Java Tutorial

Java is a programming language.

Java is used to develop mobile apps, web apps, desktop apps, games and much more.

Java Introduction

What is Java?
Java is a popular programming language, created in 1995.

It is owned by Oracle, and more than 3 billion devices run Java.

It is used for:

 Mobile applications (specially Android apps)

 Desktop applications
 Web applications
 Web servers and application servers
 Games
 Database connection
 And much, much more!

Why Use Java?

 Java works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry Pi, etc.)
 It is one of the most popular programming language in the world
 It is easy to learn and simple to use
 It is open-source and free
 It is secure, fast and powerful
 It has a huge community support (tens of millions of developers)
Get Started
This tutorial will teach you the basics of Java.

It is not necessary to have any prior programming experience.

Java Getting Started

Java Install
Some PCs might have Java already installed.

To check if you have Java installed on a Windows PC, search in the start bar for Java or type the
following in Command Prompt ([Link]):

C:\Users\Your Name>java -version

If Java is installed, you will see something like this (depending on version):

java version "11.0.1" 2018-10-16 LTS

Java(TM) SE Runtime Environment 18.9 (build 11.0.1+13-LTS)
Java HotSpot(TM) 64-Bit Server VM 18.9 (build 11.0.1+13-LTS, mixed mode)

If you do not have Java installed on your computer, you can download it for free from
[Link].

Setup for Windows

To install Java on Windows:

1. Go to "System Properties" (Can be found on Control Panel > System and Security >
System > Advanced System Settings)
2. Click on the "Environment variables" button under the "Advanced" tab
3. Then, select the "Path" variable in System variables and click on the "Edit" button
4. Click on the "New" button and add the path where Java is installed, followed by \bin. By
default, Java is installed in C:\Program Files\Java\jdk-11.0.1 (If nothing else was
specified when you installed it). In that case, You will have to add a new path with: C:\
Program Files\Java\jdk-11.0.1\bin
Then, click "OK", and save the settings
 5. At last, open Command Prompt ([Link]) and type java -version to see if Java is
running on your machine

Java Quickstart
In Java, every application begins with a class name, and that class must match the filename.

Let's create our first Java file, called [Link], which can be done in any text editor (like
Notepad).

The file should contain a "Hello World" message, which is written with the following code:

[Link]

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link]("Hello World");
}
}

Don't worry if you don't understand the code above - we will discuss it in detail in later chapters.
For now, focus on how to run the code above.

Save the code in Notepad as "[Link]". Open Command Prompt ([Link]), navigate to the
directory where you saved your file, and type "javac [Link]":

C:\Users\Your Name>javac [Link]

This will compile your code. If there are no errors in the code, the command prompt will take
you to the next line. Now, type "java MyClass" to run the file:

C:\Users\Your Name>java MyClass

The output should read:

Hello World

Congratulations, you have written and executed your first Java program.
Java Syntax

Java Syntax
In the previous chapter, we created a Java file called [Link], and we used the following
code to print "Hello World" to the screen:

[Link]

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link]("Hello World");
}
}

Example explained

Every line of code that runs in Java must be inside a class. In our example, we named the class
MyClass. A class should always start with an uppercase first letter.

Note: Java is case-sensitive: "MyClass" and "myclass" has different meaning.

The name of the java file must match the class name. When saving the file, save it using the
class name and add ".java" to the end of the filename. To run the example above on your
computer, make sure that Java is properly installed: The output should be:

Hello World

The main Method

The main() method is required and you will see it in every Java program:

public static void main(String[] args)

Any code inside the main() method will be executed. You don't have to understand the
keywords before and after main. You will get to know them bit by bit while reading this tutorial.

For now, just remember that every Java program has a class name which must match the
filename, and that every program must contain the main() method.
[Link]()
Inside the main() method, we can use the println() method to print a line of text to the screen:

public static void main(String[] args) {

[Link]("Hello World");
}

Note: In Java, each code statement must end with a semicolon.

Java Comments
Java Comments
Comments can be used to explain Java code, and to make it more readable. It can also be used to
prevent execution when testing alternative code.

Single-line comments start with two forward slashes (//).

Any text between // and the end of the line is ignored by Java (will not be executed).

This example uses a single-line comment before a line of code:

Example

// This is a comment
[Link]("Hello World");

This example uses a single-line comment at the end of a line of code:

Example

[Link]("Hello World"); // This is a comment

Java Multi-line Comments

Multi-line comments start with /* and ends with */.

Any text between /* and */ will be ignored by Java.

This example uses a multi-line comment (a comment block) to explain the code:
Example

/* The code below will print the words Hello World

to the screen, and it is amazing */
[Link]("Hello World");

Java Variables
Java Variables
Variables are containers for storing data values.

In Java, there are different types of variables, for example:

 String - stores text, such as "Hello". String values are surrounded by double quotes
 int - stores integers (whole numbers), without decimals, such as 123 or -123
 float - stores floating point numbers, with decimals, such as 19.99 or -19.99
 char - stores single characters, such as 'a' or 'B'. Char values are surrounded by single quotes
 boolean - stores values with two states: true or false

Declaring (Creating) Variables

To create a variable, you must specify the type and assign it a value:

Syntax

type variable = value;

Where type is one of Java's types (such as int or String), and variable is the name of the
variable (such as x or name). The equal sign is used to assign values to the variable.

To create a variable that should store text, look at the following example:

Example

Create a variable called name of type String and assign it the value "John":

String name = "John";

[Link](name);
To create a variable that should store a number, look at the following example:

Example

Create a variable called myNum of type int and assign it the value 15:

int myNum = 15;

[Link](myNum);

You can also declare a variable without assigning the value, and assign the value later:

Example

int myNum;
myNum = 15;
[Link](myNum);

A demonstration of how to declare variables of other types:

Example

int myNum = 5;
float myFloatNum = 5.99f;
char myLetter = 'D';
boolean myBool = true;
String myText = "Hello";

Display Variables
The println() method is often used to display variables.

To combine both text and a variable, use the + character:

Example

String name = "John";

[Link]("Hello " + name);

You can also use the + character to add a variable to another variable:
Example

String firstName = "John ";

String lastName = "Doe";
String fullName = firstName + lastName;
[Link](fullName);

For numeric values, the + character works as a mathematical operator (notice that we use int
(integer) variables here):

Example

int x = 5;
int y = 6;
[Link](x + y); // Print the value of x + y

From the example above, you can expect:

 x stores the value 5

 y stores the value 6
 Then we use the println() method to display the value of x + y, which is 11

Declare Many Variables

To declare more than one variable of the same type, use a comma-separated list:

Example

int x = 5, y = 6, z = 50;
[Link](x + y + z);

Java Identifiers
All Java variables must be identified with unique names.

These unique names are called identifiers.

Identifiers can be short names (like x and y) or more descriptive names (age, sum, totalVolume).
The general rules for constructing names for variables (unique identifiers) are:

 Names can contain letters, digits, underscores, and dollar signs

 Names should begin with a letter
 Names can also begin with $ and _ (but we will not use it in this tutorial)
 Names are case sensitive ("myVar" and "myvar" are different variables)
 Names should start with a lowercase letter and it cannot contain whitespace
 Reserved words (like Java keywords, such as int or String) cannot be used as names

Java Data Types

Java Data Types
As explained in the previous chapter, a variable in Java must be a specified data type:

Example

int myNum = 5; // Integer (whole number)

float myFloatNum = 5.99f; // Floating point number
char myLetter = 'D'; // Character
boolean myBool = true; // Boolean
String myText = "Hello"; // String

Data types are divided into two groups:

  Primitive data types - includes byte, short, int, long, float, double, boolean and char
 Non-primitive data types - such as String, Arrays and Classes (you will learn more about these in
a later chapter)

Primitive Data Types

A primitive data type specifies the size and type of variable values, and it has no additional
methods.

There are eight primitive data types in Java:

Data Type Size Description

byte 1 byte Stores whole numbers from -128 to 127

short 2 bytes Stores whole numbers from -32,768 to 32,767

int 4 bytes Stores whole numbers from -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

Stores whole numbers from -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to

long 8 bytes
9,223,372,036,854,775,807

Stores fractional numbers. Sufficient for storing 6 to 7 decimal

float 4 bytes
digits

double 8 bytes Stores fractional numbers. Sufficient for storing 15 decimal digits

boolean 1 bit Stores true or false values

char 2 bytes Stores a single character/letter or ASCII values

Numbers
Primitive number types are divided into two groups:

Integer types stores whole numbers, positive or negative (such as 123 or -456), without
decimals. Valid types are byte, short, int and long. Which type you should use, depends on
the numeric value.

Floating point types represents numbers with a fractional part, containing one or more decimals.
There are two types: float and double.
Even though there are many numeric types in Java, the most used for numbers are int (for whole
numbers) and double (for floating point numbers). However, we will describe them all as you
continue to read.

Integer Types
Byte

The byte data type can store whole numbers from -128 to 127. This can be used instead of int
or other integer types to save memory when you are certain that the value will be within -128 and
127:

Example

byte myNum = 100;

[Link](myNum);

Short

The short data type can store whole numbers from -32768 to 32767:

Example

short myNum = 5000;

[Link](myNum);

Int

The int data type can store whole numbers from -2147483648 to 2147483647. In general, and in
our tutorial, the int data type is the preferred data type when we create variables with a numeric
value.

Example

int myNum = 100000;

[Link](myNum);

Long

The long data type can store whole numbers from -9223372036854775808 to
9223372036854775807. This is used when int is not large enough to store the value. Note that
you should end the value with an "L":
Example

long myNum = 15000000000L;

[Link](myNum);

Floating Point Types

You should use a floating point type whenever you need a number with a decimal, such as 9.99
or 3.14515.

Float

The float data type can store fractional numbers from 3.4e−038 to 3.4e+038. Note that you
should end the value with an "f":

Example

float myNum = 5.75f;

[Link](myNum);

Double

The double data type can store fractional numbers from 1.7e−308 to 1.7e+308. Note that you
should end the value with a "d":

Example

double myNum = 19.99d;

[Link](myNum);

Use float or double?

The precision of a floating point value indicates how many digits the value can have after the
decimal point. The precision of float is only six or seven decimal digits, while double variables
have a precision of about 15 digits. Therefore it is safer to use double for most calculations.
Scientific Numbers

A floating point number can also be a scientific number with an "e" to indicate the power of 10:

Example

float f1 = 35e3f;
double d1 = 12E4d;
[Link](f1);
[Link](d1);

Booleans
A boolean data type is declared with the boolean keyword and can only take the values true or
false:

Example

boolean isJavaFun = true;

boolean isFishTasty = false;
[Link](isJavaFun); // Outputs true
[Link](isFishTasty); // Outputs false

Boolean values are mostly used for conditional testing, which you will learn more about in a
later chapter.

Characters
The char data type is used to store a single character. The character must be surrounded by
single quotes, like 'A' or 'c':

Example

char myGrade = 'B';

[Link](myGrade);

Alternatively, you can use ASCII values to display certain characters:

Example

char a = 65, b = 66, c = 67;

[Link](a);
[Link](b);
[Link](c);

Strings
The String data type is used to store a sequence of characters (text). String values must be
surrounded by double quotes:

Example

String greeting = "Hello World";

[Link](greeting);

The String type is so much used and integrated in Java, that some call it "the special ninth type".

A String in Java is actually a non-primitive data type, because it refers to an object. The String
object has methods that are used to perform certain operations on strings. Don't worry if you
don't understand the term "object" just yet.

Non-Primitive Data Types

Non-primitive data types are called reference types because they refer to objects.

The main difference between primitive and non-primitive data types are:

 Primitive types are predefined (already defined) in Java. Non-primitive types are created by the
programmer and are not defined by Java (except for String).
 Non-primitive types can be used to call methods to perform certain operations, while primitive
types cannot.
 A primitive type has always a value, while non-primitive types can be null.
 A primitive type starts with a lowercase letter, while non-primitive types starts with an
uppercase letter.
  The size of a primitive type depends on the data type, while non-primitive types have all the
same size.

Examples of non-primitive types are Strings, Arrays, Classes, Interface, etc. You will learn more
about these in a later chapter.

Java Type Casting

Java Type Casting
Type casting is when you assign a value of one primitive data type to another type.

In Java, there are two types of casting:

 Widening Casting (automatically) - converting a smaller type to a larger type size

byte -> short -> char -> int -> long -> float -> double

 Narrowing Casting (manually) - converting a larger type to a smaller size type

double -> float -> long -> int -> char -> short -> byte

Widening Casting
Widening casting is done automatically when passing a smaller size type to a larger size type:

Example

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int myInt = 9;
double myDouble = myInt; // Automatic casting: int to double
 [Link](myInt); // Outputs 9
[Link](myDouble); // Outputs 9.0
}
}

Narrowing Casting
Narrowing casting must be done manually by placing the type in parentheses in front of the
value:

Example

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
double myDouble = 9.78;
int myInt = (int) myDouble; // Manual casting: double to int

[Link](myDouble); // Outputs 9.78

[Link](myInt); // Outputs 9
}
}

Java Operators
Java Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.

The value is called an operand, while the operation (to be performed between the two operands)
is defined by an operator:

Operand Operator Operand

100 + 50

In the example below, the numbers 100 and 50 are operands, and the + sign is an operator:

Example

int x = 100 + 50;

Although the + operator is often used to add together two values, like in the example above, it
can also be used to add together a variable and a value, or a variable and another variable:

Example

int sum1 = 100 + 50; // 150 (100 + 50)

int sum2 = sum1 + 250; // 400 (150 + 250)
int sum3 = sum2 + sum2; // 800 (400 + 400)

Java divides the operators into the following groups:

 Arithmetic operators
 Assignment operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators
 Bitwise operators
What are Operators in Java
and its Types?
Operators are the constructs which can manipulate the values of the
operands. Consider the expression 2 + 3 = 5, here 2 and 3
are operands and + is called operator.

Java supports eight (8) types of operators:

 Arithmetic Operators
 Assignment Operators
 Logical Operators
 Relational Operators
 Unary Operators
 Bitwise Operators
 Ternary Operators
 Shift Operators

Let’s focus on each of these operators one by one.

Arithmetic Operators in Java

Arithmetic Operators are used to perform mathematical operations like

addition, subtraction, etc. Assume that A = 10 and B = 20 for the below
table.

Operator Description Example

Adds values on either
+ Addition A+B=30
side of the operator
Arithmetic Operators
Arithmetic operators are used to perform common mathematical operations.

Operator Name Description Example Try it

+ Addition Adds together two values x+y

- Subtraction Subtracts one value from another x-y

* Multiplication Multiplies two values x*y

/ Division Divides one value from another x/y

% Modulus Returns the division remainder x%y

++ Increment Increases the value of a variable by 1 ++x

-- Decrement Decreases the value of a variable by 1 --x

Java Assignment Operators

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables.

In the example below, we use the assignment operator (=) to assign the value 10 to a variable
called x:

Example

int x = 10;

The addition assignment operator (+=) adds a value to a variable:

Example

int x = 10;
x += 5;

A list of all assignment operators:

Operator Example Same As Try it

= x=5 x=5
+= x += 3 x = x + 3

-= x -= 3 x = x - 3

*= x *= 3 x = x * 3

/= x /= 3 x = x / 3

%= x %= 3 x = x % 3

&= x &= 3 x = x & 3

|= x |= 3 x = x | 3

^= x ^= 3 x = x ^ 3

>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3

<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3

Java Comparison Operators

Comparison operators are used to compare two values:

Operator Name Example Try it

== Equal to x == y

!= Not equal x != y

> Greater than x>y

< Less than x<y

>= Greater than or equal to x >= y

<= Less than or equal to x <= y

Java Logical Operators
Logical operators are used to determine the logic between variables or values:

Operator Name Description Example Try it

Returns true if both statements are

&& Logical and x < 5 && x < 10
true

|| Logical or Returns true if one of the statements is true x < 5 || x < 4

! Logical not Reverse the result, returns false if the result is true !(x < 5 && x < 10)

Java Strings
Java Strings
Strings are used for storing text.

A String variable contains a collection of characters surrounded by double quotes:

Example

Create a variable of type String and assign it a value:

String greeting = "Hello";

String Length
A String in Java is actually an object, which contain methods that can perform certain operations
on strings. For example, the length of a string can be found with the length() method:

Example

String txt = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ";

[Link]("The length of the txt string is: " + [Link]());

More String Methods

There are many string methods available, for example toUpperCase() and toLowerCase():

Example

String txt = "Hello World";

[Link]([Link]()); // Outputs "HELLO WORLD"
[Link]([Link]()); // Outputs "hello world"

Finding a String in a String

The indexOf() method returns the index (the position) of the first occurrence of a specified text
in a string (including whitespace):

Example

String txt = "Please locate where 'locate' occurs!";

[Link]([Link]("locate")); // Outputs 7

Java counts positions from zero.

0 is the first position in a string, 1 is the second, 2 is the third ...

String Concatenation
The + operator can be used between strings to add them together to make a new string. This is
called concatenation:

Example

String firstName = "John";

String lastName = "Doe";
[Link](firstName + " " + lastName);

Note that we have added an empty text (" ") to create a space between firstName and lastName
on print.

You can also use the concat() method to concatenate two strings:

Example

String firstName = "John ";

String lastName = "Doe";
[Link]([Link](lastName));

Special Characters
Because strings must be written within quotes, Java will misunderstand this string, and generate
an error:

String txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north.";

The solution to avoid this problem, is to use the backslash escape character.

The backslash (\) escape character turns special characters into string characters:

Escape character Result Description

\' ' Single quote

\" " Double quote

\\ \ Backslash

The sequence \" inserts a double quote in a string:

Example

String txt = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from the north.";

The sequence \' inserts a single quote in a string:

Example

String txt = "It\'s alright.";

The sequence \\ inserts a backslash in a string:

Example

String txt = "The character \\ is called backslash.";

Six other escape sequences are valid in Java:

Code Result Try it

\n New Line

\r Carriage Return

\t Tab
\b Backspace

\f Form Feed

Adding Numbers and Strings

WARNING!

Java uses the + operator for both addition and concatenation.

Numbers are added. Strings are concatenated.

If you add two numbers, the result will be a number:

Example

int x = 10;
int y = 20;
int z = x + y; // z will be 30 (an integer/number)

If you add two strings, the result will be a string concatenation:

Example

String x = "10";
String y = "20";
String z = x + y; // z will be 1020 (a String)

If you add a number and a string, the result will be a string concatenation:

Example

String x = "10";
int y = 20;
String z = x + y; // z will be 1020 (a String)

Java Math
The Java Math class has many methods that allows you to perform mathematical tasks on
numbers.

[Link](x,y)
The [Link](x,y) method can be used to find the highest value of x and y:

Example

[Link](5, 10);

[Link](x,y)
The [Link](x,y) method can be used to find the lowest value of of x and y:

Example

[Link](5, 10);

[Link](x)
The [Link](x) method returns the square root of x:

Example

[Link](64);

[Link](x)
The [Link](x) method returns the absolute (positive) value of x:

Example

[Link](-4.7)

[Link]()
[Link]() returns a random number between 0 (inclusive), and 1 (exclusive):

Example

[Link]();
Java Booleans
Java Booleans
Very often, in programming, you will need a data type that can only have one of two values, like:

 YES / NO
 ON / OFF
 TRUE / FALSE

For this, Java has a boolean data type, which can take the values true or false.

Boolean Values
A boolean type is declared with the boolean keyword and can only take the values true or
false:

Example

boolean isJavaFun = true;

boolean isFishTasty = false;
[Link](isJavaFun); // Outputs true
[Link](isFishTasty); // Outputs false

However, it is more common to return boolean values from boolean expressions, for conditional
testing (see below).

Boolean Expression
A Boolean expression is a Java expression that returns a Boolean value: true or false.

You can use a comparison operator, such as the greater than (>) operator to find out if an
expression (or a variable) is true:

Example

int x = 10;
int y = 9;
[Link](x > y); // returns true, because 10 is higher than 9

Or even easier:

Example
[Link](10 > 9); // returns true, because 10 is higher than 9

In the examples below, we use the equal to (==) operator to evaluate an expression:

Example

int x = 10;
[Link](x == 10); // returns true, because the value of x is equal to 10

Example

[Link](10 == 15); // returns false, because 10 is not equal to 15

The Boolean value of an expression is the basis for all Java comparisons and conditions.

You will learn more about conditions in the next chapter.

Java If ... Else

Java Conditions and If Statements

Java supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:

 Less than: a < b

 Less than or equal to: a <= b
 Greater than: a > b
 Greater than or equal to: a >= b
 Equal to a == b
 Not Equal to: a != b

You can use these conditions to perform different actions for different decisions.

Java has the following conditional statements:

 Use if to specify a block of code to be executed, if a specified condition is true

 Use else to specify a block of code to be executed, if the same condition is false
 Use else if to specify a new condition to test, if the first condition is false
 Use switch to specify many alternative blocks of code to be executed
The if Statement
Use the if statement to specify a block of Java code to be executed if a condition is true.

Syntax

if (condition) {
// block of code to be executed if the condition is true
}

Note that if is in lowercase letters. Uppercase letters (If or IF) will generate an error.

In the example below, we test two values to find out if 20 is greater than 18. If the condition is
true, print some text:

Example

if (20 > 18) {

[Link]("20 is greater than 18");
}

We can also test variables:

Example

int x = 20;
int y = 18;
if (x > y) {
[Link]("x is greater than y");
}

Example explained

In the example above we use two variables, x and y, to test whether x is greater than y (using the
> operator). As x is 20, and y is 18, and we know that 20 is greater than 18, we print to the screen
that "x is greater than y".

The else Statement

Use the else statement to specify a block of code to be executed if the condition is false.
Syntax

if (condition) {
// block of code to be executed if the condition is true
} else {
// block of code to be executed if the condition is false
}

Example

int time = 20;

if (time < 18) {
[Link]("Good day.");
} else {
[Link]("Good evening.");
}
// Outputs "Good evening."

Example explained

In the example above, time (20) is greater than 18, so the condition is false. Because of this, we
move on to the else condition and print to the screen "Good evening". If the time was less than
18, the program would print "Good day".

The else if Statement

Use the else if statement to specify a new condition if the first condition is false.

Syntax

if (condition1) {
// block of code to be executed if condition1 is true
} else if (condition2) {
// block of code to be executed if the condition1 is false and condition2 is true
} else {
// block of code to be executed if the condition1 is false and condition2 is false
}

Example

int time = 22;

if (time < 10) {
 [Link]("Good morning.");
} else if (time < 20) {
[Link]("Good day.");
} else {
[Link]("Good evening.");
}
// Outputs "Good evening."

Example explained

In the example above, time (22) is greater than 10, so the first condition is false. The next
condition, in the else if statement, is also false, so we move on to the else condition since
condition1 and condition2 is both false - and print to the screen "Good evening".

However, if the time was 14, our program would print "Good day."

Short Hand If...Else (Ternary Operator)

If you have only one statement to execute, one for if, and one for else, you can put it all on the
same line:

Syntax

variable = (condition) ? expressionTrue : expressionFalse;

Instead of writing:

Example

int time = 20;

if (time < 18) {
[Link]("Good day.");
} else {
[Link]("Good evening.");
}

You can simply write:

Example
int time = 20;
String result = (time < 18) ? "Good day." : "Good evening.";
[Link](result);

Java Switch

Java Switch Statements

Use the switch statement to select one of many code blocks to be executed.

Syntax

switch(expression) {
case x:
// code block
break;
case y:
// code block
break;
default:
// code block
}

This is how it works:

 The switch expression is evaluated once.

 The value of the expression is compared with the values of each case.
 If there is a match, the associated block of code is executed.
 The break and default keywords are optional, and will be described later in this chapter

The example below uses the weekday number to calculate the weekday name:

Example

int day = 4;
switch (day) {
case 1:
[Link]("Monday");
break;
case 2:
 [Link]("Tuesday");
break;
case 3:
[Link]("Wednesday");
break;
case 4:
[Link]("Thursday");
break;
case 5:
[Link]("Friday");
break;
case 6:
[Link]("Saturday");
break;
case 7:
[Link]("Sunday");
break;
}
// Outputs "Thursday" (day 4)

The break Keyword

When Java reaches a break keyword, it breaks out of the switch block.

This will stop the execution of more code and case testing inside the block.

When a match is found, and the job is done, it's time for a break. There is no need for more
testing.

A break can save a lot of execution time because it "ignores" the execution of all the rest of the
code in the switch block.

The default Keyword

The default keyword specifies some code to run if there is no case match:
Example

int day = 4;
switch (day) {
case 6:
[Link]("Today is Saturday");
break;
case 7:
[Link]("Today is Sunday");
break;
default:
[Link]("Looking forward to the Weekend");
}
// Outputs "Looking forward to the Weekend"

Note that if the default statement is used as the last statement in a switch block, it does not need
a break.

Java While Loop

Loops
Loops can execute a block of code as long as a specified condition is reached.

Java While Loop

The while loop loops through a block of code as long as a specified condition is true:
Syntax

while (condition) {
// code block to be executed
}

In the example below, the code in the loop will run, over and over again, as long as a variable (i)
is less than 5:

Example

int i = 0;
while (i < 5) {
[Link](i);
i++;
}

Note: Do not forget to increase the variable used in the condition, otherwise the loop will never
end!

The Do/While Loop

The do/while loop is a variant of the while loop. This loop will execute the code block once,
before checking if the condition is true, then it will repeat the loop as long as the condition is
true.

Syntax

do {
// code block to be executed
}
while (condition);

The example below uses a do/while loop. The loop will always be executed at least once, even
if the condition is false, because the code block is executed before the condition is tested:

Example

int i = 0;
do {
[Link](i);
i++;
}
while (i < 5);

Do not forget to increase the variable used in the condition, otherwise the loop will never end!

Java For Loop

Java For Loop

When you know exactly how many times you want to loop through a block of code, use the for
loop instead of a while loop:

Syntax

for (statement 1; statement 2; statement 3) {

// code block to be executed
}

Statement 1 is executed (one time) before the execution of the code block.

Statement 2 defines the condition for executing the code block.

Statement 3 is executed (every time) after the code block has been executed.

The example below will print the numbers 0 to 4:

Example

for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {

[Link](i);
}

Example explained

Statement 1 sets a variable before the loop starts (int i = 0).

Statement 2 defines the condition for the loop to run (i must be less than 5). If the condition is
true, the loop will start over again, if it is false, the loop will end.

Statement 3 increases a value (i++) each time the code block in the loop has been executed.

Another Example
This example will only print even values between 0 and 10:

Example

for (int i = 0; i <= 10; i = i + 2) {

[Link](i);
}

For-Each Loop
There is also a "for-each" loop, which is used exclusively to loop through elements in an array:

Syntax

for (type variable : arrayname) {

// code block to be executed
}

The following example outputs all elements in the cars array, using a "for-each" loop:

Example

String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

for (String i : cars) {
[Link](i);
}

Java Break and Continue

Java Break
You have already seen the break statement used in an earlier. It was used to "jump out" of a
switch statement.

The break statement can also be used to jump out of a loop.

This example jumps out of the loop when i is equal to 4:

Example

for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {

if (i == 4) {
break;
}
[Link](i);
}

Java Continue
The continue statement breaks one iteration (in the loop), if a specified condition occurs, and
continues with the next iteration in the loop.

This example skips the value of 4:

Example

for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {

if (i == 4) {
continue;
}
[Link](i);
}

Break and Continue in While Loop

You can also use break and continue in while loops:

Break Example
int i = 0;
while (i < 10) {
[Link](i);
i++;
if (i == 4) {
break;
}
}

Continue Example

int i = 0;
while (i < 10) {
if (i == 4) {
i++;
continue;
}
[Link](i);
i++;
}

Java Arrays

Java Arrays
Arrays are used to store multiple values in a single variable, instead of declaring separate
variables for each value.

To declare an array, define the variable type with square brackets:

String[] cars;

We have now declared a variable that holds an array of strings. To insert values to it, we can use
an array literal - place the values in a comma-separated list, inside curly braces:

String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

To create an array of integers, you could write:

int[] myNum = {10, 20, 30, 40};

Access the Elements of an Array
You access an array element by referring to the index number.

This statement accesses the value of the first element in cars:

Example

String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

[Link](cars[0]);
// Outputs Volvo

Note: Array indexes start with 0: [0] is the first element. [1] is the second element, etc.

Change an Array Element

To change the value of a specific element, refer to the index number:

Example

cars[0] = "Opel";

Example

String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

cars[0] = "Opel";
[Link](cars[0]);
// Now outputs Opel instead of Volvo

Array Length
To find out how many elements an array has, use the length property:

Example
String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};
[Link]([Link]);
// Outputs 4

Loop Through an Array

You can loop through the array elements with the for loop, and use the length property to
specify how many times the loop should run.

The following example outputs all elements in the cars array:

Example

String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

for (int i = 0; i < [Link]; i++) {
[Link](cars[i]);
}

Loop Through an Array with For-Each

There is also a "for-each" loop, which is used exclusively to loop through elements in arrays:

Syntax

for (type variable : arrayname) {

...
}

The following example outputs all elements in the cars array, using a "for-each" loop:

Example

String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};

for (String i : cars) {
[Link](i);
}

The example above can be read like this: for each String element (called i - as in index) in
cars, print out the value of i.
If you compare the for loop and for-each loop, you will see that the for-each method is easier
to write, it does not require a counter (using the length property), and it is more readable.

Multidimensional Arrays
A multidimensional array is an array containing one or more arrays.

To create a two-dimensional array, add each array within its own set of curly braces:

Example

int[][] myNumbers = { {1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7} };

myNumbers is now an array with two arrays as its elements.

To access the elements of the myNumbers array, specify two indexes: one for the array, and one
for the element inside that array. This example accesses the third element (2) in the second array
(1) of myNumbers:

Example

int[][] myNumbers = { {1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7} };

int x = myNumbers[1][2];
[Link](x); // Outputs 7

We can also use a for loop inside another for loop to get the elements of a two-dimensional
array (we still have to point to the two indexes):

Example

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int[][] myNumbers = { {1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7} };
for (int i = 0; i < [Link]; ++i) {
for(int j = 0; j < myNumbers[i].length; ++j) {
[Link](myNumbers[i][j]);
}
}
}
}
Java Exceptions - Try...Catch

Java Exceptions
When executing Java code, different errors can occur: coding errors made by the programmer,
errors due to wrong input, or other unforeseeable things.

When an error occurs, Java will normally stop and generate an error message. The technical term
for this is: Java will throw an exception (throw an error).

Java try and catch

The try statement allows you to define a block of code to be tested for errors while it is being
executed.

The catch statement allows you to define a block of code to be executed, if an error occurs in
the try block.

The try and catch keywords come in pairs:

Syntax

try {
// Block of code to try
}
catch(Exception e) {
// Block of code to handle errors
}

Consider the following example:

This will generate an error, because myNumbers[10] does not exist.

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[ ] args) {
int[] myNumbers = {1, 2, 3};
[Link](myNumbers[10]); // error!
}
}
The output will be something like this:

Exception in thread "main" [Link]: 10

at [Link]([Link])

If an error occurs, we can use try...catch to catch the error and execute some code to handle
it:

Example

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[ ] args) {
try {
int[] myNumbers = {1, 2, 3};
[Link](myNumbers[10]);
} catch (Exception e) {
[Link]("Something went wrong.");
}
}
}

The output will be:

Something went wrong.

Finally
The finally statement lets you execute code, after try...catch, regardless of the result:

Example

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
try {
int[] myNumbers = {1, 2, 3};
[Link](myNumbers[10]);
} catch (Exception e) {
[Link]("Something went wrong.");
} finally {
[Link]("The 'try catch' is finished.");
}
}
}
The output will be:

Something went wrong.

The 'try catch' is finished.

The throw keyword

The throw statement allows you to create a custom error.

The throw statement is used together with an exception type. There are many exception types
available in Java: ArithmeticException, FileNotFoundException,
ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException, SecurityException, etc.

The exception type is often used together with a custom method. Don't worry if you don't
understand the example below, you will learn more about methods in the next chapter:

Example

Throw an exception if age is below 18 (print "Access denied"). If age is 18 or older, print
"Access granted":

public class MyClass {

static void checkAge(int age) {
if (age < 18) {
throw new ArithmeticException("Access denied - You must be at least 18 years old.");
}
else {
[Link]("Access granted - You are old enough!");
}
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

checkAge(15); // Set age to 15 (which is below 18...)
}
}

The output will be:

Exception in thread "main" [Link]: Access denied - You

must be at least 18 years old.
at [Link]([Link])
at [Link]([Link])
If age was 20, you would not get an exception:

Example

checkAge(20);

The output will be:

Access granted - You are old enough!

Java Methods

A method is a block of code which only runs when it is called.

You can pass data, known as parameters, into a method.

Methods are used to perform certain actions, and they are also known as functions.

Why use methods? To reuse code: define the code once, and use it many times.

Create a Method
A method must be declared within a class. It is defined with the name of the method, followed by
parentheses (). Java provides some pre-defined methods, such as [Link](), but
you can also create your own methods to perform certain actions:
Example

Create a method inside MyClass:

public class MyClass {

static void myMethod() {
// code to be executed
}
}

Example Explained

 myMethod() is the name of the method

 static means that the method belongs to the MyClass class and not an object of the MyClass
class. You will learn more about objects and how to access methods through objects later in this
tutorial.
 void means that this method does not have a return value. You will learn more about return
values later in this chapter

Call a Method
To call a method in Java, write the method's name followed by two parentheses () and a
semicolon;

In the following example, myMethod() is used to print a text (the action), when it is called:

Example

Inside main, call the myMethod() method:

public class MyClass {

static void myMethod() {
[Link]("I just got executed!");
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

myMethod();
}
}

// Outputs "I just got executed!"

A method can also be called multiple times:

Example

public class MyClass {

static void myMethod() {
[Link]("I just got executed!");
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

myMethod();
myMethod();
myMethod();
}
}

// I just got executed!

// I just got executed!
// I just got executed!

Method Parameters
Information can be passed to functions as parameter. Parameters act as variables inside the
method.

Parameters are specified after the method name, inside the parentheses. You can add as many
parameters as you want, just separate them with a comma.

The following example has a method that takes a String called fname as parameter. When the
method is called, we pass along a first name, which is used inside the method to print the full
name:

Example

public class MyClass {

static void myMethod(String fname) {
[Link](fname + " Refsnes");
}
 public static void main(String[] args) {
myMethod("Liam");
myMethod("Jenny");
myMethod("Anja");
}
}
// Liam Refsnes
// Jenny Refsnes
// Anja Refsnes

Return Values
The void keyword, used in the examples above, indicates that the method should not return a
value. If you want the method to return a value, you can use a primitive data type (such as int,
char, etc.) instead of void, and use the return keyword inside the method:

Example

public class MyClass {

static int myMethod(int x) {
return 5 + x;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

[Link](myMethod(3));
}
}
// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)

This example returns the sum of a method's two parameters:

Example

public class MyClass {

static int myMethod(int x, int y) {
return x + y;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

[Link](myMethod(5, 3));
}
}
// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)

You can also store the result in a variable (recommended):

Example

public class MyClass {

static int myMethod(int x, int y) {
return x + y;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

int z = myMethod(5, 3);
[Link](z);
}
}
// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)

A Method with If...Else

It is common to use if...else statements inside methods:

Example

public class MyClass {

// Create a checkAge() method with an integer variable called age

static void checkAge(int age) {

// If age is less than 18, print "access denied"

if (age < 18) {
[Link]("Access denied - You are not old enough!");

// If age is greater than 18, print "access granted"

} else {
[Link]("Access granted - You are old enough!");
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

 checkAge(20); // Call the checkAge method and pass along an age of 20
}
}

// Outputs "Access granted - You are old enough!"

Java Classes and Objects

Java Classes/Objects
Java is an object-oriented programming language.

Everything in Java is associated with classes and objects, along with its attributes and methods.
For example: in real life, a car is an object. The car has attributes, such as weight and color, and
methods, such as drive and brake.

A Class is like an object constructor, or a "blueprint" for creating objects.

Create a Class
To create a class, use the keyword class:

[Link]

Create a class called "MyClass" with a variable x:

public class MyClass {

int x = 5;
}

Remember from the Java Syntax chapter that a class should always start with an uppercase first
letter, and that the name of the java file should match the class name.

Create an Object
In Java, an object is created from a class. We have already created the class named MyClass, so
now we can use this to create objects.
To create an object of MyClass, specify the class name, followed by the object name, and use the
keyword new:

Example

Create an object called "myObj" and print the value of x:

public class MyClass {

int x = 5;

public static void main(String[] args) {

MyClass myObj = new MyClass();
[Link](myObj.x);
}
}

Multiple Objects
You can create multiple objects of one class:

Example

Create two objects of MyClass:

public class MyClass {

int x = 5;

public static void main(String[] args) {

MyClass myObj1 = new MyClass(); // Object 1
MyClass myObj2 = new MyClass(); // Object 2
[Link](myObj1.x);
[Link](myObj2.x);
}
}

Using Multiple Classes

You can also create an object of a class and access it in another class. This is often used for
better organization of classes (one class has all the attributes and methods, while the other class
holds the main() method (code to be executed)).
Remember that the name of the java file should match the class name. In this example, we have
created two files in the same directory/folder:

 [Link]
 [Link]

[Link]
public class MyClass {
int x = 5;
}

[Link]
class OtherClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
MyClass myObj = new MyClass();
[Link](myObj.x);
}
}

When both files have been compiled:

C:\Users\Your Name>javac [Link]

C:\Users\Your Name>javac [Link]

Run the [Link] file:

C:\Users\Your Name>java OtherClass

And the output will be:

Java Class Attributes

Java Class Attributes
In the previous chapter, we used the term "variable" for x in the example (as shown below). It is
actually an attribute of the class. Or you could say that class attributes are variables within a
class:

Example

Create a class called "MyClass" with two attributes: x and y:

public class MyClass {

int x = 5;
int y = 3;
}

Another term for class attributes is fields.

Accessing Attributes
You can access attributes by creating an object of the class, and by using the dot syntax (.):

The following example will create an object of the MyClass class, with the name myObj. We use
the x attribute on the object to print its value:

Example

Create an object called "myObj" and print the value of x:

public class MyClass {

int x = 5;

public static void main(String[] args) {

MyClass myObj = new MyClass();
[Link](myObj.x);
}
}

Modify Attributes
You can also modify attribute values:
Example

Set the value of x to 40:

public class MyClass {

int x;

public static void main(String[] args) {

MyClass myObj = new MyClass();
myObj.x = 40;
[Link](myObj.x);
}
}

Or override existing values:

Example

Change the value of x to 25:

public class MyClass {

int x = 10;

public static void main(String[] args) {

MyClass myObj = new MyClass();
myObj.x = 25; // x is now 25
[Link](myObj.x);
}
}

If you don't want the ability to override existing values, declare the attribute as final:

Example

public class MyClass {

final int x = 10;

public static void main(String[] args) {

MyClass myObj = new MyClass();
myObj.x = 25; // will generate an error: cannot assign a value to a final variable
[Link](myObj.x);
}
}
The final keyword is useful when you want a variable to always store the same value, like PI
(3.14159...).

The final keyword is called a "modifier".

Multiple Objects
If you create multiple objects of one class, you can change the attribute values in one object,
without affecting the attribute values in the other:

Example

Change the value of x to 25 in myObj2, and leave x in myObj1 unchanged:

public class MyClass {

int x = 5;

public static void main(String[] args) {

MyClass myObj1 = new MyClass(); // Object 1
MyClass myObj2 = new MyClass(); // Object 2
myObj2.x = 25;
[Link](myObj1.x); // Outputs 5
[Link](myObj2.x); // Outputs 25
}
}

Multiple Attributes
You can specify as many attributes as you want:

Example

public class Person {

String fname = "John";
String lname = "Doe";
int age = 24;

public static void main(String[] args) {

Person myObj = new Person();
 [Link]("Name: " + [Link] + " " + [Link]);
[Link]("Age: " + [Link]);
}
}

The next chapter will teach you how to create class methods and how to access them with
objects.

Java Class Methods

Java Class Methods

You learned from the Java Methods chapter that methods are declared within a class, and that
they are used to perform certain actions:

Example

Create a method named myMethod() in MyClass:

public class MyClass {

static void myMethod() {
[Link]("Hello World!");
}
}

myMethod() prints a text (the action), when it is called. To call a method, write the method's
name followed by two parentheses () and a semicolon;

Example

Inside main, call the myMethod() method:

public class MyClass {

static void myMethod() {
[Link]("Hello World!");
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

 myMethod();
}
}

// Outputs "Hello World!"

Static or Public
You will often see Java programs that have either static or public attributes and methods.

In the example above, we created a static method, which means that it can be accessed without
creating an object of the class, unlike public, which can only be accessed by objects:

Example

An example to demonstrate the differences between static and public methods:

public class MyClass {

// Static method
static void myStaticMethod() {
[Link]("Static methods can be called without creating objects");
}

// Public method
public void myPublicMethod() {
[Link]("Public methods must be called by creating objects");
}

// Main method
public static void main(String[] args) {
myStaticMethod(); // Call the static method
// myPublicMethod(); This would compile an error

MyClass myObj = new MyClass(); // Create an object of MyClass

[Link](); // Call the public method on the object
}
}

Note: You will learn more about these keywords (called modifiers) in the Java Modifiers
chapter.
Access Methods With an Object
Example

Create a Car object named myCar. Call the fullThrottle() and speed() methods on the myCar
object, and run the program:

// Create a Car class

public class Car {

// Create a fullThrottle() method

public void fullThrottle() {
[Link]("The car is going as fast as it can!");
}

// Create a speed() method and add a parameter

public void speed(int maxSpeed) {
[Link]("Max speed is: " + maxSpeed);
}

// Inside main, call the methods on the myCar object

public static void main(String[] args) {
Car myCar = new Car(); // Create a myCar object
[Link](); // Call the fullThrottle() method
[Link](200); // Call the speed() method
}
}

// The car is going as fast as it can!

// Max speed is: 200

Example explained

1) We created a custom Car class with the class keyword.

2) We created the fullThrottle() and speed() methods in the Car class.

3) The fullThrottle() method and the speed() method will print out some text, when they are
called.

4) The speed() method accepts an int parameter called maxSpeed - we will use this in 8).

5) In order to use the Car class and its methods, we need to create an object of the Car Class.
6) Then, go to the main() method, which you know by now is a built-in Java method that runs
your program (any code inside main is executed).

7) By using the new keyword we created a Car object with the name myCar.

8) Then, we call the fullThrottle() and speed() methods on the myCar object, and run the
program using the name of the object (myCar), followed by a dot (.), followed by the name of
the method (fullThrottle(); and speed(200);). Notice that we add an int parameter of 200
inside the speed() method.

Remember that..

The dot (.) is used to access the object's attributes and methods.

To call a method in Java, write the method name followed by a set of parentheses (), followed by
a semicolon (;).

A class must have a matching filename (Car and [Link]).

Using Multiple Classes

Like we specified in the Classes chapter, it is a good practice to create an object of a class and
access it in another class.

Remember that the name of the java file should match the class name. In this example, we have
created two files in the same directory:

 [Link]
 [Link]

[Link]
public class Car {
public void fullThrottle() {
[Link]("The car is going as fast as it can!");
}

public void speed(int maxSpeed) {

[Link]("Max speed is: " + maxSpeed);
}
}

[Link]
class OtherClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
 Car myCar = new Car(); // Create a myCar object
[Link](); // Call the fullThrottle() method
[Link](200); // Call the speed() method
}
}

When both files have been compiled:

C:\Users\Your Name>javac [Link]

C:\Users\Your Name>javac [Link]

Run the [Link] file:

C:\Users\Your Name>java OtherClass

And the output will be:

The car is going as fast as it can!

Max speed is: 200

Java Constructors
Java Constructors
A constructor in Java is a special method that is used to initialize objects. The constructor is
called when an object of a class is created. It can be used to set initial values for object attributes:

Example

Create a constructor:

// Create a MyClass class

public class MyClass {
int x; // Create a class attribute

// Create a class constructor for the MyClass class

public MyClass() {
x = 5; // Set the initial value for the class attribute x
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

MyClass myObj = new MyClass(); // Create an object of class MyClass (This will call the
constructor)
 [Link](myObj.x); // Print the value of x
}
}

// Outputs 5

Note that the constructor name must match the class name, and it cannot have a return type
(like void).

Also note that the constructor is called when the object is created.

All classes have constructors by default: if you do not create a class constructor yourself, Java
creates one for you. However, then you are not able to set initial values for object attributes.

Constructor Parameters
Constructors can also take parameters, which is used to initialize attributes.

The following example adds an int y parameter to the constructor. Inside the constructor we set
x to y (x=y). When we call the constructor, we pass a parameter to the constructor (5), which will
set the value of x to 5:

Example

public class MyClass {

int x;

public MyClass(int y) {
x = y;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

MyClass myObj = new MyClass(5);
[Link](myObj.x);
}
}

// Outputs 5

You can have as many parameters as you want:

Example

public class Car {

int modelYear;
 String modelName;

public Car(int year, String name) {

modelYear = year;
modelName = name;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

Car myCar = new Car(1969, "Mustang");
[Link]([Link] + " " + [Link]);
}
}

// Outputs 1969 Mustang

Java Modifiers

Modifiers
By now, you are quite familiar with the public keyword that appears in almost all of our
examples:

public class MyClass

The public keyword is an access modifier, meaning that it is used to set the access level for
classes, attributes, methods and constructors.

We divide modifiers into two groups:

 Access Modifiers - controls the access level

 Non-Access Modifiers - do not control access level, but provides other functionality

Access Modifiers
For classes, you can use either public or default:
 Modifier Description Try it

public The class is accessible by any other class

The class is only accessible by classes in the same package. This is used when you
default don't specify a modifier. You will learn more about packages in the Packages
chapter

For attributes, methods and constructors, you can use the one of the following:

Modifier Description Try it

public The code is accessible for all classes

private The code is only accessible within the declared class

The code is only accessible in the same package. This is used when you don't
default
specify a modifier. You will learn more about packages in the Packages chapter

The code is accessible in the same package and subclasses. You will learn more
protected
about subclasses and superclasses in the Inheritance chapter

Non-Access Modifiers
For classes, you can use either final or abstract:

Modifier Description Try it

The class cannot be inherited by other classes (You will learn more
final
about inheritance in the Inheritance chapter)

The class cannot be used to create objects (To access an abstract class, it
abstract must be inherited from another class. You will learn more about
inheritance in the Inheritance chapter)

For attributes and methods, you can use the one of the following:

Modifier Description

final Attributes and methods cannot be overridden/modified

static Attributes and methods belongs to the class, rather than an object
 Can only be used in an abstract class, and can only be used on methods. The
method does not have a body, for example abstract void run();. The body is
abstract
provided by the subclass (inherited from). You will learn more about inheritance in
the Inheritance chapter

transient Attributes and methods are skipped when serializing the object containing them

synchronized Methods can only be accessed by one thread at a time

The value of an attribute is not cached thread-locally, and is always read from the
volatile
"main memory"

Final
If you don't want the ability to override existing attribute values, declare attributes as final:

Example

public class MyClass {

final int x = 10;
final double PI = 3.14;

public static void main(String[] args) {

MyClass myObj = new MyClass();
myObj.x = 50; // will generate an error: cannot assign a value to a final variable
[Link] = 25; // will generate an error: cannot assign a value to a final variable
[Link](myObj.x);
}
}

Static
A static method means that it can be accessed without creating an object of the class, unlike
public:

Example
An example to demonstrate the differences between static and public methods:

public class MyClass {

// Static method
static void myStaticMethod() {
[Link]("Static methods can be called without creating objects");
}

// Public method
public void myPublicMethod() {
[Link]("Public methods must be called by creating objects");
}

// Main method
public static void main(String[ ] args) {
myStaticMethod(); // Call the static method
// myPublicMethod(); This would output an error

MyClass myObj = new MyClass(); // Create an object of MyClass

[Link](); // Call the public method
}
}

Abstract
An abstract method belongs to an abstract class, and it does not have a body. The body is
provided by the subclass:

Example

// Code from filename: [Link]

// abstract class
abstract class Person {
public String fname = "John";
public int age = 24;
public abstract void study(); // abstract method
}

// Subclass (inherit from Person)

class Student extends Person {
public int graduationYear = 2018;
public void study() { // the body of the abstract method is provided here
 [Link]("Studying all day long");
}
}
// End code from filename: [Link]

// Code from filename: [Link]

class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
// create an object of the Student class (which inherits attributes and methods from Person)
Student myObj = new Student();

[Link]("Name: " + [Link]);

[Link]("Age: " + [Link]);
[Link]("Graduation Year: " + [Link]);
[Link](); // call abstract method
}
}

Java Encapsulation

Encapsulation
The meaning of Encapsulation, is to make sure that "sensitive" data is hidden from users. To
achieve this, you must:

 declare class variables/attributes as private (only accessible within the same class)
 provide public setter and getter methods to access and update the value of a private variable

Get and Set

You learned from the previous chapter that private variables can only be accessed within the
same class (an outside class has no access to it). However, it is possible to access them if we
provide public getter and setter methods.

The get method returns the variable value, and the set method sets the value.

Syntax for both is that they start with either get or set, followed by the name of the variable,
with the first letter in upper case:

Example

public class Person {

private String name; // private = restricted access

// Getter
public String getName() {
return name;
}

// Setter
public void setName(String newName) {
[Link] = newName;
}
}

Example explained

The get method returns the value of the variable name.

The set method takes a parameter (newName) and assigns it to the name variable. The this
keyword is used to refer to the current object.

However, as the name variable is declared as private, we cannot access it from outside this
class:

Example
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Person myObj = new Person();
[Link] = "John"; // error
[Link]([Link]); // error
}
}

If the variable was declared as public, we would expect the following output:

John

However, as we try to access a private variable, we get an error:

[Link][Link] error: name has private access in Person

[Link] = "John";
^
[Link][Link] error: name has private access in Person
[Link]([Link]);
^
2 errors

Instead, we use the getName() and setName() methods to acccess and update the variable:

Example

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Person myObj = new Person();
[Link]("John"); // Set the value of the name variable to "John"
[Link]([Link]());
}
}

// Outputs "John"

Why Encapsulation?
 Better control of class attributes and methods
 Class variables can be made read-only (if you omit the set method), or write-only (if you omit
the get method)
 Flexible: the programmer can change one part of the code without affecting other parts
 Increased security of data
Java Packages

Java Packages & API

A package in Java is used to group related classes. Think of it as a folder in a file directory. We
use packages to avoid name conflicts, and to write a better maintainable code. Packages are
divided into two categories:

 Built-in Packages (packages from the Java API)

 User-defined Packages (create your own packages)

Built-in Packages
The Java API is a library of prewritten classes, that are free to use, included in the Java
Development Environment.

The library contains components for managing input, database programming, and much much
more. The complete list can be found at Oracles website:
[Link]

The library is divided into packages and classes. Meaning you can either import a single class
(along with its methods and attributes), or a whole package that contain all the classes that
belong to the specified package.

To use a class or a package from the library, you need to use the import keyword:

Syntax

import [Link]; // Import a single class

import [Link].*; // Import the whole package
Import a Class
If you find a class you want to use, for example, the Scanner class, which is used to get user
input, write the following code:

Example

import [Link];

In the example above, [Link] is a package, while Scanner is a class of the [Link]
package.

To use the Scanner class, create an object of the class and use any of the available methods
found in the Scanner class documentation. In our example, we will use the nextLine() method,
which is used to read a complete line:

Example

Using the Scanner class to get user input:

import [Link];

class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Scanner myObj = new Scanner([Link]);
[Link]("Enter username");

String userName = [Link]();

[Link]("Username is: " + userName);
}
}

Import a Package
There are many packages to choose from. In the previous example, we used the Scanner class
from the [Link] package. This package also contains date and time facilities, random-
number generator and other utility classes.
To import a whole package, end the sentence with an asterisk sign (*). The following example
will import ALL the classes in the [Link] package:

Example

import [Link].*;

User-defined Packages
To create your own package, you need to understand that Java use a file system directory to store
them. Just like folders on your computer:

Example
└── root
└── mypack
└── [Link]

To create a package, use the package keyword:

[Link]

package mypack;

class MyPackageClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link]("This is my package!");
}
}

Save the file as [Link], and compile it:

C:\Users\Your Name>javac [Link]

Then compile the package:

C:\Users\Your Name>javac -d . [Link]

This forces the compiler to create the "mypack" package.

The -d keyword specifies the destination for where to save the class file. You can use any
directory name, like c:/user (windows), or, if you want to keep the package within the same
directory, you can use the dot sign ".", like in the example above.
Note: The package name should be written in lower case to avoid conflict with class names.

When we compiled the package in the example above, a new folder was created, called
"mypack".

To run the [Link] file, write the following:

C:\Users\Your Name>java [Link]

The output will be:

This is my package!

Java Inheritance

Java Inheritance (Subclass and Superclass)

In Java, it is possible to inherit attributes and methods from one class to another. We group the
"inheritance concept" into two categories:

 subclass (child) - the class that inherits from another class

 superclass (parent) - the class being inherited from

To inherit from a class, use the extends keyword.

In the example below, the Car class (subclass) inherits the attributes and methods from the
Vehicle class (superclass):

Example

class Vehicle {
protected String brand = "Ford"; // Vehicle attribute
public void honk() { // Vehicle method
[Link]("Tuut, tuut!");
}
}

class Car extends Vehicle {

private String modelName = "Mustang"; // Car attribute
 public static void main(String[] args) {

// Create a myCar object

Car myCar = new Car();

// Call the honk() method (from the Vehicle class) on the myCar object
[Link]();

// Display the value of the brand attribute (from the Vehicle class) and the value of the modelName
from the Car class
[Link]([Link] + " " + [Link]);
}
}

Did you notice the protected modifier in Vehicle?

We set the brand attribute in Vehicle to a protected access modifier. If it was set to private,
the Car class would not be able to access it.

Why And When To Use "Inheritance"?

- It is useful for code reusability: reuse attributes and methods of an existing class when you
create a new class.

Java Polymorphism

Java Polymorphism
Polymorphism means "many forms", and it occurs when we have many classes that are related to
each other by inheritance.

Like we specified in the previous chapter; Inheritance lets us inherit attributes and methods
from another class. Polymorphism uses those methods to perform different tasks. This allows us
to perform a single action in different ways.

For example, think of a superclass called Animal that has a method called animalSound().
Subclasses of Animals could be Pigs, Cats, Dogs, Birds - And they also have their own
implementation of an animal sound (the pig oinks, and the cat meows, etc.):

Example

class Animal {
public void animalSound() {
[Link]("The animal makes a sound");
}
}

class Pig extends Animal {

public void animalSound() {
[Link]("The pig says: wee wee");
}
}

class Dog extends Animal {

public void animalSound() {
[Link]("The dog says: bow wow");
}
}

Remember from the Inheritance chapter that we use the extends keyword to inherit from a class.

Now we can create Pig and Dog objects and call the animalSound() method on both of them:

Example

class Animal {
public void animalSound() {
[Link]("The animal makes a sound");
}
}

class Pig extends Animal {

public void animalSound() {
[Link]("The pig says: wee wee");
}
}

class Dog extends Animal {

public void animalSound() {
[Link]("The dog says: bow wow");
}
}

class MyMainClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Animal myAnimal = new Animal(); // Create a Animal object
Animal myPig = new Pig(); // Create a Pig object
Animal myDog = new Dog(); // Create a Dog object

[Link]();
[Link]();
[Link]();
}
}

Why And When To Use "Inheritance" and "Polymorphism"?

- It is useful for code reusability: reuse attributes and methods of an existing class when you
create a new class.
Java Inner Classes

Java Inner Classes

In Java, it is also possible to nest classes (a class within a class). The purpose of nested classes is
to group classes that belong together, which makes your code more readable and maintainable.

To access the inner class, create an object of the outer class, and then create an object of the
inner class:

Example

class OuterClass {
int x = 10;

class InnerClass {
int y = 5;
}
}

public class MyMainClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
OuterClass myOuter = new OuterClass();
[Link] myInner = [Link] InnerClass();
[Link](myInner.y + myOuter.x);
}
}

// Outputs 15 (5 + 10)

Private Inner Class

Unlike a "regular" class, an inner class can be private or protected. If you don't want outside
objects to access the inner class, declare the class as private:

Example
class OuterClass {
int x = 10;

private class InnerClass {

int y = 5;
}
}

public class MyMainClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
OuterClass myOuter = new OuterClass();
[Link] myInner = [Link] InnerClass();
[Link](myInner.y + myOuter.x);
}
}

If you try to access a private inner class from an outside class (MyMainClass), an error occurs:

[Link][Link] error: [Link] has private access in

OuterClass
[Link] myInner = [Link] InnerClass();
^

Static Inner Class

An inner class can also be static, which means that you can access it without creating an object
of the outer class:

Example

class OuterClass {
int x = 10;

static class InnerClass {

int y = 5;
}
}

public class MyMainClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
[Link] myInner = new [Link]();
[Link](myInner.y);
}
}

// Outputs 5
Note: just like static attributes and methods, a static inner class does not have access to
members of the outer class.

Access Outer Class From Inner Class

One advantage of inner classes, is that they can access attributes and methods of the outer class:

Example

class OuterClass {
int x = 10;

class InnerClass {
public int myInnerMethod() {
return x;
}
}
}

public class MyMainClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {
OuterClass myOuter = new OuterClass();
[Link] myInner = [Link] InnerClass();
[Link]([Link]());
}
}

// Outputs 10

Java Abstraction

Java Abstract Classes and Methods

Data abstraction is the process of hiding certain details and showing only essential information
to the user.
Abstraction can be achieved with either abstract classes or interfaces (which you will learn
more about in the next chapter).

The abstract keyword is a non-access modifier, used for classes and methods:

 Abstract class: is a restricted class that cannot be used to create objects (to access it, it must be
inherited from another class).

 Abstract method: can only be used in an abstract class, and it does not have a body. The body is
provided by the subclass (inherited from).

An abstract class can have both abstract and regular methods:

abstract class Animal {

public abstract void animalSound();
public void sleep() {
[Link]("Zzz");
}
}

From the example above, it is not possible to create an object of the Animal class:

Animal myObj = new Animal(); // will generate an error

To access the abstract class, it must be inherited from another class. Let's convert the Animal
class we used in the Polymorphism chapter to an abstract class:

Remember from the Inheritance chapter that we use the extends keyword to inherit from a class.

Example

// Abstract class
abstract class Animal {
// Abstract method (does not have a body)
public abstract void animalSound();
// Regular method
public void sleep() {
[Link]("Zzz");
}
}

// Subclass (inherit from Animal)

class Pig extends Animal {
public void animalSound() {
// The body of animalSound() is provided here
[Link]("The pig says: wee wee");
}
}

class MyMainClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Pig myPig = new Pig(); // Create a Pig object
[Link]();
[Link]();
}
}

Why And When To Use Abstract Classes and Methods?

To achieve security - hide certain details and only show the important details of an object.

Note: Abstraction can also be achieved with Interfaces, which you will learn more about in the
next chapter.

Java Interface

Java Interface
Another way to achieve abstraction in Java, is with interfaces.

An interface is a completely "abstract class" that is used to group related methods with empty
bodies:
Example

// interface
interface Animal {
public void animalSound(); // interface method (does not have a body)
public void run(); // interface method (does not have a body)
}

To access the interface methods, the interface must be "implemented" (kinda like inherited) by
another class with the implements keyword (instead of extends). The body of the interface
method is provided by the "implement" class:

Example

// Interface
interface Animal {
public void animalSound(); // interface method (does not have a body)
public void sleep(); // interface method (does not have a body)
}

// Pig "implements" the Animal interface

class Pig implements Animal {
public void animalSound() {
// The body of animalSound() is provided here
[Link]("The pig says: wee wee");
}
public void sleep() {
// The body of sleep() is provided here
[Link]("Zzz");
}
}

class MyMainClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Pig myPig = new Pig(); // Create a Pig object
[Link]();
[Link]();
}
}

Notes on Interfaces:

 Like abstract classes, interfaces cannot be used to create objects (in the example above, it is not
possible to create an "Animal" object in the MyMainClass)
  Interface methods do not have a body - the body is provided by the "implement" class
 On implementation of an interface, you must override all of its methods
 Interface methods are by default abstract and public
 Interface attributes are by default public, static and final
 An interface cannot contain a constructor (as it cannot be used to create objects)

Why And When To Use Interfaces?

1) To achieve security - hide certain details and only show the important details of an object
(interface).

2) Java does not support "multiple inheritance" (a class can only inherit from one superclass).
However, it can be achieved with interfaces, because the class can implement multiple
interfaces. Note: To implement multiple interfaces, separate them with a comma (see example
below).

Multiple Interfaces
To implement multiple interfaces, separate them with a comma:

Example

interface FirstInterface {
public void myMethod(); // interface method
}

interface SecondInterface {
public void myOtherMethod(); // interface method
}

// DemoClass "implements" FirstInterface and SecondInterface

class DemoClass implements FirstInterface, SecondInterface {
public void myMethod() {
[Link]("Some text..");
}
public void myOtherMethod() {
[Link]("Some other text...");
}
}

class MyMainClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
DemoClass myObj = new DemoClass();
 [Link]();
[Link]();
}
}

Java Enums

Java Enums
An enum is a special "class" that represents a group of constants (unchangeable variables, like
final variables).

To create an enum, use the enum keyword (instead of class or interface), and separate the
constants with a comma. Note that they should be in uppercase letters:

Example

enum Level {
LOW,
MEDIUM,
HIGH
}

You can access enum constants with the dot syntax:

Level myVar = [Link];

Enum is short for "enumerations", which means "specifically listed".

Enum inside a Class

You can also have an enum inside a class:

Example
public class MyClass {
enum Level {
LOW,
MEDIUM,
HIGH
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

Level myVar = [Link];
[Link](myVar);
}
}

The output will be:

MEDIUM

Enum in a Switch Statement

Enums are often used in switch statements to check for corresponding values:

Example

enum Level {
LOW,
MEDIUM,
HIGH
}

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Level myVar = [Link];

switch(myVar) {
case LOW:
[Link]("Low level");
break;
case MEDIUM:
[Link]("Medium level");
break;
case HIGH:
[Link]("High level");
 break;
}
}
}

The output will be:

Medium level

Loop Through an Enum

The enum type has a values() method, which returns an array of all enum constants. This
method is useful when you want to loop through the constants of an enum:

Example

for (Level myVar : [Link]()) {

[Link](myVar);
}

The output will be:

LOW
MEDIUM
HIGH

Difference between Enums and Classes

An enum can, just like a class, have attributes and methods. The only difference is that enum
constants are public, static and final (unchangeable - cannot be overridden).

An enum cannot be used to create objects, and it cannot extend other classes (but it can
implement interfaces).

Why And When To Use Enums?

Use enums when you have values that you know aren't going to change, like month days, days,
colors, deck of cards, etc.

Java User Input (Scanner)

Java User Input
The Scanner class is used to get user input, and it is found in the [Link] package.

To use the Scanner class, create an object of the class and use any of the available methods
found in the Scanner class documentation. In our example, we will use the nextLine() method,
which is used to read Strings:

Example

import [Link]; // Import the Scanner class

class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Scanner myObj = new Scanner([Link]); // Create a Scanner object
[Link]("Enter username");

String userName = [Link](); // Read user input

[Link]("Username is: " + userName); // Output user input
}
}

Input Types
In the example above, we used the nextLine() method, which is used to read Strings. To read
other types, look at the table below:

Method Description

nextBoolean() Reads a boolean value from the user

nextByte() Reads a byte value from the user

nextDouble() Reads a double value from the user

nextFloat() Reads a float value from the user

nextInt() Reads a int value from the user

nextLine() Reads a String value from the user

nextLong() Reads a long value from the user

nextShort() Reads a short value from the user

In the example below, we use different methods to read data of various types:

Example

import [Link];

class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Scanner myObj = new Scanner([Link]);

[Link]("Enter name, age and salary");

// String input
String name = [Link]();

// Numerical input
int age = [Link]();
double salary = [Link]();

// Output input by user

[Link]("Name: " + name);
[Link]("Age: " + age);
[Link]("Salary: " + salary);
}
}

Java Date and Time

Java Dates
Java does not have a built-in Date class, but we can import the [Link] package to work with
the date and time API. The package includes many date and time classes. For example:

Class Description

LocalDate Represents a date (year, month, day (yyyy-MM-dd))

LocalTime Represents a time (hour, minute, second and milliseconds (HH-mm-ss-zzz))

LocalDateTime Represents both a date and a time ([Link])

DateTimeFormatter Formatter for displaying and parsing date-time objects

Display Current Date

To display the current date, import the [Link] class, and use its now() method:

Example

import [Link]; // import the LocalDate class

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
LocalDate myObj = [Link](); // Create a date object
[Link](myObj); // Display the current date
}
}

The output will be:

2019-09-17

Display Current Time

To display the current time (hour, minute, second, and milliseconds), import the
[Link] class, and use its now() method:

Example
import [Link]; // import the LocalTime class

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
LocalTime myObj = [Link]();
[Link](myObj);
}
}

The output will be:

[Link].741864

Display Current Date and Time

To display the current date and time, import the [Link] class, and use its
now() method:

Example

import [Link]; // import the LocalDateTime class

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
LocalDateTime myObj = [Link]();
[Link](myObj);
}
}

The output will be:

2019-09-17T[Link].741005

Formatting Date and Time

The "T" in the example above is used to separate the date from the time. You can use the
DateTimeFormatter class with the ofPattern() method in the same package to format or parse
date-time objects. The following example will remove both the "T" and milliseconds from the
date-time:
Example

import [Link]; // Import the LocalDateTime class

import [Link]; // Import the DateTimeFormatter class

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
LocalDateTime myDateObj = [Link]();
[Link]("Before formatting: " + myDateObj);
DateTimeFormatter myFormatObj = [Link]("dd-MM-yyyy HH:mm:ss");

String formattedDate = [Link](myFormatObj);

[Link]("After formatting: " + formattedDate);
}
}

The output will be:

Before Formatting: 2019-09-17T[Link].742936

After Formatting: 17-09-2019 [Link]

The ofPattern() method accepts all sorts of values, if you want to display the date and time in
a different format. For example:

Value Example Tryit

yyyy-MM-dd "1988-09-29"

dd/MM/yyyy "29/09/1988"

dd-MMM-yyyy "29-Sep-1988"

E, MMM dd yyyy "Thu, Sep 29 1988"

Java ArrayList

Java ArrayList
The ArrayList class is a resizable array, which can be found in the [Link] package.

The difference between a built-in array and an ArrayList in Java, is that the size of an array
cannot be modified (if you want to add or remove elements to/from an array, you have to create a
new one). While elements can be added and removed from an ArrayList whenever you want.
The syntax is also slightly different:

Example

Create an ArrayList object called cars that will store strings:

import [Link]; // import the ArrayList class

ArrayList<String> cars = new ArrayList<String>(); // Create an ArrayList object

If you don't know what a package is, read our Java Packages Tutorial.

Add Items
The ArrayList class has many useful methods. For example, to add elements to the ArrayList,
use the add() method:

Example

import [Link];

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
ArrayList<String> cars = new ArrayList<String>();
[Link]("Volvo");
[Link]("BMW");
[Link]("Ford");
[Link]("Mazda");
[Link](cars);
}
}

Access an Item
To access an element in the ArrayList, use the get() method and refer to the index number:

Example
[Link](0);

Remember: Array indexes start with 0: [0] is the first element. [1] is the second element, etc.

Change an Item
To modify an element, use the set() method and refer to the index number:

Example

[Link](0, "Opel");

Remove an Item
To remove an element, use the remove() method and refer to the index number:

Example

[Link](0);

To remove all the elements in the ArrayList, use the clear() method:

Example

[Link]();

ArrayList Size
To find out how many elements an ArrayList have, use the size method:

Example
[Link]();

Loop Through an ArrayList

Loop through the elements of an ArrayList with a for loop, and use the size() method to
specify how many times the loop should run:

Example

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
ArrayList<String> cars = new ArrayList<String>();
[Link]("Volvo");
[Link]("BMW");
[Link]("Ford");
[Link]("Mazda");
for (int i = 0; i < [Link](); i++) {
[Link]([Link](i));
}
}
}

You can also loop through an ArrayList with the for-each loop:

Example

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
ArrayList<String> cars = new ArrayList<String>();
[Link]("Volvo");
[Link]("BMW");
[Link]("Ford");
[Link]("Mazda");
for (String i : cars) {
[Link](i);
}
}
}

Other Types
Elements in an ArrayList are actually objects. In the examples above, we created elements
(objects) of type "String". Remember that a String in Java is an object (not a primitive type). To
use other types, such as int, you must specify an equivalent wrapper class: Integer. For other
primitive types, use: Boolean for boolean, Character for char, Double for double, etc:

Example

Create an ArrayList to store numbers (add elements of type Integer):

import [Link];

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
ArrayList<Integer> myNumbers = new ArrayList<Integer>();
[Link](10);
[Link](15);
[Link](20);
[Link](25);
for (int i : myNumbers) {
[Link](i);
}
}
}

Sort an ArrayList
Another useful class in the [Link] package is the Collections class, which include the
sort() method for sorting lists alphabetically or numerically:

Example
Sort an ArrayList of Strings:

import [Link];
import [Link]; // Import the Collections class

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
ArrayList<String> cars = new ArrayList<String>();
[Link]("Volvo");
[Link]("BMW");
[Link]("Ford");
[Link]("Mazda");

[Link](cars); // Sort cars

for (String i : cars) {

[Link](i);
}
}
}

Example

Sort an ArrayList of Integers:

import [Link];
import [Link]; // Import the Collections class

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
ArrayList<Integer> myNumbers = new ArrayList<Integer>();
[Link](33);
[Link](15);
[Link](20);
[Link](34);
[Link](8);
[Link](12);

[Link](myNumbers); // Sort myNumbers

for (int i : myNumbers) {

[Link](i);
}
 }
}

Java HashMap

Java HashMap
You learned from the previous chapter, that Arrays store items as an ordered collection, and you
have to access them with an index number (int type). A HashMap however, store items in
"key/value" pairs, and you can access them by an index of another type (e.g. a String).

One object is used as a key (index) to another object (value). It can store different types: String
keys and Integer values, or the same type, like: String keys and String values:

Example

Create a HashMap object called capitalCities that will store String keys and String values:

import [Link]; // import the HashMap class

HashMap<String, String> capitalCities = new HashMap<String, String>();

Add Items
The HashMap class has many useful methods. For example, to add items to it, use the put()
method:

Example
// Import the HashMap class
import [Link];

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

// Create a HashMap object called capitalCities

HashMap<String, String> capitalCities = new HashMap<String, String>();

// Add keys and values (Country, City)

[Link]("England", "London");
[Link]("Germany", "Berlin");
[Link]("Norway", "Oslo");
[Link]("USA", "Washington DC");
[Link](capitalCities);
}
}

Access an Item
To access a value in the HashMap, use the get() method and refer to its key:

Example

[Link]("England");
Remove an Item
To remove an item, use the remove() method and refer to the key:

Example

[Link]("England");

To remove all items, use the clear() method:

Example

[Link]();

HashMap Size
To find out how many items there are, use the size method:

Example

[Link]();

Loop Through a HashMap

Loop through the items of a HashMap with a for-each loop.

Note: Use the keySet() method if you only want the keys, and use the values() method if you
only want the values:

Example

// Print keys
for (String i : [Link]()) {
[Link](i);
}

Example
// Print values
for (String i : [Link]()) {
[Link](i);
}

Example

// Print keys and values

for (String i : [Link]()) {
[Link]("key: " + i + " value: " + [Link](i));
}

Other Types
Keys and values in a HashMap are actually objects. In the examples above, we used objects of
type "String". Remember that a String in Java is an object (not a primitive type). To use other
types, such as int, you must specify an equivalent wrapper class: Integer. For other primitive
types, use: Boolean for boolean, Character for char, Double for double, etc:

Example

Create a HashMap object called people that will store String keys and Integer values:

// Import the HashMap class

import [Link];

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

// Create a HashMap object called people

HashMap<String, Integer> people = new HashMap<String, Integer>();

// Add keys and values (Name, Age)

[Link]("John", 32);
[Link]("Steve", 30);
[Link]("Angie", 33);

for (String i : [Link]()) {

[Link]("key: " + i + " value: " + [Link](i));
}
}
}
Java Wrapper Classes

Java Wrapper Classes

Wrapper classes provide a way to use primitive data types (int, boolean, etc..) as objects.

The table below shows the primitive type and the equivalent wrapper class:

Primitive Data Type Wrapper Class

byte Byte
short Short
int Integer
long Long
float Float
double Double
boolean Boolean
char Character

Sometimes you must use wrapper classes, for example when working with Collection objects,
such as ArrayList, where primitive types cannot be used (the list can only store objects):

Example

ArrayList<int> myNumbers = new ArrayList<int>(); // Invalid

ArrayList<Integer> myNumbers = new ArrayList<Integer>(); // Valid

Creating Wrapper Objects

To create a wrapper object, use the wrapper class instead of the primitive type. To get the value,
you can just print the object:

Example

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Integer myInt = 5;
Double myDouble = 5.99;
Character myChar = 'A';
 [Link](myInt);
[Link](myDouble);
[Link](myChar);
}
}

Since you're now working with objects, you can use certain methods to get information about the
specific object.

For example, the following methods are used to get the value associated with the corresponding
wrapper object: intValue(), byteValue(), shortValue(), longValue(), floatValue(),
doubleValue(), charValue(), booleanValue().

This example will output the same result as the example above:

Example

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Integer myInt = 5;
Double myDouble = 5.99;
Character myChar = 'A';
[Link]([Link]());
[Link]([Link]());
[Link]([Link]());
}
}

Another useful method is the toString() method, which is used to convert wrapper objects to
strings.

In the following example, we convert an Integer to a String, and use the length() method of
the String class to output the length of the "string":

Example

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Integer myInt = 100;
String myString = [Link]();
[Link]([Link]());
}
}
Java Files

Java Files
The File class from the [Link] package, allows us to work with files.

To use the File class, create an object of the class, and specify the filename or directory name:

Example

import [Link]; // Import the File class

File myObj = new File("[Link]"); // Specify the filename

The File class has many useful methods for creating and getting information about files. For
example:

Method Type Description

canRead() Boolean Tests whether the file is readable or not

canWrite() Boolean Tests whether the file is writable or not

createNewFile() Boolean Creates an empty file

delete() Boolean Deletes a file

exists() Boolean Tests whether the file exists

getName() String Returns the name of the file

getAbsolutePath() String Returns the absolute pathname of the file

length() Long Returns the size of the file in bytes

list() String[] Returns an array of the files in the directory

mkdir() Boolean Creates a directory

If you don't know what a package is, read our Java Packages Tutorial.
Create a File
Use the createNewFile() method to create a file. This method returns a boolean value: true if
the file was successfully created, and false if the file already exists. Note that the method is
enclosed in a try...catch block. This is necessary because it throws an IOException if an
error occurs (if the file cannot be created for some reason):

Example

import [Link]; // Import the File class

import [Link]; // Import the IOException class to handle errors

public class CreateFile {

public static void main(String[] args) {
try {
File myObj = new File("[Link]");
if ([Link]()) {
[Link]("File created: " + [Link]());
} else {
[Link]("File already exists.");
}
} catch (IOException e) {
[Link]("An error occurred.");
[Link]();
}
}
}

The output will be:

File created: [Link]

To create a file in a specific directory (requires permission), specify the path of the file and use
double backslashes to escape the "\" character (for Windows). On Mac and Linux you can just
write the path, like: /Users/name/[Link]

Example

File myObj = new File("C:\\Users\\MyName\\[Link]");

Get File Information
Now that we have created a file, we can use other File methods to get information about that file:

Example

import [Link];

public class GetFileInfo {

public static void main(String[] args) {
File myObj = new File("[Link]");
if ([Link]()) {
[Link]("File name: " + [Link]());
[Link]("Absolute path: " + [Link]());
[Link]("Writeable: " + [Link]());
[Link]("Readable " + [Link]());
[Link]("File size in bytes " + [Link]());
} else {
[Link]("The file does not exist.");
}
}
}

The output will be:

File name: [Link]

Absolute path: C:\Users\MyName\[Link]
Writeable: true
Readable: true
File size in bytes: 0

Write To a File
In the following example, we use the FileWriter class together with its write() method to
write some text to the file we created in the example above. Note that when you are done writing
to the file, you should close it with the close() method:

Example

import [Link]; // Import the FileWriter class

import [Link]; // Import the IOException class to handle errors

public class WriteToFile {

 public static void main(String[] args) {
try {
FileWriter myWriter = new FileWriter("[Link]");
[Link]("Files in Java might be tricky, but it is fun enough!");
[Link]();
[Link]("Successfully wrote to the file.");
} catch (IOException e) {
[Link]("An error occurred.");
[Link]();
}
}
}

The output will be:

Successfully wrote to the file.

Read a File
In the following example, we use the Scanner class to read the contents of the text file we
created in the example above:

Example

import [Link]; // Import the File class

import [Link]; // Import this class to handle errors
import [Link]; // Import the Scanner class to read text files

public class ReadFile {

public static void main(String[] args) {
try {
File myObj = new File("[Link]");
Scanner myReader = new Scanner(myObj);
while ([Link]()) {
String data = [Link]();
[Link](data);
}
[Link]();
} catch (FileNotFoundException e) {
[Link]("An error occurred.");
[Link]();
}
 }
}

The output will be:

Files in Java might be tricky, but it is fun enough!

Note: There are many available classes in the Java API that can be used to read and write files in
Java: FileReader, BufferedReader, Files, Scanner, FileInputStream, FileWriter,
BufferedWriter, FileOutputStream, etc. Which one to use depends on the Java version
you're working with and whether you need to read bytes or characters, and the size of the
file/lines etc.

Java Keywords

Java Reserved Keywords

Java has a set of keywords that are reserved words that cannot be used as variables, methods,
classes, or any other identifiers:

Keyword Description

abstract A non-access modifier. Used for classes and methods: An abstract class cannot be
used to create objects (to access it, it must be inherited from another class). An
abstract method can only be used in an abstract class, and it does not have a body.
 The body is provided by the subclass (inherited from)

assert For debugging

boolean A data type that can only store true and false values

break Breaks out of a loop or a switch block

byte A data type that can store whole numbers from -128 and 127

case Marks a block of code in switch statements

catch Catches exceptions generated by try statements

char A data type that is used to store a single character

class Defines a class

continue Continues to the next iteration of a loop

const Defines a constant. Not in use - use final instead

default Specifies the default block of code in a switch statement

do Used together with while to create a do-while loop

double A data type that can store whole numbers from 1.7e−308 to 1.7e+038

else Used in conditional statements

enum Declares an enumerated (unchangeable) type

exports Exports a package with a module. New in Java 9

extends Extends a class (indicates that a class is inherited from another class)

A non-access modifier used for classes, attributes and methods, which makes them
final
non-changeable (impossible to inherit or override)

Used with exceptions, a block of code that will be executed no matter if there is an
finally
exception or not

float A data type that can store whole numbers from 3.4e−038 to 3.4e+038

for Create a for loop

goto Not in use, and has no function

if Makes a conditional statement

implements Implements an interface

import Used to import a package, class or interface

instanceof Checks whether an object is an instance of a specific class or an interface

int A data type that can store whole numbers from -2147483648 to 2147483647

interface Used to declare a special type of class that only contains abstract methods

A data type that can store whole numbers from -9223372036854775808 to

long
9223372036854775808

module Declares a module. New in Java 9

Specifies that a method is not implemented in the same Java source file (but in
native
another language)

new Creates new objects

package Declares a package

An access modifier used for attributes, methods and constructors, making them
private
only accessible within the declared class

An access modifier used for attributes, methods and constructors, making them
protected
accessible in the same package and subclasses

An access modifier used for classes, attributes, methods and constructors, making
public
them accessible by any other class

requires Specifies required libraries inside a module. New in Java 9

Finished the execution of a method, and can be used to return a value from a
return
method

short A data type that can store whole numbers from -32768 to 32767

A non-access modifier used for methods and attributes. Static methods/attributes

static
can be accessed without creating an object of a class

strictfp Restrict the precision and rounding of floating point calculations

super Refers to superclass (parent) objects

switch Selects one of many code blocks to be executed

 A non-access modifier, which specifies that methods can only be accessed by one
synchronized
thread at a time

this Refers to the current object in a method or constructor

throw Creates a custom error

throws Indicates what exceptions may be thrown by a method

A non-accesss modifier, which specifies that an attribute is not part of an object's

transient
persistent state

try Creates a try...catch statement

var Declares a variable. New in Java 10

void Specifies that a method should not have a return value

Indicates that an attribute is not cached thread-locally, and is always read from the
volatile
"main memory"

while Creates a while loop

Note: true, false, and null are not keywords, but they are literals and reserved words that
cannot be used as identifiers.

Java Math Methods

The Java Math class has many methods that allows you to perform mathematical tasks on
numbers.

All Math Methods

A list of all Math methods can be found in the table below:

Method Description Return Type

abs(x) Returns the absolute value of x double|float|int|long
acos(x) Returns the arccosine of x, in radians double
asin(x) Returns the arcsine of x, in radians double
Returns the arctangent of x as a numeric value between
atan(x) double
-PI/2 and PI/2 radians
Returns the angle theta from the conversion of
atan2(y,x) rectangular coordinates (x, y) to polar coordinates (r, double
theta).
cbrt(x) Returns the cube root of x double
ceil(x) Returns the value of x rounded up to its nearest integer double
Returns the first floating point x with the sign of the
copySign(x, y) double
second floating point y
cos(x) Returns the cosine of x (x is in radians) double
cosh(x) Returns the hyperbolic cosine of a double value double
x
exp(x) Returns the value of E double
expm1(x) Returns ex -1 double
Returns the value of x rounded down to its nearest
floor(x) double
integer
getExponent(x) Returns the unbiased exponent used in x int
2 2
Returns sqrt(x +y ) without intermediate overflow or
hypot(x, y) double
underflow
Computes the remainder operation on x and y as
IEEEremainder(x, y) double
prescribed by the IEEE 754 standard
log(x) Returns the natural logarithm (base E) of x double
log10(x) Returns the base 10 logarithm of x double
Returns the natural logarithm (base E) of the sum of x
log1p(x) double
and 1
max(x, y) Returns the number with the highest value double|float|int|long
min(x, y) Returns the number with the lowest value double|float|int|long
Returns the floating point number adjacent to x in the
nextAfter(x, y) double|float
direction of y
Returns the floating point value adjacent to x in the
nextUp(x) double|float
direction of positive infinity
pow(x, y) Returns the value of x to the power of y double
random() Returns a random number between 0 and 1 double
round(x) Returns the value of x rounded to its nearest integer int
Returns the double value that is closest to x and equal
rint() double
to a mathematical integer
signum(x) Returns the sign of x double
sin(x) Returns the sine of x (x is in radians) double
sinh(x) Returns the hyperbolic sine of a double value double
sqrt(x) Returns the square root of x double
tan(x) Returns the tangent of an angle double
tanh(x) Returns the hyperbolic tangent of a double value double
 Converts an angle measured in radians to an approx.
toDegrees(x) double
equivalent angle measured in degrees
Converts an angle measured in degrees to an approx.
toRadians(x) double
angle measured in radians
ulp(x) Returns the size of the unit of least precision (ulp) of x double|float

Note: All Math methods are static.

Java Examples

Java Syntax

Java Comments

Java Variables

Java Data Types

Java Type Casting

Java Operators

Java Strings

Java Math

Java Booleans

Java If...Else (Conditions)

Java Switch

Java Loops

Java Arrays

Java Exceptions (Try...Catch)

Java Methods

Java Classes and Objects

Java Modifiers

Java Encapsulation

Java Packages

Java Inheritance

Java Inner Classes

Java Abstraction & Interfaces

Java Enums

Java User Input

Java Dates

Java ArrayList

Java HashMap
Java Wrapper Classes

Java Files

Java Exercises

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