence. Thus recording either the reflected
UV or visible radiation may make UV- examination visually or photographically.

UV-lamp: -
This is one of the oldest instruments in the laboratory. It contains a strong source of UV
radiations and helps in studying the UV fluorescence effects of paper, ink, thread etc. It is
also used for deciphering secret writings and detection of chemical erasures.

Projectina (Universal comparison projector):-

This is a mammoth instrument used for side-by-side comparison and superimposition. It
also consists of IR image converter system and 35 mm camera adaptor. Minute differences
can be observed on the monitor.

ESDA (Electrostatic detection apparatus): -

This instrument is extremely useful in bringing out the indentation marks. The suspect
document is placed over the brass plate, & vacuum is applied after covering it with thin

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Mylar sheet. The differential charging is done using “corona charge stick”. The toner
powder is sprayed using auto miser. This is a non-destructive technique.

VSC-5000: - (Visual Spectral Comparator)

VSC-5000 is a sophisticated PC based Document Examination System with 4 principle
functions.
Manipulation of visual contrast through the selection of light sources and optical filtering for
revealing evidences of document tampering.
E.g., : Additions, erasures and security markings.
Measurement and comparison for detecting small differences between documents.
Spectrometry and colorimeter for the analysis of inks and other pigments.
Image management for the preparation of reports.

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VISUAL SPECTRUM COMPARATOR

The document to be examined is placed on the document plate under the canopy. The
document is viewed by a video camera and a live image is shown on monitor.

Poly-view:
A light source of value in document examination is the poly-light produced by Rofin
(Australia) Pvt. Ltd This uses a monochromator and an intense light source to produce
illumination of continuously variable narrow ranges of wavelengths. It will detect differences
in luminescence of inks, which are dependent on variations of the exciting light. The
resultant luminescence can be detected by suitably sensitive video cameras or by using the
Poly-view made by the same manufacturer.

COUNTERFEIT CURRENCY NOTES

Definition:
Any document, which has been falsified, so as to achieve apparent visual similarities with
the genuine document using a process and raw material, which may be different from
those, used in producing the genuine document is called Counterfeit Document. The action
of producing such a document is called Counterfeiting and when the document is in the
form of currency, it is called Counterfeit Currency.

Counterfeit Currency:
• One of the oldest organized White Collar Crime.
• Prevalent and growing problem to the world economy.
• Extremely profitable.

Equipments:
• Computer
• Scanner
• Printer
• Color photocopying machine.

Examination of Security Features of Currency Notes

The examination of the various security features in a suspected exhibit (counterfeit
currency) can be grouped in to the following categories: -

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1. Physical Dimension- The cut size of the note is studied in the form of length, width
and gram mage of paper and thickness of the paper/substrate and compared with that
of authentic currency/ bank note.

2. Currency Note Paper- The currency notes are printed on high quality cotton. The
cotton is used because of its unique features like natural whiteness and length of
fibre and folding strength due to which the currency notes have surface finish and
crackle. The following features of the currency note, in the order listed below are to
be examined and observed values are to be recorded.

Substrate
Unique feel, crackling sound and finish
Raw material – cotton pulp or wood pulp
Color of paper
Opacity (If required refer to paper Lab.)
Transparency

Watermarks
Multi-tonal Mahatma Gandhi Portrait
Other water marks – ‘RBI ’, Present/ Absent:
Denomination - 5/10/20/50/100/500/1000, 1K
(Method of generation) Remarks: Design and
Size different or same

UV/ optical fiber

Color of fluorescent (number of colors)
Wavelength of fluorescence
Density-Numbers per Square inch and
Length of fibers

Security thread
Present / Absent (If present:
Continuous / discontinuous
Windowed / Embedded / Printed
No. of Windows
Ladder watermarks

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Width of thread
Thickness
Text (Micro text Present or Absent)
Content – (Material – Metallic/ polyester/ metal coated polyester/ fluorescent/non-
fluorescent.
Readable from front / back or both
Magnetic/ non-magnetic

Color(s) of fluorescence
Wavelength of fluorescence

Indian Evidence Act: Section 45:

When the court has to form an opinion upon a point of foreign law, or of science, or art, or
as to identify of hand writing (or finger print impressions), the opinions upon that point of
persons specially skilled in such foreign law, science and art, (or in question) as to identify
of handwriting (or finger impressions) are relevant facts. Such persons are called experts.
Though the opinion expressed by an expert in hand writing is admitted, but not the opinion
on typewriting, as the expert has to prove his opinion in the court of law by his personal
appearance.

Illustrations

(a) The question is, whether the death of A was caused by poison. The opinions of experts
as to the symptoms produced by the poison by which A is supposed to have died, are
relevant.

(b) The question is whether A, at the time of doing a certain act, was by reason of
unsoundness of mind, in capable of knowing the nature of the act, or that he was doing
what was either wrong or contrary to law.

The opinions of experts upon the question whether the symptoms exhibited by A commonly
show unsoundness of mind, and whether such unsoundness of mind usually renders
persons incapable of knowing the nature of the acts which they do, or knowing that what
they do is either wrong or contrary to law, are relevant.

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(c) The question is, whether a certain document was written by A. Another document is
produced which is proved or admitted to have been written by A.

The opinion of experts on the question whether the two documents were written by the
same person or by different persons are relevant.

Section 47 of the Indian Evidence Act allows an individual to express an opinion about
the genuineness of writing if the said individual is acquainted with the writings of the person
concerned.

Under Section 73 of Evidence Act, the court may direct any person present in the court to
write any words or figures for the purposes of enabling the court to compare the words or
figures so written with any words or figures alleged to have been written by such person.
(This section applies also, with any necessary modifications, to finger impressions).

The scientific reports on criminal cases by the experts are admitted U/s 293 Cr.P.C.,
provided the experts are declared as Chemical Examiners or Assistant Chemical
Examiners by the Government, and their presence to give evidence in the courts of law is
exempted.

Section 293 Cr. P.C. : Report of Certain Government Scientific Experts

1. Any document purporting to be a report under the hand of a Government scientific expert
to whom this section applies, upon any matter or thing duly submitted to him for
examination or analysis and report in the course of any proceeding under this Code may be
used as evidence in any inquiry, trial or other proceeding under this Code.
2. The court may, if it thinks fit, summon and examine any such expert as to the subject-
matter of his report.
3. Where any such expert is summoned by a court and he is unable to attend personally,
he may, unless the court has expressly directed him to appear personally, depute any
responsible officer working with him to attend the court, if such officer is conversant with the
facts of the case and can satisfactorily depose in court on his behalf. (Source: Training
Manual on Forensic Science for Police Officers, Bureau of Police Research &
Development, and Indian Evidence Act, Bare Act)

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INK AGE DETERMINATION

Sometimes the date of a written ink entry relative to other entries on the same document is
questioned. Documents bearing such entries may be single page documents or bound
documents, such as journals, calendars or diaries.
Before conducting this type of examination, two requirements must be met:
1) There must be entries on the document or similar documents whose dates are not
questioned that are the same ink formula as the questioned entry, and
2) The questioned and unquestioned ink entries must occur on the same document or
documents stored under the same conditions to ensure that the entries were exposed to
the same environmental conditions.

A destructive technique is used for this examination, i.e., small samples of the ink line are
removed from the paper.

EXPECTED RESULTS
It is possible to determine that an entry on a questioned document was placed on that
document at a time other than that indicated.

SUBMITTER'S RESPONSIBILITIES
All documents submitted should be properly inventoried and submitted to the lab.

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(ORGANIZATION NAME AND DETAILS)

ADDRESS

REQUEST FOR SERVICE

Submitting Person: Date:

Submitting Agency: Suspect’s Name:

Service Required For: (Own/Client) FIR No. / Police Station:

Date Analysis Needed: Number of Signatures / Samples / Documents:

Case/Crime Type: Service Place:

Service Charges: Time/Duration required for service:

Type of Seizure/Entry: Search Warrant/Consent/Request/Other:

Has this evidence been previously viewed and/or accessed by anyone?
SERVICE REQUESTED/REQUIRED:

Special Instructions:

Other Details/Remarks/Instructions:

Applicants Details- Received By-

Signature:
Date:
Designation:

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SAMPLE REPORTS

SAMPLE ELECTRONIC DOCUMENT EXAMINATION REPORT

To
Client Details

SUBJECT: Examination of Suspected Electronic Document for Signature Transplantation

Digitally/Forgery.

Sir,
I have scientifically examined two sets specimen of signatures appearing on
provided electronic document, dated 15-07-2008 (Marked as E-1)

Observation and Opinion:

On the cumulative effect of all the observations taken together, I am of the opinion that, the
signature marked as (E-1) has found some evidences which shows signature
transplantation evidences or marks, If they are not scanning or Xerox effects or marks, this
document is forged.

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REFERENCES:

Wigmore, J., Proof by Comparison of Handwriting; Its History. Am. L. Rev. 1896; 481: 494.

Goodtitle d. Revett v. Braham, 4 (Term. Rep. 497, 1792.)

Folkes v. Chadd, 3 Doug. 157, 99 Eng. Rep. 589, (K. B. 1782).

Moody v. Rowell, 34 Mass., 17 Pick. 490, (1836).

Common Law Procedure Act, 17 and 18 Vict. ch. 125 (1854); Section 27: “Comparison of a
disputed writing with any writing proved to the satisfaction of the judge to be genuine shall
be permitted to be made by witnesses; and such writings, and the evidence of witnesses
respecting the same, may be submitted to the Court and jury as evidence of the
genuineness, or otherwise, of the writing in dispute. ”

Buquet, Alain, Handwriting Examination Background and Current Trends. I.C.P.O. Review,
1981 November; p 352.

*1. Huber, A. Roy; Headrick, M.A (1999) Handwriting Identification: facts and
fundamentals; CRC press ltd.

*2. Harrison, R. Wilson; Suspect Document; third Indian reprint, 2003; Universal law
publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.

*3. Ellen, David; scientific examination of documents; 3rd edition; 2001; Taylor &
[Link].

Osborn A.S. (1929); Questioned Documents; 2nd edition; Rowman & Littlefield Publishers;
New York.

David Ellen (2007); Scientific Examination of Documents Methods & Techniques; 3rd
edition; CRC Press; London.

[Link] (1990); Handwriting, Disputed Documents & Detection of Forgeries; Taxco

Printers; Allahabad

Grau, J.J. (ed.) (1993), Criminal and Civil Investigation Handbook, 2nd edn, McGraw-Hill
Inc., New York.

Dyson, C. & McKenzie, D. (1996), Guidelines to Fraud Prevention, New South Wales
Police Service, Fraud Enforcement Agency, Sydney.

Wilson R. Harrison (2006); Suspect Documents & Their Scientific Examination; 3rd edition;
Universal Law Publishing.

Kerr; On the Law of Fraud and mistake (2000); 7th edition; Universal Law publishing Co.
Pvt. Ltd. And Encyclopedia…

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