What is JavaScript ?

JavaScript is a dynamic computer programming language. It is lightweight and most

commonly used as a part of web pages, whose implementations allow client-side
script to interact with the user and make dynamic pages. It is an interpreted
programming language with object-oriented capabilities.
JavaScript was first known as LiveScript, but Netscape changed its name to
JavaScript, possibly because of the excitement being generated by Java.
JavaScript made its first appearance in Netscape 2.0 in 1995 with the
name LiveScript. The general-purpose core of the language has been embedded
in Netscape, Internet Explorer, and other web browsers.
The ECMA-262 Specification defined a standard version of the core JavaScript
language.

 JavaScript is a lightweight, interpreted programming language.

 Designed for creating network-centric applications.
 Complementary to and integrated with Java.
 Complementary to and integrated with HTML.
 Open and cross-platform

Client-Side JavaScript
Client-side JavaScript is the most common form of the language. The script should
be included in or referenced by an HTML document for the code to be interpreted
by the browser.
It means that a web page need not be a static HTML, but can include programs that
interact with the user, control the browser, and dynamically create HTML content.
The JavaScript client-side mechanism provides many advantages over traditional
CGI server-side scripts. For example, you might use JavaScript to check if the user
has entered a valid e-mail address in a form field.
The JavaScript code is executed when the user submits the form, and only if all the
entries are valid, they would be submitted to the Web Server.
JavaScript can be used to trap user-initiated events such as button clicks, link
navigation, and other actions that the user initiates explicitly or implicitly.

Advantages of JavaScript
The merits of using JavaScript are −
 Less server interaction − You can validate user input before sending the
page off to the server. This saves server traffic, which means less load on
your server.
 Immediate feedback to the visitors − They don't have to wait for a page
reload to see if they have forgotten to enter something.
 Increased interactivity − You can create interfaces that react when the user
hovers over them with a mouse or activates them via the keyboard.
  Richer interfaces − You can use JavaScript to include such items as drag-
and-drop components and sliders to give a Rich Interface to your site
visitors.

Limitations of JavaScript
We cannot treat JavaScript as a full-fledged programming language. It lacks the
following important features −
 Client-side JavaScript does not allow the reading or writing of files. This has
been kept for security reason.
 JavaScript cannot be used for networking applications because there is no
such support available.
 JavaScript doesn't have any multi-threading or multiprocessor capabilities.
Once again, JavaScript is a lightweight, interpreted programming language that
allows you to build interactivity into otherwise static HTML pages.

JavaScript Development Tools

One of major strengths of JavaScript is that it does not require expensive
development tools. You can start with a simple text editor such as Notepad. Since it
is an interpreted language inside the context of a web browser, you don't even need
to buy a compiler.
To make our life simpler, various vendors have come up with very nice JavaScript
editing tools. Some of them are listed here −
 Microsoft FrontPage − Microsoft has developed a popular HTML editor
called FrontPage. FrontPage also provides web developers with a number of
JavaScript tools to assist in the creation of interactive websites.
 Macromedia Dreamweaver MX − Macromedia Dreamweaver MX is a very
popular HTML and JavaScript editor in the professional web development
crowd. It provides several handy prebuilt JavaScript components, integrates
well with databases, and conforms to new standards such as XHTML and
XML.
 Macromedia HomeSite 5 − HomeSite 5 is a well-liked HTML and JavaScript
editor from Macromedia that can be used to manage personal websites
effectively.

Applications of Javascript Programming

As mentioned before, Javascript is one of the most widely used programming
languages (Front-end as well as Back-end). It has it's presence in almost every
area of software development. I'm going to list few of them here:
 Client side validation - This is really important to verify any user input before
submitting it to the server and Javascript plays an important role in validting
those inputs at front-end itself.
 Manipulating HTML Pages - Javascript helps in manipulating HTML page
on the fly. This helps in adding and deleting any HTML tag very easily using
 javascript and modify your HTML to change its look and feel based on
different devices and requirements.
 User Notifications - You can use Javascript to raise dynamic pop-ups on the
webpages to give different types of notifications to your website visitors.
 Back-end Data Loading - Javascript provides Ajax library which helps in
loading back-end data while you are doing some other processing. This
really gives an amazing experience to your website visitors.
 Presentations - JavaScript also provides the facility of creating presentations
which gives website look and feel. JavaScript provides RevealJS and
BespokeJS libraries to build a web-based slide presentations.
 Server Applications - Node JS is built on Chrome's Javascript runtime for
building fast and scalable network applications. This is an event based library
which helps in developing very sophisticated server applications including
Web Servers.

JavaScript - Syntax
JavaScript can be implemented using JavaScript statements that are placed within
the <script>... </script> HTML tags in a web page.
You can place the <script> tags, containing your JavaScript, anywhere within your
web page, but it is normally recommended that you should keep it within
the <head> tags.
The <script> tag alerts the browser program to start interpreting all the text between
these tags as a script. A simple syntax of your JavaScript will appear as follows.
<script ...>
JavaScript code
</script>
The script tag takes two important attributes −
 Language − This attribute specifies what scripting language you are using.
Typically, its value will be javascript. Although recent versions of HTML (and
XHTML, its successor) have phased out the use of this attribute.
 Type − This attribute is what is now recommended to indicate the scripting
language in use and its value should be set to "text/javascript".
So your JavaScript segment will look like −
<script language = "javascript" type = "text/javascript">
JavaScript code
</script>

Your First JavaScript Code

Let us take a sample example to print out "Hello World". We added an optional
HTML comment that surrounds our JavaScript code. This is to save our code from
a browser that does not support JavaScript. The comment ends with a "//-->". Here
"//" signifies a comment in JavaScript, so we add that to prevent a browser from
reading the end of the HTML comment as a piece of JavaScript code. Next, we call
a function [Link] which writes a string into our HTML document.
This function can be used to write text, HTML, or both. Take a look at the following
code.
<html>
<body>
<script language = "javascript" type = "text/javascript">
<!--
[Link]("Hello World!")
//-->
</script>
</body>
</html>
This code will produce the following result −
Hello World!

Whitespace and Line Breaks

JavaScript ignores spaces, tabs, and newlines that appear in JavaScript programs.
You can use spaces, tabs, and newlines freely in your program and you are free to
format and indent your programs in a neat and consistent way that makes the code
easy to read and understand.

Semicolons are Optional

Simple statements in JavaScript are generally followed by a semicolon character,
just as they are in C, C++, and Java. JavaScript, however, allows you to omit this
semicolon if each of your statements are placed on a separate line. For example,
the following code could be written without semicolons.
<script language = "javascript" type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var1 = 10
var2 = 20
//-->
</script>
But when formatted in a single line as follows, you must use semicolons −
<script language = "javascript" type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var1 = 10; var2 = 20;
//-->
</script>
Note − It is a good programming practice to use semicolons.
Case Sensitivity
JavaScript is a case-sensitive language. This means that the language keywords,
variables, function names, and any other identifiers must always be typed with a
consistent capitalization of letters.
So the identifiers Time and TIME will convey different meanings in JavaScript.
NOTE − Care should be taken while writing variable and function names in
JavaScript.

Comments in JavaScript
JavaScript supports both C-style and C++-style comments, Thus −
 Any text between a // and the end of a line is treated as a comment and is
ignored by JavaScript.
 Any text between the characters /* and */ is treated as a comment. This may
span multiple lines.
 JavaScript also recognizes the HTML comment opening sequence <!--.
JavaScript treats this as a single-line comment, just as it does the //
comment.
 The HTML comment closing sequence --> is not recognized by JavaScript so
it should be written as //-->.

Example
The following example shows how to use comments in JavaScript.
<script language = "javascript" type = "text/javascript">
<!--
// This is a comment. It is similar to comments in C++

/*
* This is a multi-line comment in JavaScript
* It is very similar to comments in C Programming
*/
//-->
</script>

JavaScript - Placement in HTML File

There is a flexibility given to include JavaScript code anywhere in an HTML
document. However the most preferred ways to include JavaScript in an HTML file
are as follows −
 Script in <head>...</head> section.
 Script in <body>...</body> section.
 Script in <body>...</body> and <head>...</head> sections.
 Script in an external file and then include in <head>...</head> section.
In the following section, we will see how we can place JavaScript in an HTML file in
different ways.

JavaScript in <head>...</head> section

If you want to have a script run on some event, such as when a user clicks
somewhere, then you will place that script in the head as follows −
Live Demo
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function sayHello() {
alert("Hello World")
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<input type = "button" onclick = "sayHello()" value = "Say
Hello" />
</body>
</html>

JavaScript in <body>...</body> section

If you need a script to run as the page loads so that the script generates content in
the page, then the script goes in the <body> portion of the document. In this case,
you would not have any function defined using JavaScript. Take a look at the
following code.
Live Demo
<html>
<head>
</head>

<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
[Link]("Hello World")
//-->
</script>

<p>This is web page body </p>

</body>
</html>

JavaScript in <body> and <head> Sections

You can put your JavaScript code in <head> and <body> section altogether as
follows −
 Live Demo
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function sayHello() {
alert("Hello World")
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
[Link]("Hello World")
//-->
</script>

<input type = "button" onclick = "sayHello()" value = "Say

Hello" />
</body>
</html>

JavaScript in External File

As you begin to work more extensively with JavaScript, you will be likely to find that
there are cases where you are reusing identical JavaScript code on multiple pages
of a site.
You are not restricted to be maintaining identical code in multiple HTML files.
The script tag provides a mechanism to allow you to store JavaScript in an
external file and then include it into your HTML files.
Here is an example to show how you can include an external JavaScript file in your
HTML code using script tag and its src attribute.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript" src = "[Link]"
></script>
</head>

<body>
.......
</body>
</html>
To use JavaScript from an external file source, you need to write all your JavaScript
source code in a simple text file with the extension ".js" and then include that file as
shown above.
For example, you can keep the following content in [Link] file and then you
can use sayHello function in your HTML file after including the filename .js file.
function sayHello() {
alert("Hello World")
}

JavaScript - Variables

JavaScript Datatypes
One of the most fundamental characteristics of a programming language is the set
of data types it supports. These are the type of values that can be represented and
manipulated in a programming language.
JavaScript allows you to work with three primitive data types −
 Numbers, eg. 123, 120.50 etc.
 Strings of text e.g. "This text string" etc.
 Boolean e.g. true or false.
JavaScript also defines two trivial data types, null and undefined, each of which
defines only a single value. In addition to these primitive data types, JavaScript
supports a composite data type known as object. We will cover objects in detail in
a separate chapter.
Note − JavaScript does not make a distinction between integer values and floating-
point values. All numbers in JavaScript are represented as floating-point values.
JavaScript represents numbers using the 64-bit floating-point format defined by the
IEEE 754 standard.

JavaScript Variables
Like many other programming languages, JavaScript has variables. Variables can
be thought of as named containers. You can place data into these containers and
then refer to the data simply by naming the container.
Before you use a variable in a JavaScript program, you must declare it. Variables
are declared with the var keyword as follows.
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var money;
var name;
//-->
</script>
You can also declare multiple variables with the same var keyword as follows −
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var money, name;
//-->
</script>
Storing a value in a variable is called variable initialization. You can do variable
initialization at the time of variable creation or at a later point in time when you need
that variable.
For instance, you might create a variable named money and assign the value
2000.50 to it later. For another variable, you can assign a value at the time of
initialization as follows.
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var name = "Ali";
var money;
money = 2000.50;
//-->
</script>
Note − Use the var keyword only for declaration or initialization, once for the life of
any variable name in a document. You should not re-declare same variable twice.
JavaScript is untyped language. This means that a JavaScript variable can hold a
value of any data type. Unlike many other languages, you don't have to tell
JavaScript during variable declaration what type of value the variable will hold. The
value type of a variable can change during the execution of a program and
JavaScript takes care of it automatically.

JavaScript Variable Scope

The scope of a variable is the region of your program in which it is defined.
JavaScript variables have only two scopes.
 Global Variables − A global variable has global scope which means it can be
defined anywhere in your JavaScript code.
 Local Variables − A local variable will be visible only within a function where
it is defined. Function parameters are always local to that function.
Within the body of a function, a local variable takes precedence over a global
variable with the same name. If you declare a local variable or function parameter
with the same name as a global variable, you effectively hide the global variable.
Take a look into the following example.
Live Demo
<html>
<body onload = checkscope();>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var myVar = "global"; // Declare a global
variable
function checkscope( ) {
var myVar = "local"; // Declare a local
variable
[Link](myVar);
}
//-->
</script>
</body>
</html>
This produces the following result −
local

JavaScript Variable Names

While naming your variables in JavaScript, keep the following rules in mind.
 You should not use any of the JavaScript reserved keywords as a variable
name. These keywords are mentioned in the next section.
For example, break or boolean variable names are not valid.
 JavaScript variable names should not start with a numeral (0-9). They must
begin with a letter or an underscore character.
For example, 123test is an invalid variable name but _123test is a valid one.
 JavaScript variable names are case-sensitive.
For example, Name and name are two different variables.

JavaScript Reserved Words

A list of all the reserved words in JavaScript are given in the following table. They
cannot be used as JavaScript variables, functions, methods, loop labels, or any
object names.

abstract else instanceof switch

boolean enum int synchronized

break export interface this

byte extends long throw

case false native throws

catch final new transient

char finally null true

class float package try

 const for private typeof

continue function protected var

debugger goto public void

default if return volatile

delete implements short while

do import static with

double in super

JavaScript - Operators
What is an Operator?
Let us take a simple expression 4 + 5 is equal to 9. Here 4 and 5 are
called operands and ‘+’ is called the operator. JavaScript supports the following
types of operators.

 Arithmetic Operators
 Comparison Operators
 Logical (or Relational) Operators
 Assignment Operators
 Conditional (or ternary) Operators
Lets have a look on all operators one by one.

Arithmetic Operators
JavaScript supports the following arithmetic operators −
Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then −

[Link]. Operator & Description

1 + (Addition)
 Adds two operands
Ex: A + B will give 30

2 - (Subtraction)
Subtracts the second operand from the first
Ex: A - B will give -10

3 * (Multiplication)
Multiply both operands
Ex: A * B will give 200

4 / (Division)
Divide the numerator by the denominator
Ex: B / A will give 2

5 % (Modulus)
Outputs the remainder of an integer division
Ex: B % A will give 0

6 ++ (Increment)
Increases an integer value by one
Ex: A++ will give 11

7 -- (Decrement)
Decreases an integer value by one
Ex: A-- will give 9

Note − Addition operator (+) works for Numeric as well as Strings. e.g. "a" + 10 will
give "a10".

Example
The following code shows how to use arithmetic operators in JavaScript.
<html>
<body>

<script type = "text/javascript">

<!--
var a = 33;
var b = 10;
 var c = "Test";
var linebreak = "<br />";

[Link]("a + b = ");
result = a + b;
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("a - b = ");
result = a - b;
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("a / b = ");
result = a / b;
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("a % b = ");
result = a % b;
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("a + b + c = ");
result = a + b + c;
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

a = ++a;
[Link]("++a = ");
result = ++a;
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

b = --b;
[Link]("--b = ");
result = --b;
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);
//-->
</script>

Set the variables to different values and then try...

</body>
</html>

Output
a + b = 43
a - b = 23
a / b = 3.3
a % b = 3
a + b + c = 43Test
++a = 35
--b = 8
Set the variables to different values and then try...
Comparison Operators
JavaScript supports the following comparison operators −
Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then −

[Link]. Operator & Description

1 = = (Equal)
Checks if the value of two operands are equal or not, if yes, then the condition
becomes true.
Ex: (A == B) is not true.

2 != (Not Equal)
Checks if the value of two operands are equal or not, if the values are not equal,
then the condition becomes true.
Ex: (A != B) is true.

3 > (Greater than)

Checks if the value of the left operand is greater than the value of the right
operand, if yes, then the condition becomes true.
Ex: (A > B) is not true.

4 < (Less than)

Checks if the value of the left operand is less than the value of the right operand, if
yes, then the condition becomes true.
Ex: (A < B) is true.

5 >= (Greater than or Equal to)

Checks if the value of the left operand is greater than or equal to the value of the
right operand, if yes, then the condition becomes true.
Ex: (A >= B) is not true.

6 <= (Less than or Equal to)

Checks if the value of the left operand is less than or equal to the value of the right
operand, if yes, then the condition becomes true.
Ex: (A <= B) is true.
Example
The following code shows how to use comparison operators in JavaScript.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var a = 10;
var b = 20;
var linebreak = "<br />";

[Link]("(a == b) => ");

result = (a == b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("(a < b) => ");

result = (a < b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("(a > b) => ");

result = (a > b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("(a != b) => ");

result = (a != b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("(a >= b) => ");

result = (a >= b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("(a <= b) => ");

result = (a <= b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);
//-->
</script>
Set the variables to different values and different
operators and then try...
</body>
</html>

Output
(a == b) => false
(a < b) => true
(a > b) => false
(a != b) => true
(a >= b) => false
a <= b) => true
Set the variables to different values and different operators
and then try...

Logical Operators
JavaScript supports the following logical operators −
Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then −

[Link]. Operator & Description

1 && (Logical AND)

If both the operands are non-zero, then the condition becomes true.
Ex: (A && B) is true.

2 || (Logical OR)
If any of the two operands are non-zero, then the condition becomes true.
Ex: (A || B) is true.

3 ! (Logical NOT)
Reverses the logical state of its operand. If a condition is true, then the Logical
NOT operator will make it false.
Ex: ! (A && B) is false.

Example
Try the following code to learn how to implement Logical Operators in JavaScript.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var a = true;
var b = false;
var linebreak = "<br />";

[Link]("(a && b) => ");

result = (a && b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("(a || b) => ");

result = (a || b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("!(a && b) => ");

 result = (!(a && b));
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variables to different values and different
operators and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output
(a && b) => false
(a || b) => true
!(a && b) => true
Set the variables to different values and different operators
and then try...

Bitwise Operators
JavaScript supports the following bitwise operators −
Assume variable A holds 2 and variable B holds 3, then −

[Link]. Operator & Description

1 & (Bitwise AND)

It performs a Boolean AND operation on each bit of its integer arguments.
Ex: (A & B) is 2.

2 | (BitWise OR)
It performs a Boolean OR operation on each bit of its integer arguments.
Ex: (A | B) is 3.

3 ^ (Bitwise XOR)
It performs a Boolean exclusive OR operation on each bit of its integer arguments.
Exclusive OR means that either operand one is true or operand two is true, but not
both.
Ex: (A ^ B) is 1.

4 ~ (Bitwise Not)
It is a unary operator and operates by reversing all the bits in the operand.
Ex: (~B) is -4.
5 << (Left Shift)
It moves all the bits in its first operand to the left by the number of places specified
in the second operand. New bits are filled with zeros. Shifting a value left by one
position is equivalent to multiplying it by 2, shifting two positions is equivalent to
multiplying by 4, and so on.
Ex: (A << 1) is 4.

6 >> (Right Shift)

Binary Right Shift Operator. The left operand’s value is moved right by the number
of bits specified by the right operand.
Ex: (A >> 1) is 1.

7 >>> (Right shift with Zero)

This operator is just like the >> operator, except that the bits shifted in on the left
are always zero.
Ex: (A >>> 1) is 1.

Example
Try the following code to implement Bitwise operator in JavaScript.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var a = 2; // Bit presentation 10
var b = 3; // Bit presentation 11
var linebreak = "<br />";

[Link]("(a & b) => ");

result = (a & b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("(a | b) => ");

result = (a | b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("(a ^ b) => ");

result = (a ^ b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("(~b) => ");

result = (~b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);
 [Link]("(a << b) => ");
result = (a << b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("(a >> b) => ");

result = (a >> b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variables to different values and different
operators and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>
(a & b) => 2
(a | b) => 3
(a ^ b) => 1
(~b) => -4
(a << b) => 16
(a >> b) => 0
Set the variables to different values and different operators
and then try...

Assignment Operators
JavaScript supports the following assignment operators −

[Link]. Operator & Description

1 = (Simple Assignment )
Assigns values from the right side operand to the left side operand
Ex: C = A + B will assign the value of A + B into C

2 += (Add and Assignment)

It adds the right operand to the left operand and assigns the result to the left
operand.
Ex: C += A is equivalent to C = C + A

3 −= (Subtract and Assignment)

It subtracts the right operand from the left operand and assigns the result to the
left operand.
Ex: C -= A is equivalent to C = C - A
4 *= (Multiply and Assignment)
It multiplies the right operand with the left operand and assigns the result to the left
operand.
Ex: C *= A is equivalent to C = C * A

5 /= (Divide and Assignment)

It divides the left operand with the right operand and assigns the result to the left
operand.
Ex: C /= A is equivalent to C = C / A

6 %= (Modules and Assignment)

It takes modulus using two operands and assigns the result to the left operand.
Ex: C %= A is equivalent to C = C % A

Note − Same logic applies to Bitwise operators so they will become like <<=, >>=,
>>=, &=, |= and ^=.

Example
Try the following code to implement assignment operator in JavaScript.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var a = 33;
var b = 10;
var linebreak = "<br />";

[Link]("Value of a => (a = b) => ");

result = (a = b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("Value of a => (a += b) => ");

result = (a += b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("Value of a => (a -= b) => ");

result = (a -= b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("Value of a => (a *= b) => ");

result = (a *= b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);
 [Link]("Value of a => (a /= b) => ");
result = (a /= b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link]("Value of a => (a %= b) => ");

result = (a %= b);
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variables to different values and different
operators and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output
Value of a => (a = b) => 10
Value of a => (a += b) => 20
Value of a => (a -= b) => 10
Value of a => (a *= b) => 100
Value of a => (a /= b) => 10
Value of a => (a %= b) => 0
Set the variables to different values and different operators
and then try...

Miscellaneous Operator
We will discuss two operators here that are quite useful in JavaScript:
the conditional operator (? :) and the typeof operator.

Conditional Operator (? :)
The conditional operator first evaluates an expression for a true or false value and
then executes one of the two given statements depending upon the result of the
evaluation.

[Link]. Operator and Description

1 ? : (Conditional )
If Condition is true? Then value X : Otherwise value Y

Example
Try the following code to understand how the Conditional Operator works in
JavaScript.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
 <!--
var a = 10;
var b = 20;
var linebreak = "<br />";

[Link] ("((a > b) ? 100 : 200) => ");

result = (a > b) ? 100 : 200;
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

[Link] ("((a < b) ? 100 : 200) => ");

result = (a < b) ? 100 : 200;
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variables to different values and different
operators and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output
((a > b) ? 100 : 200) => 200
((a < b) ? 100 : 200) => 100
Set the variables to different values and different operators
and then try...

typeof Operator
The typeof operator is a unary operator that is placed before its single operand,
which can be of any type. Its value is a string indicating the data type of the
operand.
The typeof operator evaluates to "number", "string", or "boolean" if its operand is a
number, string, or boolean value and returns true or false based on the evaluation.
Here is a list of the return values for the typeof Operator.

Type String Returned by typeof

Number "number"

String "string"

Boolean "boolean"

Object "object"
 Function "function"

Undefined "undefined"

Null "object"

Example
The following code shows how to implement typeof operator.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var a = 10;
var b = "String";
var linebreak = "<br />";

result = (typeof b == "string" ? "B is String" : "B

is Numeric");
[Link]("Result => ");
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);

result = (typeof a == "string" ? "A is String" : "A

is Numeric");
[Link]("Result => ");
[Link](result);
[Link](linebreak);
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variables to different values and different
operators and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output
Result => B is String
Result => A is Numeric
Set the variables to different values and different operators
and then try...
 JavaScript - if...else Statement
JavaScript supports conditional statements which are used to perform different actions
based on different conditions. Here we will explain the if..else statement .

if statement
The if statement is the fundamental control statement that allows JavaScript to
make decisions and execute statements conditionally.

Syntax
The syntax for a basic if statement is as follows −
if (expression) {
Statement(s) to be executed if expression is true
}
Here a JavaScript expression is evaluated. If the resulting value is true, the given
statement(s) are executed. If the expression is false, then no statement would be
not executed. Most of the times, you will use comparison operators while making
decisions.

Example
Try the following example to understand how the if statement works.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var age = 20;

if( age > 18 ) {

[Link]("<b>Qualifies for driving</b>");
}
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different value and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output
Qualifies for driving
Set the variable to different value and then try...

if...else statement
The 'if...else' statement is the next form of control statement that allows JavaScript
to execute statements in a more controlled way.

Syntax
if (expression) {
Statement(s) to be executed if expression is true
} else {
Statement(s) to be executed if expression is false
}
Here JavaScript expression is evaluated. If the resulting value is true, the given
statement(s) in the ‘if’ block, are executed. If the expression is false, then the given
statement(s) in the else block are executed.

Example
Try the following code to learn how to implement an if-else statement in JavaScript.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var age = 15;

if( age > 18 ) {

[Link]("<b>Qualifies for driving</b>");
} else {
[Link]("<b>Does not qualify for
driving</b>");
}
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different value and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output
Does not qualify for driving
Set the variable to different value and then try...

if...else if... statement

The if...else if... statement is an advanced form of if…else that allows JavaScript
to make a correct decision out of several conditions.

Syntax
The syntax of an if-else-if statement is as follows −
if (expression 1) {
Statement(s) to be executed if expression 1 is true
} else if (expression 2) {
Statement(s) to be executed if expression 2 is true
} else if (expression 3) {
Statement(s) to be executed if expression 3 is true
} else {
Statement(s) to be executed if no expression is true
}
There is nothing special about this code. It is just a series of if statements, where
each if is a part of the else clause of the previous statement. Statement(s) are
executed based on the true condition, if none of the conditions is true, then
the else block is executed.

Example
Try the following code to learn how to implement an if-else-if statement in
JavaScript.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var book = "maths";
if( book == "history" ) {
[Link]("<b>History Book</b>");
} else if( book == "maths" ) {
[Link]("<b>Maths Book</b>");
} else if( book == "economics" ) {
[Link]("<b>Economics Book</b>");
} else {
[Link]("<b>Unknown Book</b>");
}
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different value and then try...</p>
</body>
<html>

JavaScript - Switch Case

Syntax
The objective of a switch statement is to give an expression to evaluate and
several different statements to execute based on the value of the expression. The
interpreter checks each case against the value of the expression until a match is
found. If nothing matches, a default condition will be used.
switch (expression) {
case condition 1: statement(s)
break;

case condition 2: statement(s)

break;
...

case condition n: statement(s)

break;

default: statement(s)
}
The break statements indicate the end of a particular case. If they were omitted,
the interpreter would continue executing each statement in each of the following
cases.
We will explain break statement in Loop Control chapter.

Example
Try the following example to implement switch-case statement.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var grade = 'A';
[Link]("Entering switch block<br />");
switch (grade) {
case 'A': [Link]("Good job<br />");
break;

case 'B': [Link]("Pretty good<br />");

break;

case 'C': [Link]("Passed<br />");

break;

case 'D': [Link]("Not so good<br />");

break;

case 'F': [Link]("Failed<br />");

break;

default: [Link]("Unknown grade<br />")

}
[Link]("Exiting switch block");
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different value and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output
Entering switch block
Good job
Exiting switch block
Set the variable to different value and then try...
Break statements play a major role in switch-case statements. Try the following
code that uses switch-case statement without any break statement.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var grade = 'A';
[Link]("Entering switch block<br />");
switch (grade) {
case 'A': [Link]("Good job<br />");
case 'B': [Link]("Pretty good<br />");
case 'C': [Link]("Passed<br />");
 case 'D': [Link]("Not so good<br />");
case 'F': [Link]("Failed<br />");
default: [Link]("Unknown grade<br />")
}
[Link]("Exiting switch block");
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different value and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>

JavaScript - While Loops

The most basic loop in JavaScript is the while loop which would be discussed in
this chapter. The purpose of a while loop is to execute a statement or code block
repeatedly as long as an expression is true. Once the expression
becomes false, the loop terminates.
The flow chart of while loop looks as follows −

Syntax
The syntax of while loop in JavaScript is as follows −
while (expression) {
Statement(s) to be executed if expression is true
}

Example
Try the following example to implement while loop.
<html>
<body>

<script type = "text/javascript">

<!--
var count = 0;
[Link]("Starting Loop ");

while (count < 10) {

[Link]("Current Count : " + count + "<br
/>");
count++;
}

[Link]("Loop stopped!");
//-->
</script>

<p>Set the variable to different value and then try...</p>

</body>
</html>

Output
Starting Loop
Current Count : 0
Current Count : 1
Current Count : 2
Current Count : 3
Current Count : 4
Current Count : 5
Current Count : 6
Current Count : 7
Current Count : 8
Current Count : 9
Loop stopped!
Set the variable to different value and then try...

The do...while Loop

The do...while loop is similar to the while loop except that the condition check
happens at the end of the loop. This means that the loop will always be executed at
least once, even if the condition is false.

Flow Chart
The flow chart of a do-while loop would be as follows −
Syntax
The syntax for do-while loop in JavaScript is as follows −
do {
Statement(s) to be executed;
} while (expression);
Note − Don’t miss the semicolon used at the end of the do...while loop.

Example
Try the following example to learn how to implement a do-while loop in JavaScript.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var count = 0;

[Link]("Starting Loop" + "<br />");

do {
[Link]("Current Count : " + count + "<br
/>");
count++;
}

while (count < 5);

[Link] ("Loop stopped!");
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different value and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>
 JavaScript - For Loop
The 'for' loop is the most compact form of looping. It includes the following three
important parts −
 The loop initialization where we initialize our counter to a starting value. The
initialization statement is executed before the loop begins.
 The test statement which will test if a given condition is true or not. If the
condition is true, then the code given inside the loop will be executed,
otherwise the control will come out of the loop.
 The iteration statement where you can increase or decrease your counter.
You can put all the three parts in a single line separated by semicolons.

Flow Chart
The flow chart of a for loop in JavaScript would be as follows −

Syntax
The syntax of for loop is JavaScript is as follows −
for (initialization; test condition; iteration statement) {
Statement(s) to be executed if test condition is true
}

Example
Try the following example to learn how a for loop works in JavaScript.
<html>
<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
var count;
[Link]("Starting Loop" + "<br />");

for(count = 0; count < 10; count++) {

 [Link]("Current Count : " + count );
[Link]("<br />");
}
[Link]("Loop stopped!");
//-->
</script>
<p>Set the variable to different value and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>

JavaScript - Functions
JavaScript allows us to write our own functions as well. This section explains how
to write your own functions in JavaScript.
Like other programming languages, JavaScript also supports the use of functions.
You must already have seen some commonly used functions in JavaScript like
alert(), this is a built-in function in JavaScript. But JavaScript allows us to create
user-defined functions also.

Function Definition
Before we use a function, we need to define it. The most common way to define a
function in JavaScript is by using the function keyword, followed by a unique
function name, a list of parameters (that might be empty), and a statement block
surrounded by curly braces.

Syntax
The basic syntax is shown here.
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function functionname(parameter-list) {
statements
}
//-->
</script>

Example
Try the following example. It defines a function called sayHello that takes no
parameters −
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function sayHello() {
alert("Hello there");
}
//-->
</script>

Calling a Function
To invoke a function somewhere later in the script, you would simply need to write
the name of that function as shown in the following code.

<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
function sayHello() {
[Link] ("Hello there!");
}
</script>

</head>

<body>
<p>Click the following button to call the function</p>
<form>
<input type = "button" onclick = "sayHello()" value =
"Say Hello">
</form>
<p>Use different text in write method and then try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output

Function Parameters
Till now, we have seen functions without parameters. But there is a facility to pass
different parameters while calling a function. These passed parameters can be
captured inside the function and any manipulation can be done over those
parameters. A function can take multiple parameters separated by comma.

Example
Try the following example. We have modified our sayHello function here. Now it
takes two parameters.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
function sayHello(name, age) {
[Link] (name + " is " + age + " years
old.");
}
</script>
</head>

<body>
<p>Click the following button to call the function</p>
<form>
<input type = "button" onclick = "sayHello('Zara', 7)"
value = "Say Hello">
</form>
 <p>Use different parameters inside the function and then
try...</p>
</body>
</html>

Output

The return Statement

A JavaScript function can have an optional return statement. This is required if you
want to return a value from a function. This statement should be the last statement
in a function.
For example, you can pass two numbers in a function and then you can expect the
function to return their multiplication in your calling program.

Example
Try the following example. It defines a function that takes two parameters and
concatenates them before returning the resultant in the calling program.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
function concatenate(first, last) {
var full;
full = first + last;
return full;
}
function secondFunction() {
var result;
result = concatenate('Zara', 'Ali');
[Link] (result );
}
</script>
</head>

<body>
<p>Click the following button to call the function</p>
<form>
<input type = "button" onclick = "secondFunction()"
value = "Call Function">
</form>
<p>Use different parameters inside the function and then
try...</p>
</body>
</html>
 JavaScript – Events
What is an Event ?
JavaScript's interaction with HTML is handled through events that occur when the
user or the browser manipulates a page.
When the page loads, it is called an event. When the user clicks a button, that click
too is an event. Other examples include events like pressing any key, closing a
window, resizing a window, etc.
Events are a part of the Document Object Model (DOM) Level 3 and every HTML
element contains a set of events which can trigger JavaScript Code.

onclick Event Type

This is the most frequently used event type which occurs when a user clicks the left
button of his mouse. You can put your validation, warning etc., against this event
type.

Example
Try the following example.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function sayHello() {
alert("Hello World")
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<p>Click the following button and see result</p>
<form>
<input type = "button" onclick = "sayHello()" value =
"Say Hello" />
</form>
</body>
</html>

Output

onsubmit Event Type

onsubmit is an event that occurs when you try to submit a form. You can put your
form validation against this event type.
Example
The following example shows how to use onsubmit. Here we are calling
a validate() function before submitting a form data to the webserver.
If validate() function returns true, the form will be submitted, otherwise it will not
submit the data.
Try the following example.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function validation() {
all validation goes here
.........
return either true or false
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<form method = "POST" action = "[Link]" onsubmit = "return
validate()">
.......
<input type = "submit" value = "Submit" />
</form>
</body>
</html>

onmouseover and onmouseout

These two event types will help you create nice effects with images or even with
text as well. The onmouseover event triggers when you bring your mouse over
any element and the onmouseout triggers when you move your mouse out from
that element. Try the following example.
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function over() {
[Link] ("Mouse Over");
}
function out() {
[Link] ("Mouse Out");
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<p>Bring your mouse inside the division to see the
result:</p>
 <div onmouseover = "over()" onmouseout = "out()">
<h2> This is inside the division </h2>
</div>
</body>
</html>

Output

HTML 5 Standard Events

The standard HTML 5 events are listed here for your reference. Here script
indicates a Javascript function to be executed against that event.

Attribute Value Description

Offline script Triggers when the document goes offline

Onabort script Triggers on an abort event

onafterprint script Triggers after the document is printed

onbeforeonload script Triggers before the document loads

onbeforeprint script Triggers before the document is printed

onblur script Triggers when the window loses focus

Triggers when media can start play, but might has to stop for
oncanplay script
buffering

Triggers when media can be played to the end, without

oncanplaythrough script
stopping for buffering

onchange script Triggers when an element changes

onclick script Triggers on a mouse click

oncontextmenu script Triggers when a context menu is triggered

ondblclick script Triggers on a mouse double-click

ondrag script Triggers when an element is dragged

ondragend script Triggers at the end of a drag operation

Triggers when an element has been dragged to a valid drop

ondragenter script
target

Triggers when an element is being dragged over a valid drop

ondragleave script
target

ondragover script Triggers at the start of a drag operation

ondragstart script Triggers at the start of a drag operation

ondrop script Triggers when dragged element is being dropped

ondurationchange script Triggers when the length of the media is changed

Triggers when a media resource element suddenly becomes

onemptied script
empty.

onended script Triggers when media has reach the end

onerror script Triggers when an error occur

onfocus script Triggers when the window gets focus

onformchange script Triggers when a form changes

onforminput script Triggers when a form gets user input

onhaschange script Triggers when the document has change

oninput script Triggers when an element gets user input

oninvalid script Triggers when an element is invalid

onkeydown script Triggers when a key is pressed

onkeypress script Triggers when a key is pressed and released

onkeyup script Triggers when a key is released

onload script Triggers when the document loads

onloadeddata script Triggers when media data is loaded

Triggers when the duration and other media data of a media

onloadedmetadata script
element is loaded

onloadstart script Triggers when the browser starts to load the media data

onmessage script Triggers when the message is triggered

onmousedown script Triggers when a mouse button is pressed

onmousemove script Triggers when the mouse pointer moves

onmouseout script Triggers when the mouse pointer moves out of an element

onmouseover script Triggers when the mouse pointer moves over an element
onmouseup script Triggers when a mouse button is released

onmousewheel script Triggers when the mouse wheel is being rotated

onoffline script Triggers when the document goes offline

onoine script Triggers when the document comes online

ononline script Triggers when the document comes online

onpagehide script Triggers when the window is hidden

onpageshow script Triggers when the window becomes visible

onpause script Triggers when media data is paused

onplay script Triggers when media data is going to start playing

onplaying script Triggers when media data has start playing

onpopstate script Triggers when the window's history changes

onprogress script Triggers when the browser is fetching the media data

onratechange script Triggers when the media data's playing rate has changed

onreadystatechange script Triggers when the ready-state changes

onredo script Triggers when the document performs a redo

onresize script Triggers when the window is resized

onscroll script Triggers when an element's scrollbar is being scrolled

Triggers when a media element's seeking attribute is no

onseeked script
longer true, and the seeking has ended

Triggers when a media element's seeking attribute is true,

onseeking script
and the seeking has begun

onselect script Triggers when an element is selected

onstalled script Triggers when there is an error in fetching media data

onstorage script Triggers when a document loads

onsubmit script Triggers when a form is submitted

Triggers when the browser has been fetching media data,

onsuspend script
but stopped before the entire media file was fetched

ontimeupdate script Triggers when media changes its playing position

onundo script Triggers when a document performs an undo

onunload script Triggers when the user leaves the document

Triggers when media changes the volume, also when

onvolumechange script
volume is set to "mute"

Triggers when media has stopped playing, but is expected to

onwaiting script
resume
 JavaScript - Dialog Boxes
JavaScript supports three important types of dialog boxes. These dialog boxes can
be used to raise and alert, or to get confirmation on any input or to have a kind of
input from the users. Here we will discuss each dialog box one by one.

Alert Dialog Box

An alert dialog box is mostly used to give a warning message to the users. For
example, if one input field requires to enter some text but the user does not provide
any input, then as a part of validation, you can use an alert box to give a warning
message.
Nonetheless, an alert box can still be used for friendlier messages. Alert box gives
only one button "OK" to select and proceed.

Example
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function Warn() {
alert ("This is a warning message!");
[Link] ("This is a warning message!");
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<p>Click the following button to see the result: </p>
<form>
<input type = "button" value = "Click Me" onclick =
"Warn();" />
</form>
</body>
</html>

Output

Confirmation Dialog Box

A confirmation dialog box is mostly used to take user's consent on any option. It
displays a dialog box with two buttons: OK and Cancel.
If the user clicks on the OK button, the window method confirm() will return true. If
the user clicks on the Cancel button, then confirm() returns false. You can use a
confirmation dialog box as follows.
Example
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function getConfirmation() {
var retVal = confirm("Do you want to continue
?");
if( retVal == true ) {
[Link] ("User wants to continue!");
return true;
} else {
[Link] ("User does not want to
continue!");
return false;
}
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<p>Click the following button to see the result: </p>
<form>
<input type = "button" value = "Click Me" onclick =
"getConfirmation();" />
</form>
</body>
</html>

Output

Prompt Dialog Box

The prompt dialog box is very useful when you want to pop-up a text box to get
user input. Thus, it enables you to interact with the user. The user needs to fill in
the field and then click OK.
This dialog box is displayed using a method called prompt() which takes two
parameters: (i) a label which you want to display in the text box and (ii) a default
string to display in the text box.
This dialog box has two buttons: OK and Cancel. If the user clicks the OK button,
the window method prompt() will return the entered value from the text box. If the
user clicks the Cancel button, the window method prompt() returns null.
Example
The following example shows how to use a prompt dialog box −
<html>
<head>
<script type = "text/javascript">
<!--
function getValue() {
var retVal = prompt("Enter your name : ", "your
name here");
[Link]("You have entered : " + retVal);
}
//-->
</script>
</head>

<body>
<p>Click the following button to see the result: </p>
<form>
<input type = "button" value = "Click Me" onclick =
"getValue();" />
</form>
</body>
</html>
 JavaScript – Object

JavaScript is an Object Oriented Programming (OOP) language. A programming

language can be called object-oriented if it provides four basic capabilities to
developers −
 Encapsulation − the capability to store related information, whether data or
methods, together in an object.
 Aggregation − the capability to store one object inside another object.
 Inheritance − the capability of a class to rely upon another class (or number
of classes) for some of its properties and methods.
 Polymorphism − the capability to write one function or method that works in
a variety of different ways.
Objects are composed of attributes. If an attribute contains a function, it is
considered to be a method of the object, otherwise the attribute is considered a
property.
Object Properties
Object properties can be any of the three primitive data types, or any of the abstract
data types, such as another object. Object properties are usually variables that are
used internally in the object's methods, but can also be globally visible variables
that are used throughout the page.
The syntax for adding a property to an object is −
[Link] = propertyValue;
For example − The following code gets the document title using the "title" property
of the document object.
var str = [Link];

Object Methods
Methods are the functions that let the object do something or let something be done
to it. There is a small difference between a function and a method – at a function is
a standalone unit of statements and a method is attached to an object and can be
referenced by the this keyword.
Methods are useful for everything from displaying the contents of the object to the
screen to performing complex mathematical operations on a group of local
properties and parameters.
For example − Following is a simple example to show how to use
the write() method of document object to write any content on the document.
[Link]("This is test");

User-Defined Objects
All user-defined objects and built-in objects are descendants of an object
called Object.
The new Operator
The new operator is used to create an instance of an object. To create an object,
the new operator is followed by the constructor method.
In the following example, the constructor methods are Object(), Array(), and Date().
These constructors are built-in JavaScript functions.
var employee = new Object();
var books = new Array("C++", "Perl", "Java");
var day = new Date("August 15, 1947");

The Object() Constructor

A constructor is a function that creates and initializes an object. JavaScript provides
a special constructor function called Object() to build the object. The return value of
the Object() constructor is assigned to a variable.
The variable contains a reference to the new object. The properties assigned to the
object are not variables and are not defined with the var keyword.

Example 1
Try the following example; it demonstrates how to create an Object.
<html>
<head>
<title>User-defined objects</title>
<script type = "text/javascript">
var book = new Object(); // Create the object
[Link] = "Perl"; // Assign properties to the
object
[Link] = "Mohtashim";
</script>
</head>

<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
[Link]("Book name is : " + [Link] +
"<br>");
[Link]("Book author is : " + [Link] +
"<br>");
</script>
</body>
</html>

Output
Book name is : Perl
Book author is : Mohtashim

Example 2
This example demonstrates how to create an object with a User-Defined Function.
Here this keyword is used to refer to the object that has been passed to a function.
<html>
<head>
<title>User-defined objects</title>
<script type = "text/javascript">
function book(title, author) {
[Link] = title;
[Link] = author;
}
</script>
</head>

<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
var myBook = new book("Perl", "Mohtashim");
[Link]("Book title is : " + [Link] +
"<br>");
[Link]("Book author is : " + [Link] +
"<br>");
</script>
</body>
</html>

Output
Book title is : Perl
Book author is : Mohtashim

Defining Methods for an Object

The previous examples demonstrate how the constructor creates the object and
assigns properties. But we need to complete the definition of an object by assigning
methods to it.

Example
Try the following example; it shows how to add a function along with an object.
<html>

<head>
<title>User-defined objects</title>
<script type = "text/javascript">
// Define a function which will work as a method
function addPrice(amount) {
[Link] = amount;
}

function book(title, author) {

[Link] = title;
[Link] = author;
[Link] = addPrice; // Assign that method as
property.
}
</script>
</head>
 <body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
var myBook = new book("Perl", "Mohtashim");
[Link](100);

[Link]("Book title is : " + [Link] +

"<br>");
[Link]("Book author is : " + [Link] +
"<br>");
[Link]("Book price is : " + [Link] +
"<br>");
</script>
</body>
</html>

Output
Book title is : Perl
Book author is : Mohtashim
Book price is : 100

The 'with' Keyword

The ‘with’ keyword is used as a kind of shorthand for referencing an object's
properties or methods.
The object specified as an argument to with becomes the default object for the
duration of the block that follows. The properties and methods for the object can be
used without naming the object.

Syntax
The syntax for with object is as follows −
with (object) {
properties used without the object name and dot
}

Example
Try the following example.
<html>
<head>
<title>User-defined objects</title>
<script type = "text/javascript">
// Define a function which will work as a method
function addPrice(amount) {
with(this) {
price = amount;
}
}
function book(title, author) {
[Link] = title;
[Link] = author;
[Link] = 0;
 [Link] = addPrice; // Assign that method as
property.
}
</script>
</head>

<body>
<script type = "text/javascript">
var myBook = new book("Perl", "Mohtashim");
[Link](100);

[Link]("Book title is : " + [Link] +

"<br>");
[Link]("Book author is : " + [Link] +
"<br>");
[Link]("Book price is : " + [Link] +
"<br>");
</script>
</body>
</html>

Output
Book title is : Perl
Book author is : Mohtashim
Book price is : 100

JavaScript Native Objects

JavaScript has several built-in or native objects. These objects are accessible
anywhere in your program and will work the same way in any browser running in
any operating system.
Here is the list of all important JavaScript Native Objects −
 JavaScript Number Object
 JavaScript Boolean Object
 JavaScript String Object
 JavaScript Array Object
 JavaScript Date Object
 JavaScript Math Object
 What is a class in JavaScript?
class
A class is a type of function, but instead of using the keyword 'function', keyword
'class' is used to initiate it, and the properties are assigned inside
a constructor() method. The constructor() method is called each time the class
object is initialized.
Example-1
In the following example, a class called 'company' is created and inside
a constructor() method the name of the company is assigned and displayed the
result in the output.

<html>

<body>

<p id="class"></p>

<script>

class Company {

constructor(branch) {

[Link] = branch;

myComp = new Company("ABC Enterpises");

[Link]("class").innerHTML = [Link];

</script>

</body>

</html>

Output
ABC Enterpises

Example-2

<html>

<body>

<script>

class Company {
 constructor(branch) {

[Link] = branch;

myComp = new Company("Rk enterprises");

[Link]([Link]);

</script>

</body>

</html>

Output
Rk enterprises
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JavaScript Form
In this tutorial, we will learn, discuss, and understand the JavaScript
form. We will also see the implementation of the JavaScript form for
different purposes.
Here, we will learn the method to access the form, getting elements as
the JavaScript form's value, and submitting the form.
Introduction to Forms
Forms are the basics of HTML. We use HTML form element in order to
create the JavaScript form. For creating a form, we can use the following
sample code:
<html>
<head>
<title> Login Form</title>
</head>
<body>
<h3> LOGIN </h3>
<formform ="Login_form" onsubmit="submit_form()">
<h4> USERNAME</h4>
<input type="text" placeholder="Enter your email id"/>
<h4> PASSWORD</h4>
<input type="password" placeholder="Enter your
password"/></br></br>
<input type="submit" value="Login"/>
<input type="button" value="SignUp" onClick="create()"/>
</form>
</html>
In the code:
 Form name tag is used to define the name of the form. The name of
the form here is "Login_form". This name will be referenced in the
JavaScript form.
 The action tag defines the action, and the browser will take to
tackle the form when it is submitted. Here, we have taken no
action.
 The method to take action can be either post or get, which is used
when the form is to be submitted to the server. Both types of
methods have their own properties and rules.
 The input type tag defines the type of inputs we want to create in
our form. Here, we have used input type as 'text', which means we
will input values as text in the textbox.
  Net, we have taken input type as 'password' and the input value will
be password.
 Next, we have taken input type as 'button' where on clicking, we
get the value of the form and get displayed.
Other than action and methods, there are the following useful methods
also which are provided by the HTML Form Element
 submit (): The method is used to submit the form.
 reset (): The method is used to reset the form values.
Referencing forms

Now, we have created the form element using HTML, but we also need to
make its connectivity to JavaScript. For this, we use the getElementById
() method that references the html form element to the JavaScript code.
The syntax of using the getElementById() method is as follows:
let form = [Link]('subscribe');
Using the Id, we can make the reference.
Submitting the form
Next, we need to submit the form by submitting its value, for which we
use the onSubmit() method. Generally, to submit, we use a submit button
that submits the value entered in the form.
The syntax of the submit() method is as follows:
<input type="submit" value="Subscribe">
When we submit the form, the action is taken just before the request is
sent to the server. It allows us to add an event listener that enables us to
place various validations on the form. Finally, the form gets ready with a
combination of HTML and JavaScript code.
Let's collect and use all these to create a Login form and SignUp
form and use both.
Login Form
<html>
<head>
<title> Login Form</title>
</head>
<body>
<h3> LOGIN </h3>
<formform ="Login_form" onsubmit="submit_form()">
<h4> USERNAME</h4>
<input type="text" placeholder="Enter your email id"/>
<h4> PASSWORD</h4>
<input type="password" placeholder="Enter your
password"/></br></br>
<input type="submit" value="Login"/>
<input type="button" value="SignUp" onClick="create()"/>
</form>
<script type="text/javascript">
function submit_form(){
alert("Login successfully");
}
function create(){
[Link]="[Link]";
}
</script>
</body>
</html>

SignUp Form
<html>
<head>
<title> SignUp Page</title>
</head>
<body align="center" >
<h1> CREATE YOUR ACCOUNT</h1>
<table cellspacing="2" align="center" cellpadding="8" border="0">
<tr><td> Name</td>
<td><input type="text" placeholder="Enter your name"
id="n1"></td></tr>
<tr><td>Email </td>
<td><input type="text" placeholder="Enter your email id"
id="e1"></td></tr>
<tr><td> Set Password</td>

<td><input type="password" placeholder="Set a password"

id="p1"></td></tr>
<tr><td>Confirm Password</td>
<td><input type="password" placeholder="Confirm your password"
id="p2"></td></tr>
<tr><td>
<input type="submit" value="Create" onClick="create_account()"/>
</table>
<script type="text/javascript">
function create_account(){
var n=[Link]("n1").value;
var e=[Link]("e1").value;
var p=[Link]("p1").value;
var cp=[Link]("p2").value;
//Code for password validation
var letters = /^[A-Za-z]+$/;
var email_val = /^([a-zA-Z0-9_\.\-])+\@(([a-zA-Z0-9\-])+\.)+([a-
zA-Z0-9]{2,4})+$/;
//other validations required code
if(n==''||e==''||p==''||cp==''){
alert("Enter each details correctly");
}
else if()
{
alert('Name is incorrect must contain alphabets only');
}
else if (!email_val.test(e))
{
alert('Invalid email format please enter valid email id');
}
else if(p!=cp)
{
alert("Passwords not matching");
}
else if([Link]("p1").[Link] > 12)
{
alert("Password maximum length is 12");
}
else if([Link]("p1").[Link] < 6)
{
alert("Password minimum length is 6");
}
else{
alert("Your account has been created successfully... Redirecting to
[Link]");
[Link]="[Link]
}
}
</script>
</body>
</html>